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I-Mine Ventilation A C. CALLEN, Chairman E A. HOLBROOK, Vice-chairman H I. SMITH, Secretary CLARENCE E. ABBOTT ALFRED W. HESSE FRANK H. PROBERT GRAHAM BRIGHT G R. JACKSON GEORGE S RICE THOMAS H. CLAGTETT JAMES F. MCCARTHY E. J RISTEDT OSCAR A GLAESER W. B. PLANK GERALD F. SBERMAN, Coal Mining M D COOPER, Chairman HOWARD N EAVENSON JOHN A GARCIA THOMAS D THOMAS CHARLES ENZIAN JAMES W PAUL C M YOUNG JOHN J. RUTLEDGE Physiological Studies R R. SAYERS, Chairman C. L. BERRIEN W. D. BRENNAN A. J. LANZA

Jan 1, 1923

[1-Iron and Steel JOHN A. MATHEWS, Chairman RALPH H, SWEETSER, Vice-chairman WILLIAM CAMPBELL, Vice-chairman MAX ROESLER, Secretary Iron Ore CHARLES B. MURRAY, Chairman R. C, ALLEN W. 0, HOTCHKISS MAX ROESLER ERNEST F, BURCHARD WILLIAM KELLY DWIGHT E, WOODBRIDGE M. M, DUNCAN CHARLES F. RAND CARL ZAPFFE C, T, FAIRBAIRN THOMAS T, READ Blast Furnace WALTER MATHESIUS, Chairman WILLIAM H. BLAUVELT S. P, KINNEY C. SNELLING ROBINSON A. J. BOYNTON DORSEY A. LYON R. H. SWEETSER D. T. CROXTON RICHARD MCCAFFERY R. J, WYSOR THOMAS L, JOSEPH CHARLES P, PERIN]

Jan 1, 1928

By C. E. Shoenfelt

The outstanding development in the Rocky Mountain region for 1937 was the discovery of oil on the Wilson Creek dome in Rio Blanco County, Colorado, in the Morrison formation of Jurassic age. This discovery opens up a vast territory to exploitation and definitely establishes the western slope of Colorado as one of the region's more important oil areas. In former years, a large number of structures on the western slope were tested dry in Upper Cretaceous rocks but are now believed to hold possibilities in older formations, and a number of such structures are in line for drilling in 1938.

Jan 1, 1938

By Alfred H. Bell, Paul F. Simpson

The year 1929 was one of continued activity in the petroleum industry of Indiana and Illinois but the new production obtained has not been sufficient to offset the decline in the production of the old wells. (Table 1). Drilling costs have not changed materially during the year and the prices of crude oil have increased slightly so that the prospects for further testing are good. The total number of completions in Illinois in 1929 (Table 2) was greater than for any year since 1917. More than half of these were in the Dupo field, St. Clair County, and the development of this field was largely responsible for the increased ratio of producers to dry holes in the state as a whole. In the southeastern Illinois field which has produced about 97 per cent. of the state's petroleum the number of completions was greater than in 1928 and the percentage of producers was a little higher. Although a number of scattered wildcat tests were drilled most of them were not located on favorable structure and the only noteworthy discovery was that of a shale-gas horizon at shallow depth in Morgan County in western Illinois where gas has been produced for a number of years from sandstone and limestone. In Indiana the number of completions (Table 2) was only slightly less than in 1928. Most of the new wells were drilled in the southwestern part of the state, which now produces more than 90 per cent. of Indiana's petroleum.

Jan 1, 1930

By H. K. Shearer

Drilling for oil and gas in Arkansas in 1934 showed more activity than in any year since 1929; with a total of 96 completions, including 36 oil wells, 1 gas well and 59 dry holes. Of the producers, the lone gas well and 35 oil wells were in old fields, and one wildcat producer opened a new pool. Of the dry holes, 16 were in or near fields and 43 were wildcats. The total reported initial daily production of the oil wells was 9013 bbl., averaging 252 bbl. per well. Active drilling operations numbered 65 at the close of the year, compared with 26 at the beginning.

