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By D. R. Mitchell

MEETING for the thirteenth time in New York as part of the five-ring circus known as the Annual Meeting A.I.M.E., the Coal Division experienced a wartime boom in attendance. Technical sessions were crowded and whereas 65 seats were set up for the annual luncheon meeting of the Division over 100 members showed up, many of whom had to be fed elsewhere. Possibly the Coal Division should adopt "13" as its lucky number. Discussions at technical sessions, formal and informal, were lively. Those papers containing material directly concerned with the war, or containing information that might be usable for war industries, were enthusiastically received. Some criticism was made in regard to the present method of handling discussions and it was suggested that better success would be had in getting discussions in the record by the use of hired reporters. This is being considered by the executive committee of the Coal Division.

Jan 1, 1943

By J. W. Halley, T. S. Washburn

Rimming steels derive their name from their action during solidification in the molds. As a result of incomplete deoxidation, gas is evolved during freezing, and the metal has a characteristic rolling action. The metal rises along the mold walls and descends in the center of the ingot. This action keeps the top of the ingot open and the advancing rim of solid metal can be seen. The rim grows until the rolling action is insufficient to prevent the top of the ingot from freezing or until the action is stopped by capping the ingot with a heavy plate. The violence of the reaction and its characteristics, such as growth or drop in the molds, are determined by the composition, the furnace practice, and the deoxidation in the ladle and in the molds. Though rimming steels represent a large proportion of the amount of plain carbon steel made, they have received comparatively little attention in the technical literature. The manufacture of rimming steels has been described by Hibbard,1,2 Fleming,3 Pierce4 and Jackson.5 The reactions occurring during rimming have been considered from the theoretical point of view by Chipman and Samarin.? The structure of rimmed-steel ingots has been discussed by Nead and one of the present authors6 Meyer: in studying segregation, investigated the distribution of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus in rimmed-steel ingots by analyzing the rim and core of blooms. In their studies of segregation, the Joint Committee of the Iron and Steel Institute and the British Iron and Steel Federation9 studied distribution in one billet and one ingot of rimmed steel. A detailed study of the distribution throughout the ingot has not been published. The present investigation was undertaken to determine accurately the distribution of carbon, manganese and sulphur in normal rimmed ingots and the general distribution of other common elements present. The study included some work on the effect of pouring conditions and furnace practice on the distribution, though there is still much to be done in this direction. The structure of a rimmed ingot that has been split by dynamiting and a schematic diagram of the zones in the ingot are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Jan 1, 1938

By J. W. Halley, T. S. Washburn

Rimming steels derive their name from their action during solidification in the molds. As a result of incomplete deoxidation, gas is evolved during freezing, and the metal has a characteristic rolling action. The metal rises along the mold walls and descends in the center of the ingot. This action keeps the top of the ingot open and the advancing rim of solid metal can be seen. The rim grows until the rolling action is insufficient to prevent the top of the ingot from freezing or until the action is stopped by capping the ingot with a heavy plate. The violence of the reaction and its characteristics, such as growth or drop in the molds, are determined by the composition, the furnace practice, and the deoxidation in the ladle and in the molds. Though rimming steels represent a large proportion of the amount of plain carbon steel made, they have received comparatively little attention in the technical literature. The manufacture of rimming steels has been described by Hibbard,1,2 Fleming,3 Pierce4 and Jackson.5 The reactions occurring during rimming have been considered from the theoretical point of view by Chipman and Samarin.? The structure of rimmed-steel ingots has been discussed by Nead and one of the present authors6 Meyer: in studying segregation, investigated the distribution of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus in rimmed-steel ingots by analyzing the rim and core of blooms. In their studies of segregation, the Joint Committee of the Iron and Steel Institute and the British Iron and Steel Federation9 studied distribution in one billet and one ingot of rimmed steel. A detailed study of the distribution throughout the ingot has not been published. The present investigation was undertaken to determine accurately the distribution of carbon, manganese and sulphur in normal rimmed ingots and the general distribution of other common elements present. The study included some work on the effect of pouring conditions and furnace practice on the distribution, though there is still much to be done in this direction. The structure of a rimmed ingot that has been split by dynamiting and a schematic diagram of the zones in the ingot are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Jan 1, 1938

