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By Louise B. Freeman

Kentucky for the first time in its oil history passed the 10 million barrel mark. Of the total 10,019,641 bbl., 8,262,516 bbl. were produced in Western Kentucky, and Union County surpassed all others, with 4,056,142 bbl., or 40 percent of all the production for the state. There were 930 wells known to have been drilled during the year; 510 in Western Kentucky and 221 in the gas-producing area of Eastern Kentucky.

Jan 1, 1946

By Milo W. Krejci

The plant and quarries of the Inland Portland Cement Co. are located at Metaline Palls, Wash., about 128 miles north of Spokane, on the Pend Oreille river, and within 10 miles of the Canadian border. The plant is one of a chain of cement plants controlled by the Lehigh Portland Cement Co., of Allentown, Pa. Work on this plant was commenced in June, 1910, and was completed in April, 1911, but on account of some delays in the construction of the power plant, the works were not put into operation until August, 1911. Since then it has been in continuous operation and has furnished the Inland Empire with a high grade of cement. Fig. 1 is a view and Fig. 2 is a plan of the works. Water Power Development.—The source of the water supply for the hydro-electric plant of the Inland Portland Cement Co. is Sullivan lake, a body of water approximately 5.5 miles long and' 0.5 mile wide, situated in the Kaniksu Forest Reserve. A wooden crib dam was installed so as to raise the elevation of the lake 25 ft., and the additional storage capacity was taken up by the diversion of Sullivan creek into the lake by means of a wooden flume, 0.25 mile long, 6 by 8 ft. in cross-section, and a ditch 1,200 ft. long. The water from the lake follows the natural water course to an intermediate storage reservoir, which was created by the construction of an earthen dam. This pond was used in connection with the saw mill which was installed at this point. Besides the earth dam, there was also built a crib, at the point shown in the sketch map, Fig. 3. This crib dam is 35 ft. high. From this point the excess water follows the natural course of Sullivan creek to the Pend Oreille river. The water is taken from this intermediage storage by means of a 6 by 8 ft. wooden flume approximately 13,000 ft. long. This flume is built up on the side hill, piling being driven most of the way on

Jan 1, 1914

By Arthur Taggart

INTRODUCTION THE flotation process for the concentration of ores is a method by means of which one or more of the minerals in the ore (usually the valuable ones) are picked up by means of a liquid film and floated at the surface of .a mass of fluid pulp. Here they are separated from the other minerals, which remain immersed in the body of the pulp. In general, the minerals which are floated are sulphides of metallic luster, but some other minerals of metallic luster such as graphite and some sulphides with adamantine luster, such as sphalerite and cinnabar, are amenable to treatment by the process. The importance of flotation lie's in the fact that it is primarily a "slimes process" by means of which the particles of valuable mineral, too fine for efficient gravity concentration, are saved with a high percentage of recovery. Recoveries in the mills treating low-grade copper sulphide ores have been advanced 10 to 20 per cent. by the installation of the process and similar increased savings have been accomplished by the same means in mills treating sulphide ores of zinc and lead. When finely ground ore containing sulphides mixed with a siliceous or earthy gangue is brought gently onto the surface of a body of water, in a direction forming an acute angle with the surface of the water, a considerable portion of the sulphide constituent of the ore floats on the surface of the liquid, while the gangue sinks. This is the so-called film flotation, exemplified by the Wood and Macquisten processes. When gas bubbles are introduced into a fluid pulp composed of finely ground ore and water, to which has been added (1) a small amount of certain oils, or (2) a small amount of certain acids or acid salts, or (3) a small amount of certain alkalis or alkaline salts, or (4) a small amount of a mixture of oil with acid or alkali, the sulphide particles in the ore are brought to the surface on the gas bubbles. These collect in a froth

Jan 8, 1916

By Augustus Locke

The paper has two parts: the field argument and the microscopic argument. The field argument indicates that either the deep chalcocite has replacea sulfide of extraordinarily easy replaceability or it is hypogene. The microscopic argumentindicates that this sulfide, if it existed, must have been hypogene bornite; that this bornite must so excel known bornite in replaceability as to constitute a new variety; that the existence of this new variety is wholly unsupported by evidence; and that the deep Butte chalcocite is therefore hypogene. IN 1900, when the public first heard of "secondary enrichment" the Butte chalcocite seemed clearly supergene. Mining, through successive regions of leached capping, bonanza sulfide, and sulfide less rich, had paused at lean bottom levels which, though chalcocite-bearing, suggested the waning of copper. The deepest chalcocite, at 1500 ft., was yet too shallow to disturb the supergene hypothesis. But, with deeper mining, lean levels yielded to fat ones. Here and there they showed, within the same vein, an inverted distribution, chalcopyrite above and chalcocite below. To the miners' astonishment, they carried chalcocite, unaffected by cross faults, on an independent course to the depth of 2500 ft. The pattern of ore distribution, hitherto revealed only in fragments, was now appearing in perspective, and, in the depth of the chalcocite, was beginning to make Butte differ from all districts where the chalcocite is indubitably supergene. The idea of hypogene origin at length came into favor; by 1913, when Sales1 advocated this origin, the argument had become a powerful one. This argument rested on field evidence; but, already, there was beginning to emerge microscopic evidence not included in this arugment. Especially pertinent was the proof that (1) The deep chalcocite lies in-mixed with bornite, often microscopic; (2) the deep chalcocite often replaces bornite; and (3) replacement of bornite by chalcocite is accom-

