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By Charles L. Hosler

My function here today is not to illuminate any particular subject but simply to welcome you to Penn State and to the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. Our college is, of course, dedicated to the same thing to which most of you have dedicated your lives--the exploration of the earth, the extraction of materials from it, and the production of useful things from those materials. We have about 2,000 students engaged in studying in preparation for service in these activities at the present time. Like other colleges of our type, we've undergone a great expansion just at a time when university budgets are contracting. This creates an interesting situation as to how we can best use our resources. This, of course, is the thing a lot of you are going to be talking about here--how we can best use the world's resources. As you well know, the expectations of the people of the world are rising, and, with the numbers of people increasing and with finite resources, there never was a time in history when it was more important that we become "quantitative" in our discovery, estimation, extraction, and utilization of those resources. I think it is admirable and very timely that you are gathered together to discuss your various approaches to this particu¬lar problem of quantifying and making most efficient use of the resources of the world. Yours is sort of a hidden profession, not just because you actually go underground, but because the public in general is not aware of where the materials they use come from. If you are successful in your professions the public will continue to be unaware. Only if you fail will your essential function become patently obvious. I wish you success both in your professional pursuits and in this particular meeting.

Jan 1, 1977

By William R. Webster

In view of the good results which have followed the wide discussion of the rail-specifications of the American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials, I now offer for discussion its specifications for steel forgings and steel castings. It is not necessary to emphasize the importance of reaching definite conclusions on these subjects. Engineers, consumers and manufacturers are alike interested in securing good, reliable, uniform steel. In this connection, I would call particular attention to the important paper read by Mr. C. H. Ridsdale, last September, before the Iron and Steel Institute, as bearing on them; and, for convenience of reference in the discussion, I append the Table in Section VI. of his paper, on a Manifestations, Classified mider Heads of Faults of Different Types. appearing after Treatment by the User, for Tracing their Probable Source."* The discussion of these specifications will be practically a continuation of our former discussions on "The Physics of Steel." We have passed through a period in which the chemical composition of steel has received the greatest prominence; but failures of steel forgings and castings of the best chemical composition have shown that we could not control the quality of the finished product by the chemical composition alone. It must be admitted that differences in the physical properties of the steel, greater than those due to small variations in composition,are produced by heat-treatment, both in connection with the mechanical work of forging and otherwise. The present result is a strong tendency to deem the heat-treatment more important than the chemical composition. I think the mean course is the safer. We should give them equal importance; for we know that to produce the best results me must start with a good

Jan 1, 1903

By E. J. Harris

Mathematical solutions to complex mine ventilation problems are possible, but often the airway network is so complex that the mathematical solution becomes tedious and impractical. A fluid network analyzer, designed and built for analyzing mine ventilation problems has been in service at the Bureau of Mines' Pittsburgh station for approximately nine years. Using this analogue as a model, the mine ventilation network is simulated electrically by a combination of series and parallel circruits laid out to conform with actual mine airways. A tungsten filament lamp, referred to as a Fluistor, is used to simulate mine airway resistance. With the analogue ventilation model established, voltages of the proper amplitude to represent ventilating pressures are impressed across the circuit at points where mine fans and airshafts are located. Comparison of mathematical solutions of complex systems against analogue results showed a maximum variance of 3% for pressures and 2% for quantities. An electrical fluid network analyzer, designed and built especially for analyzing mine ventilation distribution problems, has been in service at the Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, for approximately nine years. It is a nonlinear, low voltage, fluid network analyzer of the type developed by the late Malcolm S. McIlroy, Professor of Electrical Engineering, Cornell University, who cooperated with G. E. McElroy, of the Bureau of Mines, in adapting the instrument to mine ventilation systems. Several modifications have been made since the original installation, but a considerable part of this paper is drawn from G. E. McElroy's original description of the analogue.' The analysis of water or gas distribution systems2,3 led to the development of this type of network analyzer. Several similar units are now employed by utility companies for this purpose; however, the Bureau of Mines unit is the only one designed specifically for mine airflow problems. Other airflow analogues employing a similar principle have been used at the Central Research Station of the Netherlands State Mines,4 in England,5 and in South Africa.6 Information on these devices indicated they were somewhat inflexible because commercial lamps with a sufficient range of resistance are difficult to obtain. Computers for mine ventilation analysis have been developed in Germany which instead of lamps use a variable resistance to adjust for turbulent flow laws. These units are expensive, but excellent results have been reported in their application. THE ANALYZER Theory of Application: As airflow generally follows the law of turbulent fluid flow, resistance to flow is nonlinear; consequently, the problem has been to find a nonlinear resistance element of suitable range that can be used for electrically simulated airflow. Tungsten filament lamps operated on alternating or direct current approximate the square-law resistance characteristics of mine airflow over a large range below maximum or rated voltage; that is, the voltage drop varies approximately as the square of the current. Consequently, the heart of the network analyzer is a nonlinear resistor known as a Fluistor, which is simply a custom-made low voltage, tungsten filament lamp that is available in a progressive series of relative resistance values ranging from 0.05 to 500 in nominal 5% steps. However, variations in manufacturing large groups result in differences of 1 to 3%, but series arrangements required for high-loss branches can be matched within about 1%. Utilizing a combination of Fluistors and load circuits, the mine ventilation system is duplicated electrically. Intake load circuits are connected from power intake to primary points of the circuit network; segments of unregulated flow along intakes and returns are represented by Fluistors, regulated splits and leakage paths are represented by load circuits and Fluistors of proper capacity; and mine exhausts are connected to ground from the last point of the network to complete the circuit. For the special purpose of representing booster fans or natural draft conditions, boosters or separate source circuits are provided that can be inserted between any two points of a network to increase voltage to the required value. Physical Layout: The analyzer consists of three 42