Jan 1, 1935

By Philip B. Bucky

[CONTENTS t. How Does One Determine WhetherPAGE an ore Body Will Block-cave?R. W. Hughes13 Sherman R. Burdick 13 PAGER. T. Gallagher 14 Mark A. Smith 2 C. F. B. Price, Jr.14 Harry A. Leidich2Benjamin F. Tillson 14 McHenry Mosier2C. F. Jackson14,17 R. W. Hughes2R. Taborelli15 Sherman R. Burdick3Frank A. Ayer16 R. T. Gallagher 3Philip B. Bucky16 Benjamin F. Tillson 3Rollin Farminr6 Lucien Eaton 3J. L. G. Weysser15, 0,17 C. F. Jackson 3George S. Rice17 Philip B. Bucky32. How Does One Determine the Block4. What Determines the Procedure in Dimensions and the DevelopmentRemoving Caved Ore? Work Necessary to Make an OreHarry A. Leidich17 Body Cave?McHenry Mosier17,21 Mark A. Smith 5,7,() R. W. Hughes17 Harry A. Leidich6Sherman R. Burdick 18 McHenry Mosier6,7,12 R. T. Gallagher 18 R. W. Hughes6Mark A. Smith I8 Sherman R. Burdick 7Philip B. Bucky20, 21, 23 R. T. Gallagher 7C. F. B. Price, Jr20 Benjamin F. Tillson 7,11R. H. Bennett21 L. E. Young7C. F. Jackson 21, 23 Robert D. Hoffman8, 1 2Gerald Sherman 3 . 21 Gerald Sherman8Tell Ertl21 Philip B. Bucky10, 11, 12G. K. Foster 23 R. S. McClellan 12C. H. Shoemaker23 Tell Ertl 12 3. How Do the Forces Act and What Are5. What Are the Criteria for Determining the Stresses Developed in a Blockthe Efficiency of a Block-caving That Cause It to Block-cave?Operation? Mark A. Smith 12, ISHarry A. Leidich23 Harry A. Leidich13McHenry Mosier24 McHenry Mosier13R. W. Hughes24 Sherman R. Burdick 24 R. T. Gallagher 24]

Jan 1, 1942

By Thomas Watson

INTRODUCTION THE users of barite in the United States derive their supply partly from the domestic production and partly from the imports from foreign countries. According to the Mineral Resource division of the U. S. Geological Survey, the domestic production of barite in 1913 was 45,298 short tons, valued at $156,275, or $3.45 a ton, and the imports of crude barite were 35,840 short tons, valued at $61,409, or $1.71 a ton. These figures clearly show a decided advantage in cost of the foreign over the domestic barite to users in the United States. The difference in cost is the only advantage to the consumer of foreign barite, for there are large reserves of the mineral in the United States of good grade. The production of many of the operating mines is capable of decided increase, and it is believed that the operating mines together with the large reserves of undeveloped deposits of barite are entirely adequate to meet the demands of the users in the United States. Deposits of barite are known in California, Idaho, Nevada, and Alaska, but most of them are undeveloped because there is, apparently, no market for the .material in that region. The domestic production is derived from Missouri and the Appalachian States, the greater part being obtained from Missouri. Following the outbreak of war in Europe many users of foreign barite in the United States have been forced to seek their supplies at home. It seems opportune at this time, therefore, that a general review be given of the barite industry in the Appalachian States, one of the two areas from which the domestic supply of the mineral is derived, and that attention be directed to the undeveloped deposits in the region. Briefly, then, this paper reviews the barite industry in the Appalachian States, and describes the occurrence, preparation, and uses of the mineral.

Jan 2, 1915

By H. K. Shearer

Oil production in South Arkansas in 1936, estimated to have totaled 10,654,940 bbl., showed a decline of 484,400 bbl., or a little more than 4 per cent from 1935. There are no proration restrictions, as practically all wells reached the pumping stage years ago. Although a new shallow field was discovered in Nevada County, and a deep producing horizon

Jan 1, 1937

IN this survey of the progressive development of education for the mineral industries throughout the United States, the review of the history of each school has usually been completed wherever it is first mentioned, but the history of the schools in the cities of the eastern seaboard was not carried beyond 1870. It is necessary now to cover what happened during the period of approximately the last quarter of the nineteenth century in several of the schools in the east. PHILADELPHIA Of Philadelphia, it has been related in chapter 4 that the Polytechnic College of Pennsylvania began offering a curriculum leading to the B.S. in mining in 1853; that the school did not prosper, and finally closed about 1890. The establishment of a Department of Mining, Arts, and Manufactures at the University of Pennsylvania in 1855-56 was also mentioned, but its history was not carried beyond 1860. In 1859 J. Peter Lesley was appointed professor of mining in the University of Pennsylvania. The son of a cabinetmaker, born in Philadelphia Sept. 17, 1819, he had taken his A.B. degree at the University of Pennsylvania in 1838 and then secured a position on the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania under H. D. Rogers. When the Survey was discontinued, in 1841, he went to Princeton to study theology, was ordained a Presbyterian minister and followed that career until 1853, when the Pennsylvania Geological Survey was again started and he rejoined its staff. He published "A Manual of Coal and its Topography" in 1856, and studied at the École des Mines, Paris, in 1850-57. He published an 800-page "Iron Manufactures Guide" the year that he was appointed to the staff at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1863-64 a College of Agriculture, Mines, Arts and the Mechanic Arts was established, but it was not a separate school