Jan 3, 1924

By L. C. Brown, C. St. John, C. C. Sanderson

The diffusion rate in Cu-Te couples is very sensitive to compressive stress, with a load of 20 psi making a significant difference to the width of the diffusion zone. At zero stress, two phases appear in the diffusion zone (Cu4Te3 and CuTe). Under compressive loading the third stable phase (Cuz Te) also appears, and its thickness increases progressively with increasing stress. The results are explained on the basis of an incipient Kirkendall porosity which restricts the transfer of atoms from the copper into the diffusion zone. DURING a study of the Kirkendall effect in Cu-Te couples prepared by clamping together the two components, it was found that the diffusion-zone width and shape in the plane of contact were not reproducible. Although the stresses involved in clamping are not normally sufficiently high to affect diffusion rates, preliminary tests established that the Cu-Te system is particularly stress-sensitive. The phase diagram for the system Cu-Te given in Hanssen1 shows that there is practically no solid solubility at either end of the phase diagram. Many areas of the diagram are not fully substantiated, but there appear to be three intermediate phases: Cu,Te—hexagonal in structure, having a grey luster; Cu4Te3—a tetragonal defect structure, having a red-purple luster; CuTe—orthorhombic in structure and having a golden-green luster. The existence of a fourth phase, the X phase at 37 at. pct Te, is considered doubtful. The composition ranges of the three stable phases are small, and are not accurately known. The phase diagram changes little with temperature up to 305°C, at which temperature a polymorphic transformation takes place in Cu2Te. The nature of the Cu-Te phase diagram indicates that the diffusion zone in a Cu-Te couple would consist of a series of layers of intermediate phases. The relative thickness of any one phase will depend on its diffusion coefficient and composition range.' In this type of diffusion couple it is often found experimentally that some phases are not visible at all in the diffusion zone due either to a small diffusion coefficient or to a restricted composition range.3 Since the composition ranges of the phases in Cu-Te are not known, it is not possible to determine diffusion coefficients in this system from a knowledge of the phase thicknesses. Several investigations have been carried out to determine the effect of compressive stress on diffusion rates in multiphase systems. Diffusion couples of Ni-A1 have been investigated by Storchheim et al.4 and by Castleman and Seigle.5 Two phases (ß and ?) appear in the diffusion zone under zero stress and the thickness of both phases is progressively reduced with increasing stress. According to Storchheim et al.4 a stress of 25,000 psi reduces the thickness of the diffusion zone by 50 pct. In a-brass—?-brass couples the thickness of the 0 phase formed in the diffusion zone was reduced by 20 pct at a stress of 20,000 psi.6 In other investigations the compressive load has been observed to increase the width of the diffusion zone. In A1-U, several investigators3,8 have found the width of the whase UA13 to increase with stress. According to casileman,8 the rate of formation of UA13 at 520°C is 75 pct faster at a stress of 20,000 psi as compared with a stress of 2500 psi. In Cu-Sb the effect of stress is greater than in the other systems described. According to Heumann9,10 only one phase (y) appears in the diffusion zone at a stress of 500 psi, but at a stress of 850 psi two phases (y and k) are present. If a diffusion couple containing both y and k phases is annealed at a low stress level, the y phase grows at the expense of the k phase. EXPERIMENTAL The diffusion couples were prepared from electrolytic copper bar stock with a nominal purity of 99.92 pct and from tellurium of 99.7 pct purity. The tellurium proved difficult to machine because of its brittleness and a technique was developed for casting the tellurium into a graphite slab mold and spark-machining specimens from this slab. Both the copper and tellurium were produced in the form of discs 2 in. diam by approximately 1/4 in. thick with surfaces ground flat to 3/0 emery paper. The diffusion apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. Auni-axial compressive stress was applied to the system through a simple lever system. A stainless-steel rod actuated by the lever arm lay inside a stainless-steel tube. The diffusion couple lay on top of the steel rod, and pressure was applied to the couple between the rod and a plug welded into the center of the tube. To ensure a uniform stress across the couple, a hemispherical boss and cup were used to transmit the load to the diffusion couple. A 400-w tube furnace with a uniform hot zone 3 in. long slid around the stainless-steel tube and maintained the assembly at temperature. A thermocouple situated 3 in. from the specimen operated a proportional temperature controller which maintained the specimen temperature constant to ±2°C. Most diffusion runs were carried out at 250C although a few tests were made at other temperatures in the range 235° to 300°C. The specimens were inserted and removed with the furnace at operating temperature, and took only 2 min to reach diffusion temperature—a time small compared with the total diffusion time. All the diffusion experiments were carried out in a hydrogen atmosphere, since consistent results were obtained in hydrogen and nitrogen atmospheres and in