By Philip D. Wilson

The mines of the Calumet & Arizona Mining Co. are situated in the Warren Mining District, Cochise County, Arizona, between Bisbee and Warren and adjoin those of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Co. and the Shattuck Arizona Copper Co. Paleozoic 1imestones.of considerable thickness have been intruded by granite porphyry. A great stock of the intrusive outcrops boldly near the city of Bisbee and is known as Sacramento Hill. From this central core the porphyry has tongued out into the limestone for many thousands of feet as dikes and sills of irregular shape and variable dimensions. Churn drilling has recently developed a large tonnage of secondarily enriched copper ore in the main porphyry mass of Sacramento Hill. While some ore has been found in porphyry in other parts of the district, it is relatively unimportant compared with that which occurs in the Paleozoic limestone as irregular lenses replacing favorable beds near porphyry contacts or associated with well-marked fracture zones often many hundreds of feet away from the intrusive. In a zone extending from Sacramento Hill for a distance of from 1,500 to 3,000 ft., the limestone has been extensively metamorphosed and in this contact metamorphic zone the ore occurs through a known vertical thickness of upward of 900 ft. and individual orebodies often show extension in a vertical direction of over 200 ft. At a greater distance from the intrusive stock, the ore occurs as lenses of greater horizontal than vertical dimensions with an average thickness of approximately 30 ft. An exception to this rule is found in the occasional steeply dipping mineralized fractures, almost true tabular veins, which are found long distances a way from the zone of contact metamorphism. The copper was probably introduced during or slightly later than the porphyry intrusion in the form of chalcopyrite and bornite. These primary copper minerals are always associated with pyrite and often occur as rich lenses in a huge mass or shell of pyrite carrying an insignificant percentage of copper. In many instances the copper-bearing solutions were preceded by siliceous solutions and these latter, often persisting during the period of mineralization, have thoroughly indurated the ore-

Jan 1, 1917

By R. C. Hepworth

Heaving in roads built on the Mancos Shale is a serious problem in east-central Utah. Heaves are expressed as local bumps, general rises and severe cracking of the pavement. The heaves usually occur in shale road cuts and generally show a seasonal cycle, which reaches a maximum development in the winter. The presence of certain salts, absorption of moisture and physical properties of the subgrade materials were considered, in Utah, to be the main factors in the heaving mechanism. Work done on similar problems elsewhere and studies conducted by the author indicate that the latter two factors are the most important. Results of this investigation indicate that heaving areas are associated with slaking shale or expansive clays, with and without salts present. Laboratory studies show that the initial moisture content of remolded samples and the desiccation history of un- disturbed samples have a major effect on swelling. Swell tests on compacted samples at various temperatures indicate that water has more influence on swell than temperature, except for samples containing sodium sulphate, which swelled with decreasing temperature. Chloride salts inhibited swelling. Tests on shale cores indicate that the stability of slaking shale can be preserved by maintaining its original moisture content. It is concluded that shales and expansive clays, when exposed in road cuts, become desiccated and are subject to expansion when moisture is subsequently available. The seasonal cycle of heaving may possibly be explained by the annual moisture excess and deficiency. To minimize the problem, freshly exposed shale should be kept wet, and the thickness of the subbase and base courses should be increased. The Utah State Department of Highways has been plagued for many years with a distressed condition that develops in roads constructed on the Mancos Shale. Locally these distressed areas are known as heaves, frost boils and alkali boils. These names refer to the surface expression, time of year

Jan 1, 1965

By A. J. Mortlock

Cobalt and nickel have been diffused at tracer concentrations in gold at several temperatures in the range from approximately 700° to 950°C. The diffusion penetration profiles were determined by a serial sectioning technique in which the gold is first anodized and then the anodic layer is dissolved in acid. In this ulay sections as thin as 250A could be removed reproduci-bly. In all cases, the region close to the specimen surface was characterized by irregular behavior in the sense that the logarithm of concentration was not linear in the square of the penetration distance. In sotne cases, there zuas an indication of the operation of very slow dijfusion in this region, while in others the apparent diffusion coejj'icient was negative. Possible reasons for this anomalous behavior are briefly discussed. In recent years it has been found that the region close to the surface of a metal can sometimes exhibit anomalously slow diffusion characteristics relative to the interior of the metal. One of the best examples of this fact is the work of Styris and omizuka,' who showed that the apparent diffusion coefficient for zinc in the region withi: about 1 p of the free surface of copper was about ,,,, that at deeper penetrations. This result is particularly interesting, because it is free from the possibly complicating effects of low solubility of the diffusing tracer in the solvent metal. In the case of diffusion under conditions of low solubilitjr, interpretaticn of the results in terms of lattice diffusion is difficult because of the enhanced short-circuiting produced by segregation to dislocations.2'3 Measurements by Duhl et 1. suggest that cobalt diffusing in gold may also show a near-surface effect of this type. Once again the solubility is high, so that this result could be of great interest. However, the technique used for analyzing the diffusion penetration zones by Duhl, viz. the counting of residual gamma activity in the specimen following sectioning, appears to have indicated a near-surface effect in a parallel experiment on the self-diffusion of gold reported at the same time. The latter result is known to be spurious, since Kidson5 has demonstrated that self-diffusion in gold does not show this effect. Duhl et 01. also reported some measurements on the diffusion of nickel in gold, but failed to give any data for the near-surface region. As the solubility of nickel in gold is high, such data would also be of special interest. We, therefore, decided to conduct another set of experiments on the diffusion of nickel and cobalt in gold, using a sectioning technique that allows the individual sections to be assayed for solute content and thus gives direct determinations of penetration profiles. Also, by sectioning with an anodizing/stripping tech- nique, very thin layers can be removed and the region close to the surface studied in detail. MATERIALS The gold specimens were supplied as single crystal disks $ in. in diam by a in. high by Monocrystals Co. of Cleveland, Ohio. The gold itself was of spectro-scopic purity, i.e., better than 99.99 pct pure. METHOD Specimen Preparation. One flat end face of each gold crystal was spark planed with a Servomet spark erosion machine set for minimum spark energy. Following this treatment the crystals were preannealed for 2 to 4 days at temperatures of either 400" or 700°C. The three crystals preannealed at 700°C showed signs of recrystallization. The spark-planed end face of each crystal was then coated with the appropriate amount of 63i or 60 radioactive tracer. This deposit was laid down in a simple plating bath containing the as-supplied solution of the radioactive isotope as well as sufficient ammonium oxalate to saturate the solution. Some ammonium oxalate remained undissolved on the floor of the bath for this purpose. During plating further additions of ammonium oxalate were sometimes required to allow the plating to continue satisfactorily, perhaps due to passivation of the undissolved oxalate already present. The thickness of the deposited layer was determined by comparison of the apparent surface activity of the plated specimen with that of a similar specimen having a weighable deposit of the isotope on its end face. Correction for self-absorption of the radiation was made in this calculation. Annealing. The deposited crystals were annealed in a hydrogen atmosphere in sealed silica tubes. During this heat treatment they were supported, active face down, on optically flat silica plates. The temperature was measured with calibrated Pt vs Pt-10 pct Rh thermocouples, and the tabulated values can be taken to be correct to Z°C. All the crystals showed evidence of recrystallization following these heat treatments, suggesting that initially they may not have been good single crystals or had suffered strain during delivery. Concentration Profile Analysis. After annealing, the crystals were sectioned by the anodizing-stripping technique.6 The anodizing involved suspension of the specimen with its cylindrical axis horiz6ntal by a gold wire in a 200-ml beaker containing 1 M Hg304. A cathode in the form of a strip of gold sheet, 2 in. wide and positioned to be in contact with the curved side of the beaker, completely encircled the specimen. An anodizing current of 30 ma, corresponding to a current density of 5 ma per sq cm on the surface of the specimen, was passed for times ranging from 5 to 150 min depending on the thickness of gold to be removed; the solution was stirred continuously during this process. Following this treatment, the specimen

