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By Louise Barton Freeman, Coleman D. Hunter

The total production of oil in Kentucky during the year 1943 reached 7,010,776 bbl., which is more than at any time since 1930. Of this total, 5,287,659 bbl. was produced from the counties west of the Cincinnati arch, 692,359 bbl. from the 18 new pools opened during the year, and 3,260,765 from the Smith Mills pool, which was discovered in August of 1942. This is an important increase in western Kentucky in spite of the low price of crude, and demonstrates effectively the desire of the industry to cooperate in meeting the increased demands made by the war. Western Kentucky Two deep tests were drilled in the Kentucky portion of the Mississippi Embayment this year. Both were drilled to test the St. Peter. One well, drilled in Marshall County by the Adams Oil and Gas Co., did not encounter any St. Peter sandstone but drilled 650 ft. of formation below the position of the St. Peter and above the true Knox dolomite. The other well, in Ballard County, was reported to have tested the St. Peter and to have been temporarily abandoned at 3069 ft. At this depth the well probably was stopped in about the same formation as the Marshall County well. No accurate information is available on the Ballard County well. Several new producing areas were added to the list of fields in the western Kentucky coal basin, in Daviess, Henderson, McLean, Ohio, Union and Webster Counties. The Smith Mills pool was enlarged and production was found in the McClosky (Ste. Genevieve) in addition to the Cypress sandstone from which much of the earlier production had been obtained. There was some interest during the year in testing the Devonian and Silurian formations in the area south and east of the western Kentucky coal basin. In the fall of 1943, a 15 to 20-bbl. well was drilled in Allen County and two more wells are now being drilled. The production was obtained from within a few feet of the base of the Chattanooga black shale, probably in the upper Silurian. One well in Simpson County was drilled completely through the Silurian section before it was abandoned. Several wells were drilled in Logan, Todd and Christian Counties to test the Devonian where it is thinned by removal of the upper formations before deposition of the Chattanooga shale. None of these wells was successful but several other locations are now being tested. The Silurian thins in like manner on the eastern flank of the coal basin as the crest of the Cincinnati arch is approached, and it is along this thinning edge that such fields as the LeGrande, Logsdon Valley, Magnolia, Bowling Green and the Barren County pools were developed. A number of wells were drilled around these old pools in an effort to extend them, some of which were successful. The wells listed this year in Larue, Hardin, Barren, Hart and Warren Counties were drilled in the search for other such fields.

Jan 1, 1944

By Louise Barton Freeman, Coleman D. Hunter

The total production of oil in Kentucky during the year 1943 reached 7,010,776 bbl., which is more than at any time since 1930. Of this total, 5,287,659 bbl. was produced from the counties west of the Cincinnati arch, 692,359 bbl. from the 18 new pools opened during the year, and 3,260,765 from the Smith Mills pool, which was discovered in August of 1942. This is an important increase in western Kentucky in spite of the low price of crude, and demonstrates effectively the desire of the industry to cooperate in meeting the increased demands made by the war. Western Kentucky Two deep tests were drilled in the Kentucky portion of the Mississippi Embayment this year. Both were drilled to test the St. Peter. One well, drilled in Marshall County by the Adams Oil and Gas Co., did not encounter any St. Peter sandstone but drilled 650 ft. of formation below the position of the St. Peter and above the true Knox dolomite. The other well, in Ballard County, was reported to have tested the St. Peter and to have been temporarily abandoned at 3069 ft. At this depth the well probably was stopped in about the same formation as the Marshall County well. No accurate information is available on the Ballard County well. Several new producing areas were added to the list of fields in the western Kentucky coal basin, in Daviess, Henderson, McLean, Ohio, Union and Webster Counties. The Smith Mills pool was enlarged and production was found in the McClosky (Ste. Genevieve) in addition to the Cypress sandstone from which much of the earlier production had been obtained. There was some interest during the year in testing the Devonian and Silurian formations in the area south and east of the western Kentucky coal basin. In the fall of 1943, a 15 to 20-bbl. well was drilled in Allen County and two more wells are now being drilled. The production was obtained from within a few feet of the base of the Chattanooga black shale, probably in the upper Silurian. One well in Simpson County was drilled completely through the Silurian section before it was abandoned. Several wells were drilled in Logan, Todd and Christian Counties to test the Devonian where it is thinned by removal of the upper formations before deposition of the Chattanooga shale. None of these wells was successful but several other locations are now being tested. The Silurian thins in like manner on the eastern flank of the coal basin as the crest of the Cincinnati arch is approached, and it is along this thinning edge that such fields as the LeGrande, Logsdon Valley, Magnolia, Bowling Green and the Barren County pools were developed. A number of wells were drilled around these old pools in an effort to extend them, some of which were successful. The wells listed this year in Larue, Hardin, Barren, Hart and Warren Counties were drilled in the search for other such fields.