Jan 1, 1967

By J. Leslie Goodier

The International Law of the Continental Shelf, so far ratified by 35 nations, extends the national boundary of any coastal nation to the edge of the continental shelf, this normally being at a continuous water depth of 200 m. The Law further extends this boundary to include the floor of the deep ocean to any depth that can be mined by advanced mining technology. In effect, proof of mining can constitute proof of ownership of the subaqueous land and the minerals on or below the sea floor. Irrespective of the fact that present technology is too limited to permit mineral exploitation in the high seas-and the law regarding the right to mine appears hazy-the U. S. Treasury Department's Bureau of Customs, has a ruling that would further deter mining operations on the high seas. This law contends that minerals mined on the continental shelf of the United States are actually mined within the continental United States and are free of tariff, but mined products or other articles obtained from the ocean or the sea floor beyond the continental shelf, if brought into this nation, must be considered as imported and are subject to such customs duties as are applicable under the tariff schedules of the United States.

Jan 7, 1968

By David H. Browne, John F. Thompson

The literature dealing with the physical constants of nickel is so fragmentary and unrelated that a synopsis presents unusual difficulties. It is only within the last few years that investigators have understood the importance of placing on record not only the determinations they have made but also the composition, physical treatment, and past history of the material investigated. For this reason much of the earlier literature is valueless. Determinations have been made of the same physical constants on samples differing widely in origin, composition, and treatment, and the results differ widely among themselves. In the first place nickel is almost as flexible a term as steel. Its physical properties are widely influenced by its composition and treatment. It absorbs large quantities of gases and is exceedingly difficult to prepare in a state of chemical purity comparable to gold, silver, or copper. It is vitally affected by thermal and mechanical treatment. Hence in the following pages the recorded literature, where quoted, must be accepted with a certain reserve and used, as far as possible, as a check on later observations, in which these important factors are noted. In every case where new determinations are given, an attempt has been made to record all available information concerning the composition and treatment of the material used so that the data may serve as stepping-stones toward a wider knowledge of the properties of the metal. As this synopsis is an attempt by men of metallurgical training to do what should long before have been done by physicists, it is to be expected that certain errors may have crept in. Any corrections or suggestions

Jan 1, 1921

By E. T. Turkdogan

This paper deals with an analysis of the conditions leading to the formation of blowholes and surface and subsurface defects in cast low-carbon steels. The theoretical analysis of the problem is based on the concept of the occurrence of deoxidation reactions during cooling of liquid steel and during its solidification. The reaction equilibrium data are given on deoxidation of steel by carbon, silicon, and manganese. The details of the calculations are given on the simultaneous deoxidation of steel by silico-manganese additions to produce a desired level of deoxidation at certain residual concentrations. Based on an idealized model, an attempt is made to calculate the enrichment of solutes in the solidifying liquid entrapped within the interdendritic cells which are known to be less than 200 µ thick. Formulae are derived for the calculation of the change in the residual oxygen content of the enriched liquid steel, controlled by Si/Mn deoxidation. It is shown that for every particular initial silicon, manganese, and oxygen concentration in steel (as residuals in liquid solution at the beginning of solidification) there is a particular carbon concentration below which carbon monoxide, leading to blowholes or pinholes, is not expected to form. There are a number of independent variables which have a decisive influence on the formation of blowholes. For example, it is shown that the position of the curve depicting the critical relation between initial silicon and carbon content for suppression of the evolution of carbon monoxide) can be shifted to lower silicon or higher carbon levels by: increasing manganese content; decreasing oxygen, hydrogen, or nitrogen content; or increasing external pressure on the solidifying mass. FOR the production of sound castings it is essential to prevent the formation of interdendritic worm-holes or pinholes brought about by gas evolution during solidification. Another major problem encountered in solidification of ingots is the formation of surface defects. These problems are thought to be closely associated with the deoxidation reaction occurring in liquid steel during cooling and subsequent solidification. As the liquid becomes richer in impurities during dendritic solidification of steel, a series of reactions may occur in the liquid phase trapped within the branches of growing dendrite platelets. Because of the strong interaction between dissolved oxygen and impurities in liquid steel, the reactions most likely to occur are of the deoxidation type. However, inherent to the extreme complexity of the problem in question, numerous simplifying assump-