Jan 1, 1963

By Hermann Wedding

It is now fourteen years since we German ironmasters, in considerable number, visited the United States on the occasion of the Philadelphia Exposition, and found the iron metallurgy of this country, as must be frankly confessed, in an advanced stage of development not previously suspected by us. At that time the United States already occupied, as now, the second rank, with Germany in the third, the product of pig-iron for that year being, in Great Britain, 6550, in this country, 2093, and in Germany, 1850 kilotons.* This relative position has not been changed. The present annual product of the three countries is, in round numbers, Great Britain, 8380, the United States, 7790, and Germany, 4530 kilotons. But the proportion of the United States, which was, in 1876, but 15 per cent. of the world's product, has now advanced to 30 per cent. When we left America in 1876, it was not only with gratitude for cordial hospitality and for the liberality with which our professional colleagues here had opened to our inspection whatever was worthy of notice in our special field, but also with the conviction that we had collected a great treasure of new and interesting information which we could utilize for the benefit of our German Fatherland. Particularly the achievements of the never-to-be-forgotten Holley in the field of Bessemer practice, set us an inspiring example for imitation in our own country. As an expression of our thanks in more practical fashion, I attempt in this paper to sketch what we have done in Germany since

Jan 1, 1891

By James Aston

INDICATIVE of the practical importance of the achievement of James Aston , recipient of the Robert W. Hunt Medal for 1930, is the following prosaic item from the financial columns of a recent issue of a New York newspaper. "According to private advices from Pittsburgh, production costs of the A. M. Byers Co. for 1929 were reduced about $5 a ton by the use of the Aston process for making wrought iron pipe. A greater saving is anticipated for 1930, when more of the company?s requirements will be produced by the new method."