Jan 1, 1944

By William H. Spice

For the year 1943, exploratory drilling in South Central Texas continued on the sharp decline that started during 1942. Of the 3 counties comprising this district, as now revised to include the same area as is covered by District No. I, Oil and Gas Division, Railroad Commission of Texas, I5 counties are producing oil or gas. Only 29 exploratory wells were drilled during 1943, as compared with 51 exploratory wells in 1942, or a decrease of over 40 per cent. One new oil field and one new gas field were discovered during the year and a new horizon was discovered in an existing oil field. This cornpares with two new oil fields and an extension to an existing gas field in 1942. The one new oil field, South Washburn, in southeastern La Salle County, was discovered by Quintana Petroleum Corporation's No. I-D South Texas indicate in April 1943, flowing 4 bbl. per day, 48" A.P.I. gravity oil with an estimated 4 million cubic feet of gas from Wilcox sand at 6030 ft. This well i's the result of an extensive seismograph survey of the area. It is about 434 miles southwest of the same company's Green Branch field and by the end of the year one dry hole had been drilled to the southwest of this discovery. The one new gas field, which was not named, was located in eastern McMullen County by Edwin M. Jones' No. 102 Ezzell, in November 1943, for an estimated 8 million cubic feet of gas from shallow Jackson sand at 1222 ft. NO addi- tional wells have been drilled in this area, which may also be considered as an extension to the South Calliham field. The one new producing horizon was discovered in the South Campana field in southeastern McMullen County, by Argo Oil Corporation's No. 2-G Edrington, in January 1943, flowing 55 bbl. per day, 21' A.P.I. gravity oil with 40 per cent water from Government wells sand at 2609 feet. None of these discoveries were of major importance and subsequent development in these new areas has proved to be disappointing. Produc'tion for the district during 1943 totaled approximately 6,985,000 bbl. from about 3430 producing wells. This is an increase in production of about 5 per cent over 1942, but a decrease in producing wells of about 10 per cent under the number of wells producing in 1942 for the same district. Average production per well was 5.4 bbl. during 1943 as against 4.8 bbl. during 1942. Approximately 5,320,000 hhl. of this total production, or 76 per cent, was produced by the four Edwards lime fields, Luling, Branyon, Salt Flat, and Darst Creek, which are from 22 to 14 years old. The remaining production came from the 43 other active oil fields in the district. Drilling in the proven fields maintained approximately the same level as for 1942, with a total of 36 wells drilled. Of these operations, 21 were oil wells, one was a gas well and 14 were dry holes. This is a slightly better proportion of producers than for 1942. Washburn field had the greatest number of new producing wells drilled during the year, with a total of 10.

Jan 1, 1944

By William H. Spice

For the year 1943, exploratory drilling in South Central Texas continued on the sharp decline that started during 1942. Of the 3 counties comprising this district, as now revised to include the same area as is covered by District No. I, Oil and Gas Division, Railroad Commission of Texas, I5 counties are producing oil or gas. Only 29 exploratory wells were drilled during 1943, as compared with 51 exploratory wells in 1942, or a decrease of over 40 per cent. One new oil field and one new gas field were discovered during the year and a new horizon was discovered in an existing oil field. This cornpares with two new oil fields and an extension to an existing gas field in 1942. The one new oil field, South Washburn, in southeastern La Salle County, was discovered by Quintana Petroleum Corporation's No. I-D South Texas indicate in April 1943, flowing 4 bbl. per day, 48" A.P.I. gravity oil with an estimated 4 million cubic feet of gas from Wilcox sand at 6030 ft. This well i's the result of an extensive seismograph survey of the area. It is about 434 miles southwest of the same company's Green Branch field and by the end of the year one dry hole had been drilled to the southwest of this discovery. The one new gas field, which was not named, was located in eastern McMullen County by Edwin M. Jones' No. 102 Ezzell, in November 1943, for an estimated 8 million cubic feet of gas from shallow Jackson sand at 1222 ft. NO addi- tional wells have been drilled in this area, which may also be considered as an extension to the South Calliham field. The one new producing horizon was discovered in the South Campana field in southeastern McMullen County, by Argo Oil Corporation's No. 2-G Edrington, in January 1943, flowing 55 bbl. per day, 21' A.P.I. gravity oil with 40 per cent water from Government wells sand at 2609 feet. None of these discoveries were of major importance and subsequent development in these new areas has proved to be disappointing. Produc'tion for the district during 1943 totaled approximately 6,985,000 bbl. from about 3430 producing wells. This is an increase in production of about 5 per cent over 1942, but a decrease in producing wells of about 10 per cent under the number of wells producing in 1942 for the same district. Average production per well was 5.4 bbl. during 1943 as against 4.8 bbl. during 1942. Approximately 5,320,000 hhl. of this total production, or 76 per cent, was produced by the four Edwards lime fields, Luling, Branyon, Salt Flat, and Darst Creek, which are from 22 to 14 years old. The remaining production came from the 43 other active oil fields in the district. Drilling in the proven fields maintained approximately the same level as for 1942, with a total of 36 wells drilled. Of these operations, 21 were oil wells, one was a gas well and 14 were dry holes. This is a slightly better proportion of producers than for 1942. Washburn field had the greatest number of new producing wells drilled during the year, with a total of 10.