Jan 1, 1965

By R. L. Perrine

A stability theory is developed for miscible liquid-liquid displacement within a porous medium. In the usual case considered, a high-density high-viscosity "oil" is displaced downdip by a low-density low-viscosity "solvent'! Perturbation methods are used to find the conditions under which the spreading mechanism changes from the stable dispersion process to unstable viscous fingering. We find that instability is conditional, that there is a dependence on the shape of a disturbance leading to a"diameter" effect and that very difficult experimental scaling problems may result. A useful consequence is the definition of a minimum "slug size" for stable miscible displacement. This should make possible optimum use of the solvent process for oil recovery. The results may apply to many situations in which one fluid displaces another of somewhat different fluid properties within a porous medium. INTRODUCTION The process of miscible liquid-liquid displacement looked very favorable when it first received serious consideration as a means to increase petroleum recovery. Some early laboratory results were interpreted to mean that only a small "slug" of solvent was needed, perhaps 2 to 3 per cent of a hydrocarbon pore volume. This "slug" could recover the oil in an entire reservoir provided the fluids remained miscible.1,2 Only a slow growth of the "mixing zone", or gradual transition from oil to solvent, should occur. This would follow naturally from mixing by a dispersion mechanism such as that described by Scheidegger.3 And, indeed, laboratory cores have shown this kind of behavior provided solvent viscosity was at least as great as that of the oi1.2,4-6 The same kind of behavior has also been observed with solvent viscosity lower than that of the oil after the distance traversed became large. Not all laboratory results have been this favorable, however.7-9 Mixing zone growth may become proportional to the distance traveled rather than the square root of this quantity. Such behavior accompanies high rates in short systems of large diameter, provided the viscosity ratio is adverse. If this more rapid spreading were to persist in a reservoir, the solvent requirement for miscible "slug" displacement could exceed 30 per cent of a pore volume. There is considerable economic importance in the difference between 3 and 30 per cent solvent. A 1ogical conclusion is that two different kinds of flow behavior are possible, with each kind leading to a different result. One kind gives efficient displacement, the other does not. In the efficient case, the solvent bank spreads out only by the mechanism we have termed dispersion. Under these conditions, displacement is as near piston-like as possible. In the second kind of flow, found only with adverse viscosity ratios, viscous fingering occurs. That is, permeability variations cause a small finger of low-viscosity solvent-rich fluid to move ahead of its average position within the mixing zone. This creates a path of low resistance to flow, and an even greater amount of solvent-rich fluid follows. Thus, the process is autocatalytic. Once started, the fingering mechanism rapidly becomes dominant. The question to be answered is this. Under what conditions will each of these two different kinds of flow occur? In particular, what conditions denote the transition from dispersion to viscous fingering as the solvent spreading mechanism? The answer may tell us whether or not the desirable, near piston-like miscible displacement process is practical. An answer to this problem can be obtained from theory by the use of perturbation methods. The procedure is as follows. We first formulate a mathematical representation of the system. Then a small disturbance (or perturbation) in solvent concentration profile is introduced and observed to see what happens. Unstable flow is indicated when a small disturbance will grow larger. This will lead to eventual viscous fingering. If on the other hand the disturbance dies out, the displacement is stable. In this latter case, with dispersion as the spreading mechanism, near piston-like displacement is possible. Thus, this paper presents the development of a stability theory for miscible liquid-liquid displace-

By Thomas L. Kesler

IF all of the 14 million tons of kaolin produced in Georgia through 1949 had been mined from a single deposit 20 ft thick, it would represent a mined-out area of less than 1 sq mile. This measure of depletion is in such strong contrast with the large size of the area shown in Fig 1, from which most of the output has come, that there has developed an optimistic outlook concerning future supplies of kaolin equal in grade to that already mined. Dozens of mines are widely but not evenly distributed within this area, which consists mostly of parts of Twiggs, Wilkinson, and Washington Counties. There are scarcely half a dozen kaolin mines elsewhere in the state that have been appreciably productive, although the areas in which they occur may have good possibilities. Most of the efforts to find new deposits, therefore, will be confined to the area shown in Fig 1, for it is here that the industry has established its facilities, and prospecting is encouraged by relatively numerous outcrops and opened deposits of kaolin. The Ounulgee and Oconee Rivers drain the area. They and their main tributaries have flat, swampy flood plains covered with alluvium and for the most part thickly wooded. The divides between these streams are intricately dissected by the minor tributaries, which are spring-fed in steep-walled, cirquelike heads. Gullying and undercutting are active along the streams but are partly controlled by unusually dense vegetation. The mean altitude is about 350 ft above sea level and locally the relief ranges up to 200 ft. The area is near the inner margin of the Coastal Plain, and is underlain by Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. Its general location is shown in black in Fig 1. The division between the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Plateau is actually a very sinuous line, the fall line, marking the extent to which erosion has stripped the Coastal Plain sediments from the southeastward- sloping surface of the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont.

Jan 1, 1952

By L. W. Eastwood

THE structure of eutectics has been studied by a number of investi-gators, and the complexity of the structural relationship of the compo-nents has been agreed upon, especially that of the "eutectic colony," type III of Portevin's1 classification. This paper does not attempt to alter the present classifications of eutectics; rather, it discusses the relationship between the macrostructure and the microstructure of the copper-cuprous oxide eutectic, and describes in detail the mechanism of the formation and the structure of the eutectic. Further, throughout the entire discussion it attempts to point out certain misconceptions in regard to the interpretation of the observed structure of the copper-cuprous oxide eutectic, one of the so-called "eutectic colony" types, and to correlate as much as possible the work done by the writer with that done by other investigators. Of the three types of eutectics listed by Portevin,2 the eutectic colony type has presented the greatest difficulty in interpretation. Although the copper-cuprous oxide eutectic is typical of the eutectic colony type in appearance, it may not be truly representative because the copper forms about 96 percent of the eutectic and the cuprous oxide about 4 per cent. The interpretation of the origin and structure of the "eutectic colony" given here is strictly limited, therefore, to the copper-cuprous oxide eutectic.