Jan 1, 1969

By W. A. Thatcher

Nearly three years of experience in Spanish Honduras has placed the writer in possession of many facts concerning its resources which may be of interest to the Institute. According to the most trustworthy surveys, Honduras is bounded on the north and east by the Caribbean Sea; southeasterly by the river Segovia (or Wanks), which flows into the Caribbean at a point called Cabo Gracias a Dios (Cape Thanks be to God), long famous as the favorite hiding-place of the celebrated pirate, Morgan ; southwardly by a corner of San Salvador, the Bay of Fonseca, and the Republic of Nicaragua; Guatemala and San Salvador form tile western boundary. It is one of the five republics composing Central America, has a population of about 310,000 and an area of 150,000 square miles, lying between the 13th and 16th degrees of N. latitude, extending from north to south 200 miles, between the Atlantic and Pacific, and 400 miles from east to west, between Guatemala and Cape Gracias a Dios. It is composed of 13 States or Departments, under one common law. The principal resources are valuable woods, hides, rubber, tobacco, coffee, fruit, cattle, silver and gold. It is of the mineral resources of the country that I will speak, calling attention to the most noted mines, and their relative position to Tegucigalpa, the capital. The introduction of foreign capital into the country dates back about eleven years, and to-day there are at least twenty-five well organized companies.