Jan 1, 1930

By Bernard G. Carbajal

The dielectric properties and thermal stability of glow-discharge polytnerized films of styrene, chloro-benzene, and other organics and photoresist filrns are presented. Variations in the glow-discharge polymerization procedure are related to thermal stability. Thermal treatwzents to improve the dielectric properties of both positive (A2 340) and negative (KMER) photoresists are given. THIS study of the dielectric properties of thin organic polymer films is part of a program to investigate the electronic applications of organic materials. Thin organic polymer films have been produced in an ac glow discharge,13 with a low-energy electron-beam process,4 and in an rf dicharge. A process has been developed during the course of this program for forming thin organic polymer films in a dc glow discharge. These glow-discharge polymerized (GDP) films exhibit some useful dielectric and insulative properties. Variations in the properties of the GDP films can be induced by changes in the source material (monomer) andor in the conditions of the glow discharge. Thin organic polymer films can also be produced from typical positive and negative photoresists. Some variations in the properties of the photoresist films can be induced by suitable post-application treatments such as thermal crosslinking. The properties of interest in this study are dielectric constant, dielectric strength, resistivity, and thermal stability. POLYMER FILM PREPARATION I) GDP Films. The GDP films were prepared in a dc glow discharge in an atmosphere of organic monomer vapor. The details of the glow-discharge procedure have been presented previously.6 Briefly, under the influence of a dc glow discharge organic vapors can be polymerized in the vapor phase and the resultant polymer (GDP film) deposits on and in the vicinity of the cathode. Substrates placed behind a screen cathode can be uniformly coated over all exposed areas. Pattern definition can be achieved using normal mask stencil techniques. Table I presents the pertinent parameters in the preparation of GDP styrene. Conditions of Forrrzation of GDP Styrene. The rate of deposition for GDP films was monitored using a current-time integrator. The thickness of the deposited film for a given set of experimental conditions was a function of the current-time integral. The fifth row in Table I is a compilation of the deposition rate of GDP styrene films. Other organic monomers behave in a similar fashion. With the exception of the highly halogenated saturated hydrocarbons, all organics subjected to the conditions of the glow discharge form GDP films. 11) Photoresist Films. Photoresists are normally recognized to exist in two forms, a low molecular weight, soluble polymer form (A) and a high molecular weight, crosslinked insoluble form (B). Typical negative photoresists are applied in the low molecular weight form A and converted to the high molecular weight form B by the action of light. (Positive photoresists are applied in form B and converted to form A by the action of light.) Eastman Kodak Metal Etch Resist (KMER) has been chosen as a typical negative photoresist. Polymer film samples were prepared in the same configuration used for GDP films. The KMER was applied in the usual fashion using a 120°C drying step (infrared-lamp heating) and a 180°C post-bake. Care must be taken to completely remove the solvent in the drying step and to properly develop and postbake to exposed photoresist. If the photoresist film is not properly dried and postbaked, severe blistering and peeling will occur during subsequent elevated-temperature exposure. Thickness can be controlled by varying the viscosity of the form A photoresist and the spin rate at application. AZ 340 was chosen as a typical positive photore-

Jan 1, 1967

By D. L. King

The San Francisco Chemical Co. has been actively interested in phosphate mining since 1908. It was, in fact, the first company to make claims on properties in the western phosphate belt. From the period of 1908 to 1947, the company's phosphate operations were centered at their Waterloo property, five miles east of Montpelier, Idaho. A small tonnage of phosphate rock was shipped annually from their underground mines in that area. In 1945, the company started the first western open-pit phosphate mine on the slopes of Waterloo Hill. In 1947, they obtained an option and lease on the Beckwith Hills' deposits in southwestern Wyoming, some 25 miles south of Cokeville. While the operations at Montpelier and the Beckwith Hills are both open pit, there are many differences which suggest separate treatment in this paper. Structurally, the Waterloo Hill is the west slope of an anticline. The beddings dip from 20" to 35" to the west. Erosion has caused the footwall exposures (Well's formation) to appear in the upper areas as a series of apices, giving the outcrops a festooned arrangement. Dip faulting with subsequent erosion has induced gullies normal to the strike and resulted in eroded areas which separate the remnants of the

Jan 1, 1950

By Joseph E. Pogue, F. G. Coqueron

Prior to 1934, published information covering expenditures by oil companies for properties, plant, and equipment and the residual investments in the various segments of the petroleum industry was not readily available. This paper presents an analysis of the funds invested by a selected group of oil companies during the years 1934 through 1942, based on an extensive study of the individual records of 30 oil companies. The sources, disposition, and characteristics of the capital employed by this group of companies are traced through a series of combined statements and appropriate charts, covering financial and operating data. The analysis of these statements not only constitutes a record useful for comparative purposes but also serves as a basis for a number of broad conclusions, as follows: 1. The petroleum industry generates the capital needed for its expansion almost entirely from its own operations and is therefore a singularly self-contained economic unit. 2. The long-term debt contained in the financial structure of the industry is small relative to the total capital employed, is less than the net working capital, and has increased but slightly during the period under review. 3. The capital expenditures of the group of 30 oil companies for 9 years amounted to 6.1 billion dollars, 58.3 per cent of which went into crude-oil producing facilities. The trend of this segment of expenditures has been downward since 1937. In 1942, expenditures for refining facilities increased sharply and for marketing facilities declined drastically. 4. The net working capital of the group increased 380 million dollars over the period, and the industry is in a favorable position of liquidity. The ratio of combined current assets to current liabilities was 3.21 at the close of the period. 5. The net income of the group displayed an upward trend for the period but with rather sharp cyclical fluctuations. 6. In 1942, Government funds entered the industry for the first time in substantial amounts and were utilized for the provision of war facilities needed for emergency use. 7. The group has paid out a relatively low percentage of net income in the form of dividends. For the period the average was 55 per cent of net income. 8. The rate of return on invested capital for the group averaged 6.4 per cent for the