Jan 1, 1941

By Peter Allen, John R. Stuermer

COUNTRY RISK ANALYSIS A company operating in a foreign country assumes all the risks that it would at home. However, beyond these, it assumes risks that arise from the unique political economic, financial conditions of the foreign country which it operates. These risks are known as "country risks". The importance of these risks has grown appreciably in the recent past (particularly in the aftermath of Iran's revolution in the late 1970s and Mexico's debt rescheduling of 1982-83), and as a result, country risk analysis has become an increasingly useful management tool. Country risk analysis seeks to assess the probability that countries will service their aggregate foreign liabilities on time, as well as the probability that country conditions could inhibit the debt service capability of private sector debtors. This involves assessment of both the ability and the willingness of countries to meet their external liabilities in a timely fashion. "Ability" is linked economic and financial variables: principally, a country's economic structure, foreign exchange generating capacity and debt service burden. On the other hand, "willingness" is tied to political factors: mainly the economic/financial orientation of government policy and the stability of economic decision making. Ability: Economic, Financial Conditions and Prospects Judgement of a country's ability to meet foreign financial obligations begins with a detailed study of a country's external balance sheet which compares the country's foreign liabilities and assets. Table 1 below presents country balance sheets for Mexico, Korea and Indonesia. [TABLE 1 The External Balance 3-,-et 1983 (billions of dollars; Indonesia Mexico Korea Foreign Liabilities 31.1 67.6 40.5 By Source: Bank 13.1 75.5 26.3 Non-bank 18.0 12.114.2 Foreign Reserves 9.3 4.7 7.0] The large magnitude of Mexico's external debt (nearly $90 billion), compared to foreign assets of approximately $5 billion, illustrates the weakness of this country's external payments position, and the main reason that it has been unable to meet interest and principal payments and been forced to reschedule its foreign debt. On the other hand, the relationship between Korea's external liabilities and assets ($50.5 billion and $7 billion, respectively), is more favorable and helps explain why Korea has been able to meet debt service payments and maintain its access to the international capital markets. Indonesia has even a more favorable relationship between its foreign assets and liabilities, $31 billion and $9 billion, respectively, and its debt is mostly lower interest rate, non-bank debt, making for a less onerous debt service burden. After the balance sheet, the analysis turns to a comparison of the country's foreign exchange earning capacity and its prospective financing requirements, that is, the country's future earnings stream

Jan 1, 1985

By AIME AIME

Jan 1, 1936

By F. Louis Grammer

THE difference between blast-furnace gas and ordinary producer-gas is chiefly that blast-furnace gas is richer in CO, and poorer in hydrocarbons and hydrogen, as is shown in Table I. TABLE I.-Volume-Composition of Producer-Gas and Blast-Furnace Gas.. Producer-Gas. Blast-Furnace Gas. Per Cent. Per Cent. (Volume.) (Volume.) CO . 22 to 33 25.5 00., . 6 to 3 13.0 H . . 13 to 7 1.5 CH, 3 to 1.5 0.0 N . 54 to 60 60.0 If natural gas, water-gas, or by-product coke-oven gas be available, blast-furnace gas can be made to resemble very closely in calorific value the average producer-gas by merely mixing in one of these products, which are richer in hydro-carbons and, hydrogen. Blast-furnace gas, however, possesses a virtue which is sometimes absent in producer-gas, especially with coals very high in sulphur-namely, that blast-furnace gas is relatively free from sulphur. In some regions the sulphur in coal is an acute problem, and it is highly desirable to find uses for the products which are specially high in sulphur-content. An advantage would be gained if coal was coked before charging into the gas-producers, but this adds to the expense. Sulphur may be partly eliminated from coal by washing it, the success depending upon the form in which the sulphur occurs, and upon the efficiency of the washer, but it cannot always be removed to the extent desired at most American plants. It is not practicable to remove all the sulphur from producer-gas by washing it, though Mr. Reinhardt, of Germany,