Jan 1, 1933

By Frank Firmstone

In a paper read at the meeting in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1875,* I showed that as a result of changing from open-topped to close-topped furnaces at the Glendon Iron Works, there had been a decided falling off in regularity of working, which we attributed to the very different distribution of the materials in the new method of filling. Subsequent experience has, on the whole, confirmed the opinions then expressed, and in 1881 we decided to try the modification of the Langen charger, shown on the accompanying drawings, thinking by its use to approximate to the distribution obtained by dumping the barrows at six equidistant points in the circumference of the open-topped furnaces. The top of the furnace is closed by a ring-shaped " bell," as we still call it, the outside of which is cylindrical and rests by the turned lower edge on the bored seat of a " loose ring," supported by the lower part of the hopper. The inside of the bell is an inverted frustrum of a cone, the central opening in which is closed by a cylindrical plug, which is prolonged into a pipe to carry off the gas.? This center-plug is connected by rods and chains to sectors on the ends of a forked lever, to the other end of which is attached, by a wire rope, the piston-rod of the blast-cylinder used in opening the top. The rods connected to the center-plug pass loosely through the apexes of triangular frames, to the other angles of which the bell is attached; it thus being suspended by four points when the top is open. When the materials are dumped out of the barrows into the hopper, a part is thrown over the crest of the bell into the space between it

Jan 1, 1885

By T. H. Oxnam

The predominating value of the ores now being treated by the Palmarejo and Mexican Gold Fields, Ltd., is silver, although some gold also is carried. The present method of treatment consists of wet-crushing and concentrating, followed by the cyanidation of the un-roasted sands and slimes. The sands are treated by leaching, and the so-called " accumulated slimes " by a system of agitation and decantation. It is only within very recent years that the cyanidation of unroasted silver-ores has been commercially successful. In fact, at the time operations were begun at the cyanide-plant at Chinipas, February, 1902, I knew of no other leaching-plant treating similar ores successfully. The cyanide treatment of the Palmarejo ores differs but little from the ordinary practice in cyaniding gold-ores; and perhaps but little, if any, new information concerning the metallurgy of silver is to be gleaned from it. Palmarejo Mines. The Palmarejo mines are located in the southwestern part of the State of Chihuahua, Mexico, on the foothills of the Sierra Madre mountains, at an elevation of 3,200 feet. The mills, 12 miles distant, are situated on the Chinipas river, near the town of Chinipas, which is about 150 miles northeast of Agiabampo, on the Gulf of California. Supplies are shipped via this port as this route is the best and most direct to the property. The ore-bodies in the Palmarejo mines have been deposited along a series of rock-fractures, caused by an intrusion of eruptive rock. The most important of these fractures or fissures, both in width and value, are the Prieta and Blanca veins, which

Jan 1, 1906

By C. C. Martin, M. C. Fuerstenau, R. B. Bhappu

Experiments revealed that quartz could not be floated in conductivity water at any pH with a long-chained sulfonate as collector. Various cations, Fe+++, Al+++, Pb++, Mn++, Mg++, Ca++, are shown to function as activators when the pH is such that the cation hydrolyzes. As the solubility product of the various cation-sulfonates was exceeded at the concentrations involved, precipitated cation-hydroxy-sulfonates, e.g. Fe (RSO3)2OH must be functioning as the collector in these systems. A number of interesting and important phenomena were revealed during a study of the response of beryl to sulfonate flotation.' Perhaps the most important observation is the effect of various cations on flotation response. Experiments showed that in the vicinity of pH 3.0, about three ppm Fe+++ increased recovery of leached beryl from about 60 pct to 100 pct, whereas about four ppm Ca+ + reduced the recovery from 60 pct to 2 pct. With the exception of ferric iron, all of the other cations investigated reduced flotation recoveries drastically at this pH. As postulated in the paper Sulfonate Flotation of Beryl,' even with low concentrations of polyvalent cations and sulfonate (on the order of one ppm), cation-sulfonates are precipitated immediately in solution. That is, blueish-white clouds were noted to form after given additions of salts to known solutions of sulfonate. Furthermore, it was also shown that one-hundred-fold more ferric iron than necessary to form the precipitated cloud had to be added to effect complete flotation. In other words, some form of solid ferric sulfonate was found to function as the collector in these systems. The form of the compound was suggested to be Fe(RCO3)2OH and that bonding to the surface occurs through the hydrogen of the hy-droxyl. As the form of this compound was shown to be dependent on the extent of hydrolysis of ferric iron, it is to be expected that ferric iron will be unique in some pH region. Further, if the presence of hydroxyl in the neutral precipitated compound is of primary importance, then other cations should function similarly but at different values of pH, since they will hydrolyze at different concentrations of hydroxyl ion. To determine whether the premise of hydrolysis is correct, the study was extended to quartz systems in the presence of various cations at various values of pH. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS AND METHOD Sodium alkyl aryl sulfonate was chosen as the collector for the experimental work. The reagent, sup plied as a courtesy sample by the Shell Chemical Co., has the following physical properties: Physical form Solid — Finely ground Sulfonate content, pct wt 95 to 97 Molecular Weight 450 to 470 Number of carbon atoms in hydrocarbon chain 25 to 30 Melting Point, OF 250 to 260 Solubility Soluble in water with gel formation at concentrations higher than 25 pct by weight sulfonate This particular reagent was chosen because of its high active sulfonate content, long-chain length, and solid form. With the exception of the frother and sulfonate, all other chemicals were of reagent grade quality. Conductivity water was used in the experimental work. This water, made by passing distilled water through an ion exchange column, had an average measured conductivity of one micromho. Experiments were conducted at room temperature in a small glass flotation cell with the following procedure: 1) A redetermined amount of water and salt solution (e.g. CaC12 . 2H2O) were combined and the pH adjusted to a given value. 2) A given amount of sulfonate was added so that final solution volume was 130 cc. 3) One drop of Dow 250 frother was added. 4) Five g of quartz were added and the system conditioned for five minutes. 5) The pH of the system was measured (termed flotation pH).