Jan 1, 1892

By J. E. Berry

AII evaluation is made of the acoustic velocity log for measurement of formation porosity. Plots of field-observer1 velocities vs core-measured porosities of sandstones and limestotnes with inter intergranular porosity show that the velocity log gives a useful measure of porotity, in agreement with published data. A new method of plotting electrical and velocity log data makes it easier to recognize hydrocarbon-water coritnct~ from log darn and to make serni-quantitative estinlates of hydrocarbon saturation. Two examples of this interpretation technique are given. This paper also discusses the various factors that affect acoustic velocity and shows how corrections can be made for some of these factors. INTRODUCTION Although the continuous velocity log was developed primarily as an aid to seismic interpretation, it is finding widespread use for measurement of porosity. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate this use of the log. Results are presented for the velocity-porosity relationship in many sandstones and one limestone. Practical applications of porosity values derived from the velocity log to improve interpretation of electrical surveys are presented. Various parameters which affect velocity in porous media are considered. Porosity, composition, cementa-tion, pressure difference (overburden pressure minus fluid pressure), fluid saturation, and wellability are discussed. Some of the ideas are opinions based on general considerations of well logging problems while others are supported by published data and our own observations. Major conclusions from these studies arc given in the body of the paper and detailed discussions of some of the various factors affecting porosity are given in the Appendix. POROSITY Sandstones The primary factor affecting the velocity of sound in porous media is porosity. Wyllie, et al,1 have reported a time average equation for the relationship between velocity and porosity.* This has found considerable acceptance in the industry. Other relationships between velocity and porosity have been proposed, none of which are entirely satisfactory. It is doubtful that any one relationship will completely describe all situations. We have tried an empirical relationship based on correlating log velocities with core-measured porosities. Measured porosities were averaged over a depth interval equal to the spacing used in recording the velocity logs. The depth range for the information used was from 2,000 to 12,000 ft. Velocity measurements were normalized for the effects of depth and overburden pressure. A detailed discussion of the basis for this normalization is given in the Appendix. The change is usually insignificant and when working with individual formations it can be neglected. All velocity measurements were normalized to a depth of 10,000 ft. The velocity-porosity data for sandstones in Fig. 1 came from 20 wells scattered throughout the Mid-Continent and Gulf Coast areas. The scatter of the data points is attributed to three causes: 1. There is no theoretical basis for expecting an exact velocity vs porosity relationship and it is not possible to correct precisely for the effects of such factors as impurities, grain shape, manner of cementation, etc. Some of these factors are discussed in the Appendix. 2. Porosities measured by core analysis are not necessarily representative of what the velocity log "sees". 3. Inaccuracies appear in the velocity log reading. This is particularly true of velocities from one-receiver logging tools.*" A linear-time curve (time-average equation) is plotted in Fig. 1 along with the best straight line through the points. Velocities used for the linear-time curves were 19,500 ft/sec for the matrix velocity (zero porosity) and 5,500 ft/sec for fluid velocity. For clean sandstones with velocities greater than 10,000 ft/sec, there is little difference between the velocity-porosity and the time-porosity curves. Both curves are well within the scatter of data points. The data points in Fig. 1 were restricted primarily to clean sandstones, using the SP and/or gamma-ray logs as clues to the lithology. Where a lithologic de-

By Franklin G. Pardee

WARTIME depletion of the reserves of iron ore in the Lake Superior region of the grade and character now being shipped down the Lakes was serious. The time has come to take stock of the resources that remain in order to plan our future program of supply for our blast furnaces and protect, as far as possible. the tremendous investment made in the Lake Superior iron mining industry. Hugh M. Roberts and William H. Crago have estimated the reserves of the Lake Superior region in the United States at two billion long tons. These reserve figures are of direct-shipping ore and those concentrates produced by methods now in commercial use or those methods that may be expected in the near future. In their estimate they have assigned 392 million long tons to the Michigan ranges (all reserves in long tons) : 112 million tons for the Gogebic. 140 million tons for the Menominee, and 140 million tons for the Marquette.

Jan 1, 1948

By W. J. Millard

VAGUE rumors and stories have been heard, from time to time, about the diamond and gold deposits of southern Venezuela. It is perhaps appropriate, at this time of revived interest in gold mining, to publish a few facts in regard to this country, which has been undergoing exploration since the fifteenth century. Gold and diamonds are found principally in the State of Bolivar which lies in southeastern Venezuela and is bounded by British Guiana on the east and Brazil on the south (see Fig. 1). The famous Mt. Roraima is situated at a point where these three countries meet in a common point (see Fig. 2). Some gold is also found in the southern part of the territory of Amacuro. Good oil prospects exist in the northern part of this same territory. Diamonds are found on the Caroni river from Rio Paragua to the village of Guri. Another small district is on the headwaters of the Cuyuni river. Quartz veins containing gold are chiefly exploited in

Jan 1, 1931

By D. Harrington

ONE of the main functions of the United States Bureau of Mines is to obtain and disseminate information that will promote safety in and around mines, and the health and safety of employees engaged in mining. Serious health and safety conditions arising out' of contamination of air in metal mines by dust, fumes from explosives and fires, and absorption of oxygen by timber and other causes, led the Bureau of Mines to cooperate with the United States Public Health Service in the study of dust occurrence and ventilation in metal mines in various parts of the country. Dr. A. J. Lanza, of the U. S. Public Health Service, and Edwin Higgins, mining engineer of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, in 1915, made a detailed study in the mines around Joplin, Mo., their reports1 are now available. In 1916, 1917, and 1918, a similar study was made in the Butte, Mont., region by Doctor Lanza and D. Harrington, mining engineer of the Bureau of Mines; the reports of this investigation will be available soon. In 1919, the study was continued in some of the Arizona mines by D. Harrington, of the Bureau of Mines, and G. E. McElroy and Dr. R. A. Koronski, of the U. S. Public Health Service, the underground work being completed in June, 1920; these reports are now being prepared for publication. In the spring of 1920, the scope of the work was extended, with D. Harrington in charge as supervising mining engineer, and short studies made in the mines of the Coeur d' Alenes in Idaho and around Oatman, Ariz. It is hoped soon to extend the work into mines of California, Nevada, Colorado, Michigan, and Minnesota, and ultimately to other states should the mining companies be willing to cooperate.