Jan 1, 1944

By G. D. Cremer, J. J. Cordiano

ALUMINUM powder is a well-known article of commerce and in various forms has been marketed widely for use in paint, for pyrotechnic purposes and for exothermic mixtures. For a number of reasons, how- ever, aluminum powder has not been employed extensively in powder metallurgy, although a great many proposals along this line have been offered. Aluminum and aluminum-alloy powders oxidize readily upon exposure to air and the thin film of oxide (or hydroxide) thus formed is highly refractory, in that ordinary gaseous reducing agents such as hydrogen or carbon monoxide do not reduce the oxide to metal at temperatures below the melting point of aluminum. It has been thought that the presence of these films of oxide on aluminum particles would interfere markedly in powder metallurgical work and a number of suggestions have been made, either for preventing the formation of the film through the production of the powders in inert or reducing atmospheres, or for the removal of the oxide by means of powerful reducing agents, including "nascent" or atomic hydrogen released from metal hydrides. 4 second and more serious difficulty in the use of aluminum and aluminum-alloy powders in powder metallurgy resides in the fact that during compression such powders tend to adhere or cold-weld to the die walls, thus interfering with the formation and ejection of a compact. A third difficulty, which has been encountered only with aluminum-alloy powders, is their hardness when compared with elemental aluminum. Certain of these powders are susceptible to age- hardening, which further hinders the formation of strong green compacts. These conditions are particularly true of atomized aluminum-alloy powders. Even in the annealed condition, plastic deformation of alloy powders under pressure is low when compared with unalloyed powders. This fact, coupled with the lower corrosion resistance of the alloy powders, is probably the significant factor in our failure to obtain strong sintered pieces. METHODS OF PRODUCING THE POWER Many methods have been proposed for manufacture of aluminum powder, only a few of which are used commercially. Several of the more important processes include: (I) atomization of the molten metal; (2) mechanical pulverization and other types of comminution; and (3) graining, in which molten aluminum is stirred during freezing. For pigment and certain pyrotechnic uses aluminum flake powder is desirable, because of its greater proportion of surface to volume; and large quantities of such material are made by a procedure that involves stamping or ball milling. In making flake intended for use as pigment,

Jan 1, 1943

By B. M. Larsen, T. E. Brower

IN an earlier paper1 we discussed a simple, rapid method of taking samples of liquid steel and analyzing them for oxygen, which, though possibly not absolutely accurate (as is likewise true of all other methods), certainly yields results that are satisfactorily consistent. Accordingly, samples from hundreds of heats in different shops were analyzed for oxygen, with results sufficient in number to be handled statistically and permit estimation of some general trends. Measurements were made in acid as well as in basic open hearths, throughout the refining period, to learn how stirring, blocking, adding ore or lime or sand, affects the oxygen content of the bath; we also followed the changes brought about by tapping, teeming, and deoxidizing. Some of these results, discussed in an earlier paper.2 bring out the dominant role of the carbon-oxygen reaction in regulating degree of oxidation both of metal and of slag, also the marked variability of concentration of dissolved oxygen [0] in excess of that which would be in equilibrium with carbon and with carbon monoxide at a partial pressure of one atmosphere. As a logical beginning on this complex problem, we take up in the present paper the variability of this excess oxygen, ?[O], when other factors are as constant as they ever are in open-hearth operation; namely, toward the end of the refining period, when the bath may be regarded as in the comparatively steady state it approaches in absence of disturbing factors. This condition was chosen because by that time the significant reactions, except carbon oxidation, between slag and metal have come to substantial equilibrium; this facilitates interpretation of the complex situation and thus permits more definite conclusions to be drawn. This excess concentration of oxygen, ?[0], in the metal is needed, of course, to make the steelmaking process go at a reasonable rate; alternatively it may be regarded as a measure of the virtual pressure increment above one atmosphere, or of the degree of supersaturation, of carbon monoxide in the metal. According to our measurements, the excess concentration ?[O] in liquid steel varies from about 0.009 to 0.035 per cent oxygen by weight. It is quite sensitive to change of conditions, being altered temporarily by operations such as stirring with green poles, additions of ore, lime, or sand; but as the disturbance works itself out, it resumes a level within the intermediate range characteristic of the steady state. The conditions most common in average furnace practice are covered by the following : [ ] as in a reasonably steady state-that is, when it is boiling normally, is at proper temperature with a well-shaped slag, and has been free from disturbing effects during the preceding half hour-?[O] returns from