Sep 1, 1908

By C. S. Barrett, C. T. Haller

TWINNING in magnesium is known to occur profusely under certain conditions, and when it occurs in polycrystalline materials it brings about a partial or even a complete change in the preferred orientation. The amount of research on this subject, however, has not been in proportion to its importance as a mechanism of deformation and reorientation. Much of the research has been limited to twinning in single crystals. The present study' concerns polycrystalline sheet, and is an investigation of the twinning produced by plastic deformation as a function of the following variables: I. Direction and type of deformation. 2. Amount of deformation. 3. Speed of deformation. 4. Temperature of deformation. 5. Composition and temper of the sheet. 6. Twins previously produced. 7. Twins previously produced, then annealed. By proper control of these variables it is shown that, on a laboratory scale, samples can be produced that are free from preferred orientations. MATERIALS AND METHODS The materials used were samples of commercial magnesium-alloy sheets with nominal compositions given in Table I. [ ] X-ray diffraction was used in most of this work to detect the twins and to estimate the amount of twinning. Since twinning on {102} planes causes a reorientation of the crystal lattice by 86°, it is very easy to study with X-ray diffraction patterns, particularly if one notices the diffraction ring from the basal plane the 002 reflection. By properly directing the X-ray beam, it is possible to produce 002 reflections from twinned material at, say, the 6 and 12 o'clock positions on the 002 ring, with the untwinned material reflecting to 3 and 9 o'clock positions; and by judging the relative intensity of the arcs on the diffraction ring at these positions, it is possible to judge the amount of twinned material relative to the untwinned. This X-ray method of estimating the amount of twinning is generally superior to metallographic observation, for it was found

Jan 1, 1946

By Charles S. Barrett, Robert F. Mehl, Shueling Woo

WHEN one solid phase is generated from another, fixed and rational orientation relationships are observed to subsist between the parent and the new crystal. The principle has been proposed' that the relationships obtaining between the same two phases are identical whatever the type of phase change involved, or whichever of the phases may act as parent. Many types of phase changes have been studied: allotropic transformations in pure metals, precipitation from solid solutions, eutectoid decompositions, peritectic reactions, the formation of oxide layers, and others.2 Phase layers generated by diffusion of one metal into another constitute an additional type of reaction. This report provides new data on the orientation relationships occurring between , phase layers formed by diffusion, in the Cu-Zn system, § and furnishes further evidence in support of the principle. MATERIALS AND METHODS The Cu-Zn system is especially suitable for these studies since the high vapor pressure of Zn provides an opportunity readily to create one phase poorer in Zn upon a parent phase richer in Zn by removing Zn by vaporization, or to reverse this process by adding Zn from Zn vapor; e.g., the beta phase can be found as a layer upon gamma by dezincing, or gamma can be found on beta by addition of Zn from Zn vapor. Since orientation relationships are to be sought, requiring crystals large enough for orientation determinations, it is convenient to prepare single crystals or large grains of the parent phase. The samples were prepared from oxygen-free high-conductivity copper and Horse Head zinc by melting under a borax flux in a graphite crucible. Large crystals of beta brass were grown by the strain-anneal method, in plates sectioned from the cast ingots, by the following procedure. Rockwell-hardness indents were made at I cm. intervals-and with various loads, then the plates were annealed for .4 days at 700°C. in Nichrome boxes packed with beta-brass chips and graphite. Surface layers were removed by grinding and etching to a depth of about 1.0 mm., and individual grains were cut out. Crystals of alpha and gamma brass were prepared by freezing, by lowering a graphite crucible at speeds less than one inch per hour through a furnace held at a constant temperature above the melting point. Single crystals were cut out with a jeweler's saw, ground, polished and etched. Care was taken to remove cold worked layers from the finished crystals