Jan 2, 1921

By E. W. Cawthorne, R. I. Jaffee, C. M. Craighead

SOLUTION of a solid metal or alloy in a molten metal bath is used daily in melting operations, extractive metallurgical processes, and in brazing. It is generally recognized that temperature, time, agitation, and the composition of the solute metal and the solvent bath all affect solution rate. However, there is little information available in the literature on the kinetics of the process or the relative effect that these variables have on solution rate. In connection with an aluminum brazing study, data on the solution of aluminum in an A1-Si* bath to promote rapid solidification. The chemical analyses were made on drillings taken from the cast plates. The results of this work are listed in Table I. The thermal-analysis data were obtained on 200 gram samples cooled at approximately 1.5" per min. A calibrated chromel-alumel couple was used. The thermal arrests were recorded autographically on a General Electric photoelectric potentiometer recorder. The instrument was calibrated to 22.5 pct. The thermal emf was bucked with a Leeds and Northrup semiprecision potentiometer so that 1 mv represented the full scale of the GE recorder. Referring to Table I, it will be noted that the analytical results tend to be lower than the intended compositions by about 0.3 pct Si in the higher ranges. In view of the known difficulties in obtaining accurate silicon determinations by wet analysis when the silicon content is high and in view of the care that was employed in weighing and preparing the alloys, the intended compositions are believed to be more accurate than the analyses. Furthermore, when the thermal-arrest data are plotted against the intended compositions, a smooth curve is obtained, as shown in Fig. 1. This is not the case when the data are plotted against the analytical results. It will be noted from Table I that the 12.5 pct Si alloy (melt 4) showed a primary arrest at 577.6"C and the eutectic at 576.l°C. The metallographic examination of this chill-cast plate sample showed a small amount of primary silicon. These results, Fig. 1, place the eutectic at slightly less than 12.5 pct Si and are in rather good agreement with the unpublished Hanford data. In all of the subsequent work, the composition of the A1-Si dipping baths was determined by thermal analysis (spread between the primary arrest and the eutectic temperature) employing 12.5 pct Si and 577.2 °C as the composition and temperature of the eutectic. Material Preparation and Selection of the Techniques: At the beginning of this work, it was anticipated that, owing to oxide film present on the surface of the aluminum, difficulty would be encountered in obtaining rapid uniform wetting of aluminum specimens dipped in the A1-Si bath. The following etchants were investigated as possible methods of providing a thin uniform oxide film on the specimen surface: 1—phosphoric acid (H³O4), 2—fluoboric acid (HBFI), 3—sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and 4—hydrofluoric acid (HF). Tests with sheet .specimens (2x½x0.06 in.) of 2s aluminum prepared with these etchants indicated that the fast uniform wetting required for this work could not be obtained if any oxide film existed on the specimen surface. Tests were then conducted by dipping similar specimens etched in 5 pct NaOH and given a thin

Jan 1, 1956

By Zay Jeffries

From the title of this chapter the reader could expect an attempt to outline the anticipated shape of things to come, mineralwise. We have no crystal ball and if we possessed one we could claim no expertness in its use. In the first place no one can tell the future status of man. No one has any way of knowing to what extent peace will prevail, nor to what extent changes may occur in national sovereignties or forms of government or in international relationships. So future man is an uncertainty. Nor can we predict new developments that may result in significant changes in man's status or in the mineral industry or both. If, for example, this chapter had been written in the middle 1930's, nearly everything that has happened since in the field of atomic energy would have been missed. Yet what a vast change this has made in the status of man! Also the changes in the mineral industry have been important. A writer would have been bold indeed had he prophesied that uranium would play such an important role. But we need not confine our foggy vision to the atomic energy field. The steep rise in the use of aluminum, titanium, and germanium reflects the unpredictable in what may be thought of as the more normal pursuits. This should not discourage one from using the past and currently observable trends as bases for limited predictions. To do this, however, it is desirable to make certain assumptions about man's status without even a pretense that these assumptions have a high probability of fulfillment: 1. Only minor changes will occur in the geographical boundaries of the nations of the world. 2. World War III will not take place in the near future. 3. As a consequence of (2), man will not destroy himself by wanton use of atomic weapons. 4. Disarmament will take place, if at all, gradually rather than all at one time. Under the above assumptions the world will enjoy a period of relative peace even though the status may be one of an armed truce. The assump-

Jan 1, 1959

By L. W. Kempf

ALUMINUM alloys, in common with most other metallic alloys, exhibit slight density changes with variations in temper achieved by heat-treatment, which usually are the result of the variation with tem-perature of the solid solubility of the various alloy constituents in the solvent metal. Changes in density are, of course, most marked in conditions that exhibit the maximum variation in solid solubility of the constituents. In aluminum alloys these conditions usually prevail when alloys are quenched from just below the melting point and are subsequently reheated to some lower temperature. Since commercial heat-treatments may be of this type, the density changes, although small (of the order of 0.3 per cent which may be compared with the density change of about 1.5 per cent involved in the transformation, at ordinary temperatures, of gamma to alpha iron during the hardening of steel), may in some specific applications necessitate quantitative con-sideration. This phenomenon has been investigated extensively in the laboratories of the Aluminum Company of America over a period of years. A number of investigators1-5 have observed and measured the density changes accompanying the heat-treatment of aluminum alloys. In general, these changes have not been directly translated to dimensional changes and their significance has been overlooked to some extent by the practical user of aluminum alloys. It is the purpose of this paper to consider some practical aspects of these density and dimensional changes. These density changes were given some consideration in 1917 in connection with the use of aluminum-alloy pistons for aircraft engines. Investigations by Lea and Shakespear were reported in some confidential reports of the British Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Light Alloys