Jan 1, 1963

By Joseph C. Kieffer

THE Duquesne property of the Callahan Zinc-Lead Co. is about 20 miles east of Nogales, in southern Arizona. One mine is near the mill, but most of the mill feed is hauled in by truck from a number of small mines. The same sulphides are found in all the ores, in general, but the amounts vary considerably. All ores contain silver, copper, lead and zinc minerals but one mine ships ore high in silver and lead and low in copper and zinc; while another mine ships ore high in copper and zinc, and low in silver and lead. The common sulphides are galena, carrying most of the silver; chalcopyrite; sphalerite, carrying iron in solid solution; and pyrite, in a gangue consisting of limestone, quartz and garnet. Mineralization is fairly coarse. At the present grind of about 66 per cent minus 200 mesh most of the sulphides are liberated. A small amount of chalcopyrite is locked up with the sphalerite and cannot be liberated at an economic grind, and the copper carried into the zinc concentrate with the sphalerite accounts for the comparatively poor recovery of copper in the copper-lead concentrate. PRODUCTION OF TWO CONCENTRATES The milling problem, which was complicated by the extreme variation in the grade of the feed, was first attacked with the idea of producing a silver-copper-lead concentrate and a zinc concentrate, both with satisfactory grades and recoveries. By February I94I, it was felt that these objectives had been attained, when the grades of the various products and the recoveries were as shown in Table I. [ ] A rough outline of the flowsheet and reagents used is as follows: Minus ¾ -in. feed to a 7-ft. by 36-in. Hardinge ball mill working in closed circuit with a 36-in. Wemco classifier. The classifier overflow passes to the second cell of an 8-cell bank of No. 18 Special Denver Sub-A flotation machines (volume, 22.5 cu. ft. per cell). A rougher concentrate is removed from the second to the fifth cells inclusive, and returned to the first cell, which is the cleaner. A scavenger concentrate is removed from the sixth, seventh, and eighth cells, and returned to the third cell. Consump

Jan 1, 1942

By Hiroshi Kato, Shin’ichi Nagashima, Hiroshi Takechi

The preferred orientations detleloped during cold rolling, annealing, and hot rolling of low-carbon steel sheets have been investigated by means of an inverse pole figure technique. And X-ray line profile meas-urerrlents were made for the study of the factor which causes the textural changes between cold-rolled and recrystallized sheets. From ND (sheet normal divection) and RD (rolling direction) inverse Pole figures tlze axis detisity change with increasing cold reduction was measured and the Preferred orientations were analyzed. These results can be explained by crystal rotation due to slip during rolling deformation. The ND axis density change during annealing of cold-rollitig sheets is contrary to the change observed in the case of rolling. It was found that the orientation dependency of stored strain energy resulting from cold rolling apparently corresponds to the textural changes during recrystallization. The texture in hot-rolled sheets was found to be influenced by finishing tenlperatltre. In a sheet kol-rolled below the Ar, temperature a significant differernce in texture between the surface and central layers was obtained, the former having {hkl}(111} and {110 )(uvw) orientations and the latter having {pqr}( 110) orientation. A large number of investigations1 6 have been made on the textures of iron and low-carbon steel sheets, and, since it was shown7 13 that preferred orientations are closely related to deep drawability of steel sheets, studies14" 7 on the influence of production processes upon textures have been made from the standpoint of industrial interest. Generally, the textures in low-carbon steel sheets have several components of preferred orientations, but the overlapping of poles makes it difficult to analyze texture quantitatively from pole figures. On the other hand, an inverse pole figure directly expresses quantitative values of components of preferred orientations as the density of a certain sample axis with respect to the crystallite coordinates. Such a texture representation is desirable for a study of deep drawability. The purpose of the present work is to use both inverse and conventional pole figures, with emphasis on the former, to clar~fy the textural changes ~n low-carbon steel sheets by the production processes of hot rolling, cold rolling, and annealing. And the factor causing the textural changes during annealing is studied using an X-ray diffraction line profile technique. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Sheet specimens for study of cold rolling and annealing textures were taken from a hot-rolled strip of rimmed steel 2.7 mm thick. The chemical composition is shown in Table I. Although the study of cold-rolling textures requires a suitable material with random orientation, it is difficult to produce a perfect random one. But the used specimens, obtained from the hot-rolled strip with a finishing temperature higher than Ar3, were nearly random, such as shown in Fig. 15. These were cold-rolled to various reductions by a 4-high rolling mill with 150-mm-diam work rolls and 300-mm-diam backup rolls. The influence of hot-rolling conditions such as finishing and coiling temperatures on textures of hot-rolled strips was studied. The chemical compositions of these hot coils are given in Table I1 and the hot-rolling conditions are given in Table 111. inverse Pole ~i~ure -~easurement. Two methods for determining inverse pole figures with high precision have been proposed. The first, by Jetter et a1.,18 consists of obtaining mean densities of divided regions in a unit stereographic triangle by solving simultaneous linear equations to approximate the integral relation between conventional and inverse pole figures. The second, proposed by ~oe'~-'~ and Bunge,22'23 consists of determining an expanded series of spherical surface harmonics which express axis densities from several sets of pole distribution data. Both methods require laborious numerical calculations which make them unsuitable for practical use. However, the axis densities of the locations corresponding to low Miller indices in a unit stereographic triangle can be obtained