Jan 1, 1944

By Robert H. Merrill, David W. Wisecarver, Raymond M. Stateham

The US. Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with US. Borax and Chemical Corp. and Kennecott Copper Corp., has investigated the use of the microseismic method to evaluate the stability of large, open-pit slope walls. The method is based on the phenomenon that stressed rock normally emits subaudible rock noises, and the number of rock noises per unit time (noise rate) and the magnitude of the rock noises (amplitude) increase as the stresses in the rock approach the failure stress of the rock. Therefore, the detection and recording of those rock noises serve as a semiquantitative method of predicting the incipient failure of rock. This report briefly describes the three different types of micro-seismic apparatus, the procedures, and the results of microseismic investigations in the slope walls of the Boron mine near Boron, CaL, and the Kimbley, Liberty, and Tripp-Veteran open-pit mines near Ely, Nev. Microseismic monitoring within a frequency band of SO to 5000 Hz indicates noise rates in stable, inactive mining areas are between 0 and 10 noises per hour; the rates in stable, active mining areas are between 10 and 50 noises per hour; and the rate in unstable areas is as high as 2500 noises per hour. High microseismic noise rates in the Liberty pit correlate with the time of nearby earthquakes, indicating that the earthquakes affected the slope wall. The results provide evidence that the microseismic technique is applicable to large pit walls, and that the wide-band, wide-range microseismic equipment appears to be suitable for open-pit investigations. The microseismic method is based on the phenomenon that stressed rock normally emits subaudible rock noises, and the number of rock noises per unit time (noise rate) and the magnitude of the rock noises (amplitude) increase as the stresses in the rock approach the failure stress of the rock. Therefore, the detection and recording of those rock noises serve as a semiquantitative method of predicting the incipient failure of rock. The method has been used for many years to detect incipient failure in roofs or pillars in underground mines. In 1963 the U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) started an investigation of the microseismic method in large, open-pit slope walls. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the method in open-pit slopes where the rock may be fractured and broken and where the size of the rock mass under investigation is much larger than normally encountered underground. In addition, both the stresses in the rock and the strength of rock near pits are lower than usually found underground. Consequently, there was some doubt concerning the feasibility of the method for open pits, and the economics of such an investigation may have been prohibitive especially if large walls had to be monitored with closely spaced geophones. The successful application of the microseismic method to underground operations has improved safety at little, or no sacrifice, to production or extraction ratios. The anticipated reward in open-pit mining would be the improvement of safety with a minimum sacrifice to mining operations. There is also a possibility that the method could be used to optimize the unloading (stripping) of potential failure areas by the removal of intact rock from the slope wall rather than the cleanup of a slide from the bottom of the pit. This report contains a brief description of three types of microseismic apparatus used in four different pit walls, each of which is different in height, slope, rock types, or has different planes of weaknesses, such as faults, fractures, or joints. Because the geologic features of the pit walls are varied and complex, for brevity, this report dwells mostly on the microseismic apparatus, techniques, the rock noise rates, and the slope movements measured at the various sites. PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT The microseismic method was developed over 20 years ago; and the method and examples of investigations in underground mines are summarized by Obert and Duvall. 1 In more recent years, the method has been applied in several underground mines, and an in-situ test under controlled stress conditions is described by Morgan and Merrill. 2 Experience has shown that, on occasions, the microseismic noise rate and amplitude reach a peak value and then start to decrease before a failure occurs in an underground mine; on other occasions, the noise rate steadily increases to a maximum at failure. The method has been applied to slopes by Goodman and Blake,3 and by Paulsen. 4 Goodman and Blake found that the noises corresponded with failures in the slope

Jan 1, 1970

By AIME AIME

AN entirely new type of classifier is being put on the market by The Dorr Co., following three years of development and the experimental use of thirty machines of the improvement design in various parts of the world. It is known as the Multizone classifier. Compared with the older type the lower or overflow end has been decked over and is surmounted by one or more circular overflow columns. Feed is introduced near the middle of the machine and passes downward and under a vertical baffle, then along the underside of the deck to the base of the overflow columns. Under the baffle there is a restricted turbulent zone of high pulp velocity which holds the fine and critical size particles in suspension, preventing

Jan 1, 1937

By John V. Beall, William F. Haddon

A long the mighty Andean Cordillera, there is splendor beyond imagination-in the natural beauty of the mountains and in daring engineering and lavish investment in the mines. This is the story of the great copper mines of Chile and Peru. Each mine has a special quality which has tested the physical and spiritual resources of the founder. In the early days of the older mines, the mining engineer of song and story was more the rule than the exception. He was physically tough, ingenious and a leader of men. In the current political and social environment of Chile and Peru, the foreign contract mining engineer is still needed; but he must be a different type of man. To John J. Selters at Cerro's Rio Blanco, the principal ingredient is still "toughness," but it is "toughness of mind" that is needed. "He probably should be a teacher." The copper mines are not new. They were, almost without exception, worked by Indians (La Exotica might prove the rule), and later by the intrepid Spaniards. Modern mining began after the turn of the century. In Chile, the first of the big ones was the Braden Copper Co. founded on the El Teniente deposit. This development was followed by Chile Exploration Co. at Chuquicamata and Andes Copper at Potrerillos. These properties have been developed over the years by vast expenditures of money and a monumental amount of labor. None was free of technical problems-metallurgy at Chuqui, marginal grade of the old mine at Andes, avalanches and the great fire at El Teniente. The evolution which has brought the established mines of Chile, and the new ones coming on stream, to their present state of development is in reality the work of wonders of input-money, engineering and responsible management in an atmosphere of political stability. Without any one of these, the result would have been failure.