Jan 1, 1944

By Joseph E. Pogue, F. G. Coqueron

Prior to 1934, published information covering expenditures by oil companies for properties, plant, and equipment and the residual investments in the various segments of the petroleum industry was not readily available. This paper presents an analysis of the funds invested by a selected group of oil companies during the years 1934 through 1942, based on an extensive study of the individual records of 30 oil companies. The sources, disposition, and characteristics of the capital employed by this group of companies are traced through a series of combined statements and appropriate charts, covering financial and operating data. The analysis of these statements not only constitutes a record useful for comparative purposes but also serves as a basis for a number of broad conclusions, as follows: 1. The petroleum industry generates the capital needed for its expansion almost entirely from its own operations and is therefore a singularly self-contained economic unit. 2. The long-term debt contained in the financial structure of the industry is small relative to the total capital employed, is less than the net working capital, and has increased but slightly during the period under review. 3. The capital expenditures of the group of 30 oil companies for 9 years amounted to 6.1 billion dollars, 58.3 per cent of which went into crude-oil producing facilities. The trend of this segment of expenditures has been downward since 1937. In 1942, expenditures for refining facilities increased sharply and for marketing facilities declined drastically. 4. The net working capital of the group increased 380 million dollars over the period, and the industry is in a favorable position of liquidity. The ratio of combined current assets to current liabilities was 3.21 at the close of the period. 5. The net income of the group displayed an upward trend for the period but with rather sharp cyclical fluctuations. 6. In 1942, Government funds entered the industry for the first time in substantial amounts and were utilized for the provision of war facilities needed for emergency use. 7. The group has paid out a relatively low percentage of net income in the form of dividends. For the period the average was 55 per cent of net income. 8. The rate of return on invested capital for the group averaged 6.4 per cent for the

Jan 1, 1944

Wartime geological studies by the U. S. Geological Survey and subsequent drilling carried on by the Bureau of Mines disclosed new ore in the Illinois-Wisconsin zinc field. As a result, several companies are carrying on drilling programs to locate and define new ore bodies. The Vinegar Hill company, which operates a custom mill to handle ores from various sources, now employs about fifty men in production at their Andrews mine. The ore is usually found in a 200-ft horizon below the surface. Water problems are not serious. Commercial-grade ore ranges up to 8 and 9 per-cent zinc and the cut off is approximately 41/2 percent.

Jan 1, 1948

POSITIONS VACANT Position as superintendent of all-sliming cyanide plant in Montana will he open in spring. Thoroughly experienced man wanted. No. 6. Position as engineer for iron-mining company in Virginia is open. Single man with experience in underground surveying preferred. No. 7. ENGINEERS AVAILABLE (Under this heading will be published notes sent to the Secretary of the Institute. by members or other persons.) Member, 34 years old, married, nine years responsible position in South America, excellent knowledge of Spanish, Latin-American people and customs, with present employer seven years, six years as manager and legal representative of a mining company, desires to make a change April, 1914. Prefers position requiring energy, executive ability, business tact and practical knowledge dealing with political and legal authorities, rather than strictly technical position. No. 35. Technical graduate, married, with four years' experience in assaying, surveying, sampling,. and mine supervision in Utah and Mexico, open for engagement. No. 37. Member, aged 28, desires opening on engineering or sales force of machinery house, or manufacturing concern. Twelve years' experience, in smelters, cyanide plants, concentrators and gold dredges, steam, gas and electric machinery and mechanical drafting. At present foreman for a silver-lead company. No. 40.