Jan 1, 1969

By F. X. Tartaron

This article is a continuation of a previous paper by the writer in which Kick's Law was stated to be a part of comminution theory. ln the present paper, a broadening of ideas is attempted in order to state a general theory. The word "general" is employed because the new theory includes all previous laws and generalizations which are considered to be essentially correct. These ideas are combined into a coherent whole and the general theory can be expressed by the equation In the author's previous paper on comminution, ' the equations developed were based on Charles' equation of exponents a-n +1 = 0. 2 This paper is divided into two parts, designated as First Approach and Second Approach. In the First Approach, the equations of the previous paper are utilized, with Charles' equation of exponents being necessary. In the Second Approach, a separate and independent method is used to derive the same conclusions as in the First Approach, but without the use of Charles' equation of exponents. Holmes accepts the theoretical foundation of Kick's Law as sound but denies that the law as such operates in comminution. His idea is that Kick's Law requires homogenous matter whereas the presence of cracks, flaws and cleavage planes, which predominate in the coarser particles, makes matter unhomogene-ous. This explains why there is no experimental evidence to support Kick's Law. However, since the basis of the law is theoretically sound, all experimental evidence must be viewed as emanating from it. This requires modification of current comminution equations to fit this concept. Holmes makes the modification by changing the constant exponent n in the general energy equation used by Charles (E = - JCdx/xn) to a variable exponent r. The writer asserts that Kick's Law operates in comminution without modification but it does not

Jan 1, 1963

By Joseph L. Gillson

In this volume, which is divided into chapters on a commodity basis, many subjects inevitably have a common interest with others, or are interrelated in one way or another. No group of commodities is so outstanding in this regard as is that group of which the basic raw material is a carbonate rock. There are chapters in this book on dimension stone, on crushed stone, on chalk and whiting, on cement, on lime, on magnesite, on sodium carbonate; all of which are entirely, or partly, products of the "carbonate rocks." Rhodochrosite, witherite and strontianite are other carbonates described respectively in chapters on manganese minerals, barium minerals and strontium minerals; and travertine and cave onyx are carbonate materials used as ornamental stones. High grade marble is used for monuments and statues and as a decorative building stone. The aggregate tonnage of the basic raw material, the carbonate rock, is so enormous that it exceeds the tonnage of any metallic ore mined and quarried in the United States, and in turn is exceeded only by coal, sand and gravel, and by water in the gross tonnage produced by the mineral industry in this country. The specialties, including magnesite, sodium carbonate, and rhodochrosite, witherite and strontianite are produced from uncommon rock types of limited occurrence. They are described adequately in the chapters devoted to these subjects. This chapter is concerned with the limestones and dolomites. No other solid rocks are as important as these in the industrial life of the world, nor are any so widely known. Massive units of some carbonate formations form many of the spectacular features of some of the most rugged mountains in the world, such as the Dolomite Alps, the Canadian Rockies, some rugged peaks of the eastern flanks of the American Rockies in Colorado, Wyoming and New Mexico and in many ranges in Utah, Nevada and Arizona. These continue down the Sierra Oriental in Mexico and on around the world to the flanks of the Himalayas, in the South China Highlands, and separating Asia and Europe in the flanks of the Ural Mountains where they form many reexhumed hills called Shikhany.50a Less rugged and more nearly flat-lying carbonate rocks underlie most of the area of our great Middle Western plain, the southern part of England and the northern part of Africa. These are the common rock formations known from boyhood to a large part of the world's population. The use of lime, produced by the burning of limestone, goes back to antiquity, and mortar was used widely in Biblical times. The cement made by mixing volcanic ash with lime was a basic material of construction when Pompeii was built. Our Eastern states are dotted with abandoned limestone quarries, and the ruins of old lime kilns which were operated in Colonial days. Many limestones and dolomites are found in flat-lying strata of a thickness convenient for quarrying as a building stone, so that houses and other structures have been built with them for centuries. In order to replace the muddy and rutted dirt roads with surfaces that could stand the hard usage of his wagons and carts, man learned to crush stone and put a layer of it on his old trails. Such roads built by the Romans have been in use over much of