Jan 1, 1946

Jan 1, 1970

By Morris Steinberg, John Wulff, Robert Kamm

IN powder metallurgy it has often been observed that shrinkage may occur in one direction and growth in another during sintering. Even in long-time sintering experiments the rate of shrinkage may be different in different parts of the compact. In the fabrication of some parts requiring a constant permeability it is even questionable in some cases whether pressing from one direction should be attempted. These observations require for their interpretation a more detailed study of green or pressed density than has heretofore been available. Usually average density measurements of the whole compact are made and in some cases carefully cut sections are measured. A different approach to the problem was first mentioned by Rakowski1 and also used by Balshin.2 Balshin's diagram is reproduced in Fig r and schematically shows the result of pressing three layers of metal powder with fine intervening layers of graphite. The retarding effect of the die walls and a qualitative example of the density distribution is evident. More quantitative information about the distribution of density within a cold-pressed powder compact would be useful in showing the variation in density in compacts as influenced by the type of powder, shape of die, lubrication during the process, and other variables. Furthermore, information about the cracking of cold-pressed compacts may be obtained from an analysis of the stress distribution within a powder compact, and some information about the stress distribution can be obtained in turn from the density and strain distributions. A more detailed report on some of the present experiments appears in reference 3. PRESENT INVESTIGATION In order to ascertain the density gradients in cold-pressed metal powders, a deformable lead grid within the powder was employed. After pressing in cylindrical dies the ejected compact was radiographed, giving a pattern of the deformed grid. From the radiograph density and deformation from point to point is readily measured. From the radiograph strain distribution and stress trajectories were also determined. The latter also permits the determination of the coefficient of friction at the die wall. This technique indicates that the densest part of a compact pressed from one side is at the top outer circumference and the least dense region at the bottom circumference near the stationary plunger. For some heights of compacts the density at the axis is such that the lower density is at the top rather than at the bottom. So irregular a density distribution is due primarily to die-wall friction. As the ratio of diameter to height of compact is increased the die walls play a correspond¬ingly smaller role. More uniform density

Jan 1, 1947

By John T. Galey

A combination of two factors in addition to the current Federal drilling and price regulations reduced by 120 from I942 the number of new wells completed in southwestern Pennsylvania during the year. No new prospective area was found comparable to the Armbrust gas pool, Westmoreland Co., which accounted for a seventh of the last year's drilling, and it is considered doubtful whether, even if such a field had been discovered, the drilling contractors, who have been seriously affected by the manpower shortage, could have drilled many more wells than they did during the year. New wells totaling 445 were completed for a combined footage of over 1,250,000 Dry holes numbered 131 and had a footage of nearly 400,000. Old wells drilled deeper total 55, of which 17 were found nonproductive. Shallow Development Oil Oil completions yielded an initial of only slightly over one hundred barrels from 21 wells for about the same per well average as that of a year ago. However, 65 bbl. of this total came from two wells in two new strikes. The footage drilled of nearly 33,000 gives an average of nearly I00 ft. less per well than a year ago. Two old wells drilled deeper had a combined initial of only 4 bbl. The largest oil well of the year, 40 bbl., was found in the Speechley (U. Dev.) sand at a depth of 3492 ft. in German township, Fayette County. The location is several miles east of the nearest oil production hut as the area that could be occupied by a pool is fairly well delimited by drilling, the extent of this production would not appear to be large. The other notable oil production was found in the Dunkard (Penna.) sand, Cumberland township, Greene County, at a depth of 1065 ft. Here the first well had an initial of g bbl. and the second 25 bbl. However, a third proved dry, and as this area is also delimited by drilling, the pool doubtless will be of small area. Gas Gas completions yielded an initial of slightly over one hundred million cubic feet per day and new wells, totaling 303, account for all but four million of this volume. Old wells drilled deeper, numbering 35, found gas. The per well average in new drilling of approximately 320 M cu. ft. is nearly 165 M cu. ft. less than a year ago and the total footage is slightly over 830,000, which is about a quarter of a million feet less than in 1942. Average rock pressure of new completions is approximately 365 lb. per sq. in. The entire volume of new production is from the Upper Devonian or higher stratigraphic horizons. In Allegheny County, the grestest activity was in Forward and Plum townships. Wells there account for more than one half the completions. One large well was drilled in Forward township and an open flow of 3.623 million cubic feet was found in an old Gantz (U. Dev.) sand area. The top of the sand was encountered