Jan 11, 1969

By John Dresser

General THE controlling supply of asbestos for the world is obtained from southern Quebec, 150 miles or less north of the international boundary line between Canada and the United States, and about 75 miles south of the city of Quebec. The principal production is furnished by eight mines, seven of which occur within a distance of 6 miles, but there are also several smaller properties in the vicinity. The industry was begun in a small way some 35 years ago and has advanced more or less regularly ever since. The annual production now exceeds 100,000 tons and its value is about $3,000,000. It represents over 80 per cent. of the world's production. History Asbestos has been known in the eastern townships of Quebec since 1847, when attention was called to it in an official report by Sir William Logan, the first Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, but it was not until 30 years later that it came into commercial importance. The largest deposits, those of Thetford and Black Lake, were found in 1877 during the construction of the Quebec Central Railway. Work was begun upon them almost at once and has been continued ever since. The Danville mine, the next largest producer, was opened in 1879, and the slip-fiber deposits of East Broughton were located shortly afterward. For the first 15 years only the "crude" asbestos was recovered; that is, fiber long enough to be extracted by hand cobbing. Although this is still a valuable part of the production, it is now a relatively small part of the total output.

Jan 9, 1914

All data about shipments from the present state of West Virginia, even when it was still a part of the "Old Dominion," are shown in Table 56 together with the source of information, and all other figures are estimated. While the earliest production was undoubtedly in the extreme northern part of the state, coal having been quite largely used in Pennsylvania before any is credited to West Virginia, the largest production in the early days of the industry was along the Kanawha River where the salt furnaces used tremendous quantities for years before shipments were made by river. When we take into consideration the economic conditions existing then, it is evident that the consumption of coal by the salt industry along the Kanawha and Kiskiminitas Rivers rivalled in importance that of any industry today. There were no canals built in this state, the shipments before railroads were built being by the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers, and production in the northern counties began after the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad was completed from Cumberland to Wheeling. For some years after this line was completed all locomotive fuel used on it was hauled from the Cumberland region. The movement of coal from Boone County by Coal River to the Kanawha and Ohio Rivers from 1857 to 1880 is rather unique in its size and the length of movement, nearly all the coal going at least as far as Cincinnati and much of it to New Orleans. Fayette County began shipping when the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad was completed and Mercer County, when the Norfolk & Western Railroad reached there in 1884; none of the other large producing counties in the southern part of the state began producing coal in the period under study.

Jan 1, 1942

By F. W. Miller

A brief history of byproduct coking in Alabama with short general descriptions of plants and the state's production of beehive and byproduct coke. PRIOR to the Civil War, there were several small charcoal furnaces for smelting the brown limonite ore that is found, in comparatively small bodies, throughout the central and north-central portions of the state. During the Civil War, these furnaces furnished charcoal iron to the Confederate Government. No attention was paid to the large bodies of lime-bearing hematite ore that now supplies the bulk of the ore used in the various blast-furnace plants of this district until the latter part of the 19th century. Red Mountain, which is the southernmost and one of the smaller ranges of the Appalachian Chain, lying immediately south of the Birmingham and Bessemer, is the principal source of this ore. The orebody outcrops on the northern face, extends through the mountain, and underlies Shades Valley on the southern side. When it was found that these ores could be worked satisfactorily in the blast furnaces, there was a comparatively rapid growth in the blast-furnace industry in the Birmingham district. As these ores are far more refractory than the limonite ores, this blast-furnace development was accompanied by the construction of beehive ovens to carbonize the coal, in order to supply the necessary fuel. The state's production of bee-hive coke in 1880 was 60,781 tons; ten years later this had increased to 1,072,942 tons; and, in 1897 the production had reached 1,443,017 tons. In 1898, the first byproduct oven built in the state was put in operation. This plant consisted of 120 horizontal-flue Semet-Solvay ovens, three flues in height by thirty flues in length with an average width of 16 in. The plant was constructed by Semet-Solvay Co., for the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., and was located adjacent to the blast-furnace plant of that company at Ensley. Coal was delivered from the Pratt mines, by gravity tracks, directly into bin's of the ovens after having

Jan 9, 1924