Jan 1, 1960

By M. Schwartz, S. K. Nash, R. Zeman

Knoop hardness in the rolling plane and in the longitudinal plane of hot-rolled and cold-rolled sheets of sublimed magnesiu?w was measured as a function of the angle between the long axis of the indenter and the rolling direction. These measurements were correlated with similar data taken on the (0001) and (1010) planes of a single crystal of magnesium where the hardness was measured as a function of the angle between the long axis of the indenter and the [1120] direction. The results were analyzed for compliance with the hypothesis of Daniels and Dunm to account for slip, and with a similar hypothesis to account for twinning. Some hardness anisotropy data are also presented for magnesium-indium and magnesium-lithium solid solution alloys. It is well known that the hardness of a crystalline specimen is different for its different surfaces, and also that the hardness is a function of direction within a single surface. Variations in hardness for single crystals have been found to be much larger than those for polycrystalline materials. Also, materials having low crystal symmetry were found to have a greater anisotropy of hardness than those of high symmetry. 0'Neill1 and Pfeil,2 using a 1-mm Brine11 ball, studied single crystals of aluminum and iron, respectively; and they found a variation of hardness of about 10 pct between readings taken along the principal crystallographic faces. Daniels and Dunn3 found that the Knoop hardness number varied about 25 pct as the long axis of the indenter rotated on the basal plane of a zinc single crystal. The variation on the (1450) plane was about 100 pct, and the average hardness on this plane was about twice that of the basal plane. They also studied the variation of hardness within the (loo), (110), and (111) faces of a single crystal of silicon ferrite and found variations of about 25 pct although the average values for these planes were almost identical. Single crystals of zinc were also studied by Meincke.4 He found that the Vickers hardness numbers varied about 30 pct depending on whether the axis of the indenter was parallel or perpendicular to the (1010) and (1110) planes. Mott and Ford,5 using a Knoop indenter, found a 25 pct variation in hardness on the basal plane of zinc. Crow and Hinsley6 studied heavily cold-rolled bronze, steel, brass, copper, and other metals. They found that the difference in hardness numbers based on the difference in the length of the diagonals of the Vickers indenter was from 5 to 12 pct. Some minerals and synthetic stones show a very large anisotropy of hardness. Robertson and Van Meter7 found the Vickers hardness of arsenopyrite to vary from 633 to 1148 kg per mm2. stern8 using the double-cone method on synthetic corundum found the hardness number to vary from 950 to 2070. And winchell9 reported a variation of hardness number from 184 to 1205 in kyanite. The variation of hardness as a function of direction in a given crystallographic plane in single crystals possesses a periodicity which is related to the symmetry of the lattice. Daniels and Dunn3 found a six-fold periodicity of hardness in the (0001) plane of zinc. They found that the hardness curves of silicon ferrite had a four-fold symmetry in the (100) plane, a two-fold symmetry in the (110) plane, and a six-fold symmetry in the (111) plane. Mott and Ford5 also reported a six-fold symmetry of hardness in the basal plane of zinc. And vacher10 found two-, four-, and six-fold periodicities of hardness in copper on the (110), (100), and (111) planes, respectively. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of an investigation on the anisotropy of hardness as a function of orientation in single crystals of mannes-ium, and samples of rolled magnesium, magnesium-indium, and magnesium-lithium solid solution alloys. The anisotropy of hardness of pure magnesium which had been hot rolled, and then cold rolled various amounts to fracture, was studied by means of Knoop indentation hardness numbers; and the results were correlated with the preferred orientation as determined by quantitative X-ray pole-figure data. A comparison was made of the hardness data obtained from the rolled sheets and those of single crystals of magnesium. In order to obtain a more fundamental understanding of the variation of hardness and of Knoop hardness testing, the data were analyzed by

Jan 1, 1962

By Robert Bosworth

THE liability for damages to the surface caused by subsidence is an ever present threat in all underground mining. In ordinary lode mining, this threat rarely materializes into an action, due to the method of mining metalliferous ores, the dip of the veins, and the nature of the ground itself. In the mining of coal, however, this threat is very real. The coal frequently lies close to the surface, in beds underlying large areas of land of which the surface is suitable for agricultural or urban development. Furthermore, the coal is generally mined by the "room and pillar " method and when the pillars of coal are removed, the subjacent support is destroyed. This question of the duty of surface support has now become a very live one in Colorado. What was waste prairie land a few years ago has become valuable agricultural land dotted here and there with growing towns. Frequent references will be made here to Colorado conditions and adjudicated cases, but those conditions and cases and the conclusions to be drawn therefrom are applicable to all coal-mining states. Briefly stated, the question is "Does the owner of the substrata or underlying mineral owe any duty of surface support to the owner of the superjacent strata or surface?" There is no absolute duty of support owed by the mineral owner and this assertion is made with full knowledge of numerous expressions to the contrary by courts of Pennsylvania, Illinois, Colorado and other coal-mining states. Whether or not any duty exists depends upon the circumstances surrounding each case, and since in the nature of things those circumstances are rarely identical, there can be no absolute rule.

Jan 1, 1928