Jan 1, 1944

By John T. Galey

A combination of two factors in addition to the current Federal drilling and price regulations reduced by 120 from I942 the number of new wells completed in southwestern Pennsylvania during the year. No new prospective area was found comparable to the Armbrust gas pool, Westmoreland Co., which accounted for a seventh of the last year's drilling, and it is considered doubtful whether, even if such a field had been discovered, the drilling contractors, who have been seriously affected by the manpower shortage, could have drilled many more wells than they did during the year. New wells totaling 445 were completed for a combined footage of over 1,250,000 Dry holes numbered 131 and had a footage of nearly 400,000. Old wells drilled deeper total 55, of which 17 were found nonproductive. Shallow Development Oil Oil completions yielded an initial of only slightly over one hundred barrels from 21 wells for about the same per well average as that of a year ago. However, 65 bbl. of this total came from two wells in two new strikes. The footage drilled of nearly 33,000 gives an average of nearly I00 ft. less per well than a year ago. Two old wells drilled deeper had a combined initial of only 4 bbl. The largest oil well of the year, 40 bbl., was found in the Speechley (U. Dev.) sand at a depth of 3492 ft. in German township, Fayette County. The location is several miles east of the nearest oil production hut as the area that could be occupied by a pool is fairly well delimited by drilling, the extent of this production would not appear to be large. The other notable oil production was found in the Dunkard (Penna.) sand, Cumberland township, Greene County, at a depth of 1065 ft. Here the first well had an initial of g bbl. and the second 25 bbl. However, a third proved dry, and as this area is also delimited by drilling, the pool doubtless will be of small area. Gas Gas completions yielded an initial of slightly over one hundred million cubic feet per day and new wells, totaling 303, account for all but four million of this volume. Old wells drilled deeper, numbering 35, found gas. The per well average in new drilling of approximately 320 M cu. ft. is nearly 165 M cu. ft. less than a year ago and the total footage is slightly over 830,000, which is about a quarter of a million feet less than in 1942. Average rock pressure of new completions is approximately 365 lb. per sq. in. The entire volume of new production is from the Upper Devonian or higher stratigraphic horizons. In Allegheny County, the grestest activity was in Forward and Plum townships. Wells there account for more than one half the completions. One large well was drilled in Forward township and an open flow of 3.623 million cubic feet was found in an old Gantz (U. Dev.) sand area. The top of the sand was encountered

Jan 1, 1944

By John V. Beall

With some difficulty we framed the picture of the village on the mountain getting in the railroad bridge and tunnel at the base. It was a charming scene of red-tile roofs on a green mountain in the golden autumn sunshine with the black hole of the railroad tunnel looking like something out of the movie, "The Train." We clicked the shutter, advanced the film and started back to our rented Audi. At which point there was a hail from the other side of the railroad bridge. A man in uniform was brandishing an object in the air which looked suspiciously like a rifle. We peered around. We were the only other persons in view. He must be yelling at us. He was now closing the distance at a brisk, determined gait but was still 100 yards away. The car was handy but the road was straight, paralleling the railroad tracks for some distance. We dismissed the idea of running for it. Who knows, he might shoot. When he came up we didn't have much of a conversation because it had taken us a week to learn three words of Yugoslavian-zhiveli, long life, huhvalla, thank you, and schlivavitza, the national drink (plum brandy). None of these seemed appropriate. We got the Idea that photographs of railroad tunnels and bridges were prohibited. The guard, for such he seemed to be, took the Audi plate number, administered a last scowling reprimand and stalked off. This incident was the only one in a 15-day visit to Yugoslavia which we would have associated with "Iron Curtain restrictions."

Jan 1, 1970

By C. P. Karr

FOR several years, the Bureau of Standards has been working in cooperation with an Advisory Committee on non-ferrous metals on various phases of the production and testing of zinc bronzes. The work has dealt, especially with the type of metal known as "Admiralty bronze" in England and as "Government bronze" in this country and consisting of 88 copper, 10 tin, and 2 zinc. Several reports have been made on this subject and these should be considered in connection with this paper.1 FIRST SERIES OF FIVE FOUNDRY TESTS A very brief summary of the first series of five foundry tests has been made,2 but for the sake of clearness the results are given here in different form. The five foundries cooperating in this investigation were: Ohio Brass Co., Mansfield, Ohio; Titanium Alloy Mfg. Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.; Packard Motor Car Co., Syracuse, N. Y.; National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio; Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. The object of the work was to determine whether uniform results could be obtained with this alloy in different foundries working under definite instructions. One of the participating foundries prepared, from virgin metal, a stock of ingots of the composition 88 copper, 10 tin, 2 zinc, and at the same time poured nine test bars from this melt of virgin metal. The results of the physical tests of these bars are shown in Table 1. Examination of this table shows that the highest and most nearly uniform results were obtained when the virgin metal was cast flat in chill molds and the lowest and most variable results were encountered when it was cast vertical in green-sand molds. In this, as in all other tables, the mean