Jan 1, 1936

By Everett Carpenter

THE average daily production of crude oil-in Kansas a1 the beginning of the year was about 71,000 1 bbl. and, at its close, 82,000 bbl.-an increase of 11,000 bbl. per day. The total production for the state during the year was about 28,250,000 bbl., or an average of practically 77,500 bbl. per day for the year. This increase in the production was the result of the discovery of several new pools of high-grade oil. COWLEY AND SUMNER COUNTIES One of the principal factors in bringing the production of the. state back to its former level was the newly discovered pools in western Cowley County. During December, 1923, the Waite Phillips Co. completed its Johnson No. 1 in Sec. 20, T. 33 S., R. 3 E., which opened up the Rainbow pool about 12 miles southwest of Winfield. In this pool, the production comes from the Burbank sand, locally called the "Rainbow," found at a depth of 3200 ft. The sand varies in thickness from 25 to 40 ft. in the seventeen wells completed during the year, and the initial productions ranged from 300 to 3000 bbl. per day of 40° Be. oil. The Rainbow pool is purely a wildcat discovery, for no. rocks suitable for the use of the geologist are present. To determine the geologic conditions, the larger companies core-drilled the Rainbow area immediately after the discovery. The Marland Refining, Co., drilling on the Graham farm in Sec. 9, T. 33, R. 3, failed to find the Burbank sand and continued to the Siliceous lime, often erroneously called the Wilcox, at 3505 ft., where a well with an initial production of 900 bbl. of 40 Be. oil was obtained. In the development following this discovery, 4 additional wells were completed, 3 of which encountered pay sand at 2500 ft., the initial productions each being about 200 barrels. Judging by the sands already proved and the area indicated as probably oil bearing by the development to date, these pools have a very promising outlook for the future. It is not unlikely that a field second only to El Dorado may have been opened.

Jan 3, 1925

By George R. Ensminger, E. Heaton Hemingway

During the past year, the Watertown Arsenal has been interested in the occluded gas and oxide content of certain ordnance steels in order to determine, if possible, whether some of the peculiar failures in their physical properties might not be traced to these causes. For the purpose of best accomplishing a study of this nature, it was decided to heat the various samples of steel in a vacuum for definite periods of time at high temperatures and carefully examine the quantity and composition of the gases evolved. By the use of a fused quartz tube fitted with a water-cooled, ground-glass stopper, it was possible to maintain a vacuum at a temperature of 1000" C. for 10 hr. without perceptible leakage being evidenced as measured by a McLeod gage. The silica tube was connected with an evacuating system so constructed that the volatilized gases could be removed from time to time and a low vacuum of 0.0002 to 0.0010 mm. of mercury continuously maintained. At no time during the period of heating or in the removal of the gases did the evacuated system come in contact with rubber stoppers or any rubber connections, making contamination from such a source, impossible. In other words, the only volatile products that could be: obtained must necessarily have come from the steel itself or from the glass and fused quartz system or from the mercury used as a sealing agent. In the carlier experiments, the steel treated was in the form of turnings, but this practice was discarded because the weight's of the turnings before and after being heated were widely inconsistent,, even when taken from the same piece of steel. This discrepancy developed largely through variation in the amount of metal volatilized with the gases; this metal could always be seen in the form of a ring where it condensed in the cooler portion of the tube in either the amorphous or crystalline condition. Because of the frequency in occurrence and the variation in the manner of deposition, this material was roughly analyzed and found to consist for the most part of iron. At the same time two samples of steel that had been

Jan 1, 1922

By E. Heaton Hemingway, George R. Ensminger

During the past year, the Watertown Arsenal has been interested in the occluded gas and oxide content of certain ordnance steels in order to determine, if possible, whether some of the peculiar failures in their physical properties might not be traced to these causes. For the purpose of best accomplishing a study of this nature, it was decided to heat the various samples of steel in a vacuum for definite periods of time at high temperatures and carefully examine the quantity and composition of the gases evolved. By the use of a fused quartz tube fitted with a water-cooled, ground-glass stopper, it was possible to maintain a vacuum at a temperature of 1000" C. for 10 hr. without perceptible leakage being evidenced as measured by a McLeod gage. The silica tube was connected with an evacuating system so constructed that the volatilized gases could be removed from time to time and a low vacuum of 0.0002 to 0.0010 mm. of mercury continuously maintained. At no time during the period of heating or in the removal of the gases did the evacuated system come in contact with rubber stoppers or any rubber connections, making contamination from such a source, impossible. In other words, the only volatile products that could be: obtained must necessarily have come from the steel itself or from the glass and fused quartz system or from the mercury used as a sealing agent. In the carlier experiments, the steel treated was in the form of turnings, but this practice was discarded because the weight's of the turnings before and after being heated were widely inconsistent,, even when taken from the same piece of steel. This discrepancy developed largely through variation in the amount of metal volatilized with the gases; this metal could always be seen in the form of a ring where it condensed in the cooler portion of the tube in either the amorphous or crystalline condition. Because of the frequency in occurrence and the variation in the manner of deposition, this material was roughly analyzed and found to consist for the most part of iron. At the same time two samples of steel that had been