Jan 1, 1914

By W. WANJUKOW, H. O. Hofman

(New York Meeting, February, 1313.) I. INTRODUCTION. IN the metallurgical treatment of most metallic sulphides it is usually necessary to carry on a roasting-operation. In some cases the raw ore will have to be roasted.; in others the intermediary product, matte, produced in smelting the ore; again, both ore and matte may have to be subjected to oxidation at elevated temperatures. Most metallic sulphides, when given an oxidizing-roast, pass through the state of sulphate before they are converted into oxides. All metallic sulphates are completely decomposed by heat, with the exception of those of lead and bismuth, but the temperatures at which decompositions take place vary with the metals. Some metallic sulphates are converted directly into oxides, others first form basic salts. Alkali-earth sulphates show a behavior similar to that of metallic sulphates, while alkali sulphates do not part with their sulphur trioxide even at elevated roasting-temperatures. The older data on the decomposition of metallic sulphates by beat are only approximations. Thus Kerl 1 gives the order in which metallic sulphates are decomposed with increasing temperatures as (Ag2, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, CO, Mn, Pb) SO4. More recent statements give definite temperatures and modify the formerly accepted order of decomposition. But the temperatures given by various observers do not agree. The reasons for this are to be found mainly in the method and manner of carrying out experiments. Four methods have been used: 1. Heating in an evacuated tube; 2, heating in a tube closed at one end, without air-cur-

Sep 1, 1912

By Peter McKellar

The district around Bag bay in Shoal lake, meat of Lake of the Woods, in the Ontario western gold-fields, is attracting considerable attention at the present time as a gold-producer. A large number of gold-bearing veins have been prospected and mined to a considerable extent in the locality. On the whole they make a fair showing, considering the work done ; and some are undoubtedly rich—the Mikado, for instance. The principal mining companies that have been operating here are the Yum-Yum, Ontario Limited, Cornucopia, Engledue Concession, Tycoon, Toronto and Western and Mikado Cos. I will confine my remarks chiefly to the three companies last

Jan 1, 1900

By Z. E. Arlin, R. D. Lynn

The problem of disposing of excess waste water coming from The Anaconda Co.'s two uranium mills in Grants, N. M., first confronted the company's engineers in 1956. The increased discharge of mill waste water was due to the start-up of a second mill, recently completed to supplement production from a smaller plant which the company had operated since 1953. The waste water is mildly acidic and has a low level of radioactivity due to small amounts of uranium-natural, thorium-230 and radium-226. In addition, it contains large amounts of manganese, iron and the sulfate and chloride salts of sodium, calcium and magnesium.

Jan 7, 1962

By Robert M. McGeorge, Edward S. Frohling

Most mining engineers and metallurgists who get out of school usually wind up working for a large or medium-sized company and are seldom heard of again. The enterprising few who decide to go into business for themselves soon discover that while they can adequately tackle the various technical problems involved in developing a new ore body, they know little about putting together a feasibility study-and even less about financing their project. If you are in that predicament, you'll probably tend to view the financing problem as insurmountable, especially when the economy is in a slump, capital is scarce or seemingly non-existent, the equity market is in the doldrums, labor and equipment costs keep going up relentlessly-and, to make things worse, you must operate within the competitive context created by large mining firms that seem to have in abundance all the capital and managerial expertise you feel you lack. If it's any consolation, many potentially successful properties, whether owned by big companies or small firms like yours, never reach the production stage either because of illogical expenditures made in the early phases of development or because of inefficient management. And inefficient management is a common plague in big and small companies

Jan 9, 1975

By Lucien Eaton

INCREASED mining activity during the past year has brought to light changes in mining practice and advances in technique, born and incubated in the period of depression from which the mining industry is now emerging. Although the tendency toward large output from individual mines has continued, a salutary trend is evident toward greater efficiency at small mines, in which the gold mines of Canada have led the way. Improvement in excavating machinery and washing plants for small placers has continued, and knowledge of the possibilities and limitations of this kind of equipment has increased. Greater portability through sectionalization has been the keynote. Power, shovels and draglines mounted on caterpillar treads move from one deposit to another under their own power, and floating washing plants mounted on pontoons can be taken down, moved, and set up again by a small crew of men in only a few days.