Jan 9, 1919

By Henry Louis

IT can scarcely be considered a matter of doubt, in the present state of our knowledge, that the existence of, at any rate, two well-marked allotropic modifications of gold can be recognized, namely (a), the ordinary, yellow variety, and (b) the red, brown or purple, non-lustrous, amorphous variety. There are, indeed, not wanting indications that still other allotropic forms may be capable of existing. It is, for instance, possible that the green colors of gold obtained under certain conditions, or the black powder produced when the alloy of gold with potassium is decomposed by water, may represent further allotropic modifications, although this proposition is open to doubt. It call scarcely be pretended that the two first-named varieties have been absolutely isolated, yet it is, perhaps, quite permissible to speak of the ordinary and the amorphous modifications as having a proved existence. Ordinary gold is sometimes found crystallized in nature, although never in a state of purity. When gold is melted and, cooled slowly, its surface shows crystalline markings, and the fact that it is capable of crystallizing in the cubic system may be looked upon as established. When gold is produced by precipitation, the form which it assumes is dependent on the conditions of precipitation. G. Rose 1 says that gold precipitated by ferrous sulphate from very dilute solutions is so finely divided that no regular form can be recognized, but in more concentrated solutions the precipitate consists of minute cubes. When oxalic acid is used as a precipitant, the gold is coarser and forms octahedral crystals. J. Thomsen 2 has obtained similar results. Working with dilute and with highly-dilute

Jan 1, 1913

By Clifford Frondel

THE aluminum oxide known as corundum has several varieties that have been used as gem materials since ancient times. These include the red variety called ruby, the blue variety sapphire, and the asteriated types of ruby and sapphire. Asteriated sapphire was known to the ancients under the name of astrios, and descriptions of this gem were given by Pliny and other early writers. The relation of these gem materials to each other as varieties of a single species, corundum, was first clearly established by Haüy in 1805 and J. M. Güthe' in 1809. Natural gem corundum is obtained principally in Ceylon, Siam, Burma, India, and Australia. Star sapphires and rubies always have been highly prized and in recent years have become particu- larly popular in the United States. Natural star rubies of large size and fine quality are extremely rare and rank with large and fine emeralds and diamonds as the most valuable of gem stones. Interest thus attaches to the recent success in commercially synthesizing star sapphires and rubies of a size and perfection unmatched by nature. Corundum was first synthesized as crystals in 1837 by A. Gaudin, who fused alum and aluminum oxide with potassium sulphate. Numerous other syntheses have been reported in more recent years. Summaries of this work are given in Doelter's Hand-buch der Mineralchemie, Mellor's Compreheizsive Treatise of Inorganic Chemistry, and other reference works. The methods employed include the reaction in the gaseous state at high temperatures of halogen compounds of aluminum with water vapor or boric oxide; the crystallization of aluminum oxide from fusion in potassium molybdate, potassium dichrom-ate or borax; and crystallization from highly aluminous silicate melts. Red, blue, or green colored varieties can be obtained by the addition of small

Jan 1, 1955

By H. W. Hitzrot, R. H. Limons, L. V. Fegan

The testing of a new method for measuring pellet-bed temperatures in the traveling-grate or shaft furnace is presented in this paper. This method, using silver-palladium alloy wires as indicators, overcomes disadvantages existing in the methods based on the use of thermocouples which are costly and time-consuming. The authors have developed and tested a new method for measuring pellet-bed temperatures in the traveling-grate or shaft turnace through the use of silver-palladium alloy wires as indicators. This method overcomes the disadvantages of existing methods, which, based on the use of thermocouples, are generally costly and time-consuming. For example, in the case of the traveling-grate furnace, the installation of an instrumented pellet, together with its attached thermocouples, requires stopping the furnace, with resulting loss of production time. As for temperature measurement in the shaft furnace by the existing method, the movement of the shuttle-car feeder seriously interferes with both the actual insertion and the resulting distribution of continuously fed thermocouples. The authors have overcome these difficulties by using, as temperature indicators, a range of silver-palladium alloy wires that can be easily recovered, after firing at any desired location in a pellet furnace. Silver-palladium wires having specific melting points from 2000°F to 2500°F are enclosed in ceramic capsules. Each capsule is placed in a ni-chrome wire basket filled with a sample of green pellets, the baskets being the means for recovering the capsule after firing. After the encapsulated wires have been exposed to the firing cycle, the alloy wires are examined to determine the maximum temperatures attained by the pellet sample. This method gives accurate, rapid determinations of maximum temperatures attained during pellet induration in either the traveling-grate or shaft furnace The new method has the following advantages over existing methods: 1) it is less expensive; 2) no furnace downtime is required; 3) the testing units can, be made in quantity in advance; 4) measurements can be made in rapid succession at all desired locations; 5) measurements of maximum firing temperatures are more accurate; 6) on the basis of points 4 and 5, the new method gives a more reliable picture of the correlation of pellet quality, petrographic textures and maximum temperatures, thus providing a more effective quality-control tool. A disadvantage of the method is, of course, that the measurements are not continuous and only maximum temperatures are determined. TEST PROGRAM Preparation of Materials: CALIBRATION OF ALLOYS - In the following discussion the term "bead point" (see Fig. 1) refers to the temperature at which each alloy begins to melt and form a bead. Fig. 2 gives the bead point curve for silver-palladium alloys. Before the alloys are used in plant tests, the bead point of each alloy should be determined in the laboratory to verify the alloy compositions. Once a given alloy has been calibrated, it can be