Jan 1, 1922

By R. D. Nelson, J. C. Shyne

The ß and a ß transformations in plutonium were studied with particular emphasis on the transformation kinetics and microstructure. Significant observations are: 1) The kinetic data show conclusively that the ß — a transformation in high-purity plutonium can proceed isothermally with no athermal component. 2) Plastic deformation of the stable (3 phase retards the subsequent (3 — a transformation. 3) Plastic deformation of the stable a phase accelerates the a — ß transformation; the acceleration is attributed only to residual stresses. 4) The a and a?a volume changes occur anisotroPically in textured plutonium. 5) An apparent crystallogvaphic relationship exists between the parent and the product phases of the and (3 — a transformations. 6) Both applied uniaxial compressive stresses and uniaxial tensile stresses raise the starting temperature for the ß — a transformation. 7) A given uniaxial tensile stress favors the a — ß transformation more than an equivalent applied uniaxial compressive stress opposes the transformation. These observations of the (ß —a and a — ß phase changes in plutonium are consistent with known mar-tensitic transformations. ThIS paper elucidates some of the characteristics of the a— ß and ß —a transformations in plutonium. Because considerable conjecture exists about the mechanisms by which the phase transformations occur in plutonium, experiments have been performed to provide indirect information concerning the mechanisms responsible for the a —ß and ß -a transformations. Indirect information is of particular value in the study of plutonium because of the experimental difficulties presented by the metal. Single crystals have not been produced in any of the allotropes. The large density results in high X-ray and electron-absorption factors and consequently complicating X-ray and electron diffraction. The kinetics of ß — a and a — ß transformations of plutonium and the behavior of the transformations under a variety of conditions have been investigated in detail. Information about the mechanisms of the allo-tropic transformations of plutonium was obtained indirectly from three sources: 1) the effect of plastic deformation of the stable parent phase upon the transformation kinetics; 2) the behavior of the metal transforming under applied stresses; and 3) the microstruc-tural and crystallographic features between parent and product phases. PHASE-TRANSFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS In characterizing solid-state phase transformations in metals and alloys, it is useful to define several types of transformations. An aim of the present work was to identify the low-temperature transformations in plutonium by type, i.e., as martensitic or nonmar-tensitic. Practical definitions for these terms follow. The terms commonly used to categorize phase transformations lack universally accepted definitions. This confusion arises doubtlessly because some terms specify crystallographic or morphological character while other words have a kinetic or a thermodynamic connotation. For example, martensitic specifies certain definite crystallographic restrictions. Unfortunately, martensitic is sometimes used in an ill-defined way to imply kinetic characteristics. Further confusion attends the use of such expressions as nucleation and growth, diffusional, and massive. From time to time new systems of phase-transformation nomenclature are suggested; unfortunately none of these has gained general acceptance.1,2 The authors of the present paper have no intention of entering the controversy. We recognize that some readers may object to the nomencliture used here. For exampie, the terms military and civilian have recently been used in much the same way as martensitic and non-martensitic are used in this paper. This paper is intended to describe several specific details of the low-temperature phase transformations in plutonium. The authors have found it useful to identify these transformations as martensitic; the term was chosen as the best available to describe the experimentally observed features of the transformations studied. A martensitic transformation is one that occurs by the cooperative movement of many atoms; the rearrangement of atoms from parent to product crystal structure occurs by the passage of a mobile semico-herent growth interface. The geometric features characteristic of a martensitic transformation are a specific orientation relationship between the product and parent phase lattices, a specific habit-plane orientation for the growth interface, and a shape change with a specifically oriented shear component. There is no alloy partition between the parent and product phases in a martensitic transformation. Martensitic transformations may display either athermal kinetic behavior or thermally activated isothermal kinetic behavior. Some martensitic transformations occur isothermally, although more commonly martensitic transformations are athermal. Isothermal martensitic transformations are suppressible by rapid cooling. In athermal martensitic transformations, nucleation and growth are not thermally activated and the transformations are essentially time-independent. Nucleation, growth, or both can be thermally activated in isothermal martensitic reactions. Transformation of the parent phase into a marten-