Jan 1, 1937

By John Birkinbine

EXTENDED discussions, by inviting attention to problems affecting the conservation of natural resources, have encouraged investigations as to their sufficiency, with the general result that the more thorough the examination, the less cause appears for anxiety as to the exhaustion or serious depletion of these resources. The extent of industrial development, the large plants and the enormous volumes of materials required, when compared with conditions a few decades ago, are sufficiently startling to enlist the attention of those who "fear .the pace," and yet in but few instances has real solicitude for the future. been warranted by a knowledge of true conditions. In a former communication, presented 5 years ago,1 I endeavored to emphasize the fact that true conservation represented the best utilization of reserves and not the locking up of resources for future use; a conviction which has become more pronounced as the subject was investigated. Prophecies of the, early exhaustion of mineral resources have raised the question as to our permanent reliance upon these, and encouraged inquiries which have in most cases developed reassuring conditions. But the fact that the future appears less dark than prognosticated cannot excuse wastefulness or improvidence; and detailed study which demonstrates an apparent abundance of natural resources should encourage their best application. In making inventories of resources one is liable to confine conclusions as to availability upon present circumstances and conditions in the past, or to formulate data for the future upon methods which are rapidly being displaced. In reserves which are not reproductive, such as minerals, the possibilities of exhausting the supply are startling if estimates assume that future extensions will follow methods which were less economical than those now employed, or to he used, and we dare not claim that the limit of advanced practice has been attained.

Jan 9, 1914

By Clinton M. Young

(Pittsburg Meeting, March, 1910.) I. INTRODUCTION. THE experiments herein. described were carried on in 1908-9 . by the State Geological Survey of Kansas. Some months before taking up work on black powder the Survey had resumed work on an interrupted investigation of explosions in coal-mines, a subject which is engaging the attention. of numerous investigators. An unusual number of serious disasters has directed to. the subject a study which discloses the disquieting fact that, in the. United States, the ratio of lives lost per ton of coal mined has been on the increase. Methods of coal-mining have changed to some extent with the great increase of output, attained in, comparatively recent years. These changes involve the working of very extensive mines, with increased difficulty of ventilation, increased accumulation of coal-dust, and. a very great increase in the amount of explosive used.. . This last point assumes truly startling proportions when it is carefully observed. In the fields of the Middle. West it is not now uncommon for a miner to use six ,kegs (150 lb.) of black powder in a "pay" of two weeks, while within the memory. of men still active, one keg (25 .lb.) would last two men for a " pay." So. great has . the use of explosives become in some fields that the skilled coal-miner is hard to find, and the coal is not mined, but blasted. A preliminary study of the subject. of explosions in coal-mines has. led to the belief . that the use of, large -quantities of explosives, in some cases by slightly-trained men, had not been * Associate Professor- of Mining Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Ran.

Aug 1, 1910

By M. A. Hunter

IN the present state of public affairs, the reviewer turns from his traditional role of recording the progress made in research during the year and views the whole situation in which he finds himself in direct relation to the immediate needs of the nation. The slow progress of research year by year fades into comparative insignificance. The sum total of that research in all the years which have past becomes of importance only in direct relation to the extent to which we have translated or can immediately translate it into in¬dustrial production. For in a wartime economy immediacy is of paramount importance. The outcome of the war is being determined by our ability to pro¬duce and fabricate the metals and alloys which we require for its prosecution. Aside from iron and steel which lie outside the limits of this review, the most important of the nonferrous metals now needed in wartime production are aluminum, magnesium, nickel, chromium, and manganese. Some remarks on their production and fabrication follow.

Jan 1, 1942

By Ralph D. Parker

A STRIKING testimonial to the value of safety was contained in an ad- dress given in May, 1936, by A. R. Young, vice-president of the United States Steel Corp.: In the period from 1906 to 1935 we have spent $24,860,540 on safety work. By comparing the cost of "prevented" accidents by the cost of settling similar accidents, we found that we had made a saving of $117,224,238. Even if those figures are 50 per cent wrong, at least we got back every dollar we paid for safety and another with it. I don't think anyone has to blush before his board of directors for an investment of that kind.

Jan 1, 1937