Jan 1, 1965

By C. S. Herzig

In the Engineering and Mining Journal of Jan. 27, 1900, there appeared an article by Fred T. Greene, describing a method of measuring stopes by the use of strings, a clinometer and a tape. In the early part of 1899 I had occasion to use a somewhat similar method, for the purpose of accurately ascertaining the volume of a very irregular drift connecting two mines. This drift was an important factor in a lawsuit for $150,000, in which it was necessary to determine accurately the volume originally occupied by the material extracted from the drift. While it is unnecessary to give all details of the controversy, some explanation of the conditions is required for a clear understanding of the following description. This drift was started by the a E." Co. from its workings, in about 7 ft. of ore, and headed toward the " G " property, the plan being to extract all the ore between foot- and hanging-walls, but to take out nothing but ore. As the " G." workings were approached; the ore-body became very irregular and much thinner. It was, however, very closely followed, and where the drift broke through into the " G." workings, the hole was only 11 inches high by 14 inches wide, or just about the size of a man-hole in a boiler.. Thus, this connection-drift tapered sharply; and the very irregular foot-wall sloped toward the " G." workings, and entered them at a place where the stope was only about 3 ft. high, and the ground had already commenced to cave. It may be added that the ore-body was a nearly flat deposit of lead carbonate in limestone, the ore and gangue being quite soft. I was called upon by the " G." people to make the survey

Jan 1, 1901

By Floyd C. Kelly

A. HUltgren, .Söderfors, Sweden (written discussion*).—From the results obtained in his own experiments as well as those of Austin and of Grube Mr. Kelley derives a general law, expressed tentatively in the following words: "whenever two metals are brought into intimate contact at a temperature at which diffusion takes place, a comparatively rapid, or abnormal, grain growth results." It is suggested that,, in order adequately to represent the facts, this definition should he restricted by the following qualifications: a and b are the two metals, b diffusing into a. A. At the temperature in question a should exist as phase a 1 having a limited solubility for b. B. The supply of b by diffusion should be sufficient, in view of the rate of diffusion into a 1, to increase the concentration of b above the saturation value in a 1 so as to cause a new phase a2 to form. (7. The phase a2 should have a range of solubility for 6, thus rendering continued diffusion possible. D. In order that the columnar grains may be preserved in the structure the phase a2 should, of course, not suffer transformation on cooling. The phenomenon thus defined may be described as progressive transformation by diffusion. Its mechanism would appear to he as follows: Fig. 17 shows a portion of the equilibrium diagram a-b, Fig. 18 the distribution of b in solution after various periods of diffusion, Fig. 19 represents the structure in cross-section of a cylindrical rod of a at the end of heating period 3. 1. The first effect of diffusion of b into a will be to establish a concentration gradient in phase a1 (1, Fig. 18). When the saturation value for the temperature of the experiment (m, Fig. 17) is reached at the surface, nuclei of, a2 of composition n will form here, and later develop into a continuous layer. Assuming that diffusion proceeds without irregularities and that transformation at any point sets in without lag—i. e., in the moment saturation is exceeded—the transformation a1-a2 will advance inwards on a cylindrical surface concentric with the surface of the rod. The discontinuity of composition at the transformation surface in the position it happens to have at the end of the treatment (3, Fig. 18) will be preserved at room temperature, if the cooling is not particularly slow, and be recorded in the structure as a marked, smooth line, in agreement with Grube's and the author's observations. The shape of the distribution curves in Fig. 18 is also corroborated by the analyses given by Grube. 2. During diffusion, since the secondary phase a2 is always in immediate contact with the saturated part of the primary phase a1, there should be very little lag in the transformation. This means that the first a2 grains formed should grow in preference to the formation of independent nuclei; in other words, columnar growth results. It does not seem necessary to assume, with Green,' whose conception of the phenomenon