Jan 1, 1967

By T. V. Philip, Paul A. Beck

IN a previous note1 it was pointed out that the available information suggests a distinct correlation between the occurrence of the CsCl-type ordered structures formed in equi-atomic binary alloys of transition elements and the location of the components in the periodic table. A definite increase in the bond strength between unlike atoms, as compared with that between like atoms, is indicated when, in binary alloys of iron group elements, the other component is changed from chromium to vanadium or tantalum, to titanium. Laves and Wallbaum,2 eported a CsCl-type ordered structure for the stable intermediate phase at the equi-atomic composition in the Ti-Fe system (and also in the Ti-Ru and Ti-Os systems). On the other hand, Tagaya, Nenno, and Nishiyama8 found no ordering of this kind in the body-centered-cubic solid solutions in the Cr-Fe system. It was concluded' that the occurrence of a CsC1-type ordered phase of intermediate stability may be expected in the V-Fe system. Preliminary results were described: suggesting that at least some degree of order does exist in the equi-atomic alloy VFe, annealed at 1200° C and quenched in cold water. Using CrK radiation, at least one weak superlattice line was found in the X-ray diffraction pattern which could be indexed as (100). and which disappeared, as expected, when FeK radiation was used. It was found more recently that the impurity phase (presumably VN), previously giving rise to additional X-ray diffraction lines and thus preventing definite indentification of the (111) superlattice line,' can be eliminated by preparing the alloy by arc melting in a helium atmosphere. The alloy specimen melted in this manner had clean surfaces and showed very littte, if any, nitride phase in the microstructure after annealing in vacuum at 1250°C and quenching. The relative intensity of the (100). superlattice line with CrK radiation was greatly increased and, in addition, a fairly strong (Ill) , superlattice line and even a detectable (210) , super- lattice line was obtained, when the powder produced by filing from the 1250°C annealed and quenched specimen was reannealed in vacuum at 625°C for 1 hr. By using a cellulose acetate film as a filter in front of the photographic film in order to absorb the soft radiation resulting from air fluorescence, the background intensity could be reduced considerably in relation to the intensity of the diffraction lines. All three superlattice lines, (100),, (111)., and (210)a, disappeared, as expected, when a radiation other than CrK, was used.1 For the powder reannealed at 625ºC, the strongest lines of the s pattern also appeared weakly, indicating that during an: nealing at 625°C a small amount of transformation took place from the body-centered-cubic to the u phase. However, since all superlattice lines to be expected in the 0 angle range used were actually very clearly present, it was evident that the high temperature body-centered-cubic phase had transformed into a CsCl-type ordered structure before much s phase could form. Reannealing filings for 1 hr at 700°C resulted in complete transformation into the u phase. After 1 hr at 650°C the transformation into IT was not quite complete, the strongest body-centered-cubic diffraction lines were still present, although fairly weak, and only the (100), super-lattice line was detectable (extremely weak). These findings not only confirm the previous conclusionsL as to the existence of a CsCl-type ordered structure in the Fe-V system, but they also indicate that this metastable ordered structure forms at about 600°C preceding the formation of the stable s phase, while at 1250°C the disordered body-centered-cubic phase is stable. The faint (loo) , super-lattice line previously observed in specimens quenched from 1200°C was probably due to the fact that the quenching of the powder in an evacuated fuse:! quartz capsule was not fast enough to prevent completely the ordering reaction on cooling. The present results conform with the suggestion that the A-B bond, in relation to the A-A and B-B bonds, increases in strength from CrFe to VFe to TiFc. It is, therefore, of interest to compare the measured values of the average atomic diameter for these three alloys with the corresponding average atomic diameters calculated from the atomic radii of the elements concerned. ASSUming A-B contacts

Jan 1, 1958

By Eugene Guccione

Evidence that the United States is gradually converting to the metric system of measurement can be perceived today even by housewives in a supermarket. The question is no longer whether but when the country will have completed the conversion. To the extent that any bickering about metrication still exists, the debate now centers on such issues as finding agreement on details of implementation, and whether federal legislation should speed up the metric-conversion process or allow it to proceed along its present evolutionary and voluntary course. Apparently, the voluntary or "make-haste-slowly" approach is gaining widespread support. According to The Research Institute of America, Inc., if and when federal legislation is enacted it will likely include the following national ground rules: (1) A National Metric Conversion Board will develop and submit to the President and Congress a comprehensive plan to achieve a coordinated, minimum-cost changeover. (2) The change- over will be completed 8 to 10 years after the board's plan goes into effect, and by that time the US will be predominantly, though not exclusively, metric. (3) Costs will "lie where they fall"; subsidies, special tax concessions, and antitrust exemptions will not be authorized by the legislation. (4) The changeover will be voluntary because of the recognition that while some firms can "go metric" in a matter of weeks, others may require 15 years or more, and a few might never convert. (5) In determining whether or not to convert, on an individual company basis, adherence will be to the "rule of reason-that is, ". . . do not convert unless the engineering, economic, or other benefits outweigh any metric-related disadvantages. No one is talking about rip- ping up our railroad tracks or rewiring our homes just to conform to the practice of metric nations in Europe." (6) Government is to be part of the solution, not part of the problem; in effect, says The Research Institute of America, the leverage of federal procurement will not be exerted to force-feed the metric changeover but will be coordinated with the sector-by-sector conversion of the economy.*

Jan 12, 1975