Jan 1, 1929

By Floyd C. Kelly

A. HUltgren, .Söderfors, Sweden (written discussion*).—From the results obtained in his own experiments as well as those of Austin and of Grube Mr. Kelley derives a general law, expressed tentatively in the following words: "whenever two metals are brought into intimate contact at a temperature at which diffusion takes place, a comparatively rapid, or abnormal, grain growth results." It is suggested that,, in order adequately to represent the facts, this definition should he restricted by the following qualifications: a and b are the two metals, b diffusing into a. A. At the temperature in question a should exist as phase a 1 having a limited solubility for b. B. The supply of b by diffusion should be sufficient, in view of the rate of diffusion into a 1, to increase the concentration of b above the saturation value in a 1 so as to cause a new phase a2 to form. (7. The phase a2 should have a range of solubility for 6, thus rendering continued diffusion possible. D. In order that the columnar grains may be preserved in the structure the phase a2 should, of course, not suffer transformation on cooling. The phenomenon thus defined may be described as progressive transformation by diffusion. Its mechanism would appear to he as follows: Fig. 17 shows a portion of the equilibrium diagram a-b, Fig. 18 the distribution of b in solution after various periods of diffusion, Fig. 19 represents the structure in cross-section of a cylindrical rod of a at the end of heating period 3. 1. The first effect of diffusion of b into a will be to establish a concentration gradient in phase a1 (1, Fig. 18). When the saturation value for the temperature of the experiment (m, Fig. 17) is reached at the surface, nuclei of, a2 of composition n will form here, and later develop into a continuous layer. Assuming that diffusion proceeds without irregularities and that transformation at any point sets in without lag—i. e., in the moment saturation is exceeded—the transformation a1-a2 will advance inwards on a cylindrical surface concentric with the surface of the rod. The discontinuity of composition at the transformation surface in the position it happens to have at the end of the treatment (3, Fig. 18) will be preserved at room temperature, if the cooling is not particularly slow, and be recorded in the structure as a marked, smooth line, in agreement with Grube's and the author's observations. The shape of the distribution curves in Fig. 18 is also corroborated by the analyses given by Grube. 2. During diffusion, since the secondary phase a2 is always in immediate contact with the saturated part of the primary phase a1, there should be very little lag in the transformation. This means that the first a2 grains formed should grow in preference to the formation of independent nuclei; in other words, columnar growth results. It does not seem necessary to assume, with Green,' whose conception of the phenomenon

Jan 1, 1929

By C. P. Karr

For several years, the Bureau of Standards has been working in cooperation with an Advisory Committee on non-ferrous metals on various phases of the production and testing of zinc bronzes. The work has dealt especially with the type of metal known as "Admiralty bronze" in England and as "Government bronze" in this country and consisting of 88 copper, 10 tin, and 2 zinc. Several reports have been made on this subject and these should be considered in connection with this paper.' First Series of Five Foundry Tests A very brief summary of the first series of five foundry tests has been made12 but for the sake of clearness the results are given here in different form. The five foundries cooperating in this investigation were: Ohio Brass Co., Mansfield, Ohio; Titanium Alloy Mfg. Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.; Packard Motor Car Co., Detroit, Mich.; National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio; Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. The object of the work was to determine whether uniform results could be obtained with this alloy in different foundries working under definite instructions. One of the participating foundries prepared, from virgin metal, a stock of ingots of the composition 88 copper, 10 tin, 2 zinc, and at the same time poured nine test bars from this melt of virgin metal. The results of the physical tests of these bars are shown in Table 1. Examination of this table shows that the highest and most nearly uniform results were obtained when the virgin metal was cast flat in chill molds and the lowest and- most variable results were encountered when it was cast, vertical in green-sand molds. In this, as in all other tables, the mean deviation was obtained by the usual method of taking the average of the differences of the individual values from the average values.

Jan 1, 1921

By William R. Webster

In view of the great interest now taken in the tests of castiron and details of foundry practice, with the number of investigators at work, and recent improvements in the methods of research, it would seem that the time is ripe to attempt the solution of some of the many problems with which iron founders have to contend. Recent papers and discussions on these subjects* have opened up s large field for investigation, and have emphasized the importance of many considerations generally overlooked. With the view of promoting a comprehensive and systematic discussion, I have attempted to tabulate, in conveilient form, some of the most important points for investigation, on the general plan suggested, with such good results, by our former President, H. M. Howe, for the discussion on the Physics of Steel, at the Virginia Beach meeting, last year. This table can, no doubt, be modified or enlarged to advantage, and put in shape to serve as a guide or reminder to all who are interested in this line of work. Suggested Lines for Discussion and Investigation. I.—Correspondence between chemical composition and melting point, fluidity, shrinkage, fracture, chill, micro-structure, and other physical properties. II.—Influence of: I. Cupola mixture, use of steel and other scrap, oxidized or clean material, 2. Manner of melting, flux, etc., 3. Casting temperature, A. Fracture. 4. Manner of handling melted metal and B. Micro-structure. method of casting, C. Physical properties. 5. Size and form of casting, D. Shrinkage. 6. Kind of mould, green sand (under dif- on 1 E. Chill. ferent conditions of ramming, amount F. Residual stress. of moisture, and skin-dried), dry sand, G. Condition and quan loam, and chills, tity of carbon and 7. Rate and mode of cooling castings, other elements. 8. Manner and temperature of heating for annealing, 9. Additions of nickel or aluminum,

Jan 1, 1896