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By E. M. Norris

In the summer of 1917 it was decided to fireproof the main Tramway hoisting shaft of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. at Butte, Mont. The shaft has three hoisting compartments and one pump compartment; it is timbered with 12 by 12-in. (30.5 by 30.5-cm.) fir timber, and is 2475 ft. (754 m.) deep. Subsidence and displacement of the surrounding country rock had produced exceedingly heavy ground, and had carried the shaft out of line, in several places, by as much as 2 ft. (0.6 m.) displacement. Constant repairing and realigning of the timbers had been necessary in order to maintain clearance for the cages. The most feasible method of fireproofing, therefore, seemed to be to cover the timbers with a coat of concrete applied with the cement gun. The cement gun, which is operated by compressed air at ordinary mine pressures, feeds a mixture of sand and cement through a hose to a nozzle having a water connection. The mortar in fluid form is thus sprayed upon the prepared surface in thin layers, which can be built up to any desired thickness. The cement gun can be set up at any convenient point; satisfactory results have been obtained with the nozzle a distance of 500 ft. (152 m.) from the gun. The shaft was thoroughly overhauled and the timbers put in the best possible state of repair. Between the 1000 and the 1400 levels, much loose ground lay against the shaft timbers on the north side; this was breast-boarded back and a 30-in. (76-cm.) reinforced-concrete retaining wall was erected, leaving a space of 12 in. (30.5 cm.) outside the shaft timbers to allow for future movements of the ground. For convenience in handling men and materials, it was arranged to concrete the auxiliary hoisting-cage compartment and the pump compartment first, using the cages of the main hoist to serve the cementing crews. The auxiliary cage was then available while the remainder of the shaft was being concreted. A tight partition of 2-in. (5.08-cm.) plank was erected between the auxiliary and the adjoining hoisting compartments, for better protection of men riding on the cages. The application of concrete made this

Jan 1, 1920

By Robert S. Williams

On several occasions, when 60-40 brass is first obtained in the beta condition by quenching at about 825" C. and is then reheated, the writers have noticed that reerystallization will take place in the form of twin crystals at the grain boundaries of the original beta crystals. It was, therefore, thought that interesting results would be obtained if this twinning process was studied further, especially as to the temperature at which it first occurs. The material used in the investigation was a bar of extruded muntz metal, 1/2 in. in diameter, and of the following composition: Copper, 60.21 per cent.; zinc, 39.73 per cent.; lead, trace; iron, trace; tin, nil. Specimens 1 in. in length were sawed from this bar and a hole was drilled into the side of each specimen until it reached the center, and the tip of a platinum-platinum rhodium thermocouple was inserted. A small Hoskins' resistance-type electric furnace was used for heating the specimens. The specimens were first heated at 840' C. for 2 hr. and then quenched ' in cold water, in order to get the material entirely in the beta state. In every case, in the reheating process, the furnace was brought to the desired temperature before the specimen was introduced. The time occupied in preheating was from 20 to 30 min. By sawing back 1/4 in. on each side of the hole, two parts were obtained from each specimen and duplicate observations were possible. The specimens were held at the reheating temperatures for periods of 15 min., 30 min., 1, 2, and 4 hr. All specimens were etched with a freshly prepared mixture of equal volumes of concentrated NH4IOH and H2O2.

Jan 1, 1924

By Sanai Nakabe

Japanese wartime economy demanded domestic cobalt production. This paper describes a process operated for two years at the Besshi mine and smelter on extremely low grade (0.1 pct Co) pyrite concentrates obtained from copper ore. 'The steps in the process were roasting, leaching, precipitation, reduction fusion to crude cobalt, and finally refining by electrolysis to 99+ pct. COBALT ore deposits in Japan are all small and of poor grade. In the past, a small amount of cobalt has been produced from the best portions of a few of these deposits, and very little production is expected in the future. In addition to these lean cobalt ores, cobalt is present in the cupriferous pyrite which is fairly abundant although of low grade, as is shown in Table I. Considerable cobalt is expected from these deposits because of their extent. Cobalt cannot be exclusively recovered economically from ore of this type; however, if means could be devised to recover it as a byproduct of copper production, a fairly large production at reasonable cost could be expected from Japanese sources. It was along this line that the research work was done. Selection of Suitable Process The process for extracting cobalt differs from ore to ore according to their composition. The difficulty in cobalt metallurgy arises from the fact that chemically cobalt resembles many such common metals as Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, and Zn, associated with it in the ores. In the present case the most serious difficulties were: 1—Extremely low grade ore, 0.1 pct Co. 2—The large proportion of iron accompanying cobalt and its close similarity in chemical behavior. 3—The fairly large proportion of zinc and manganese and their chemical similarity to cobalt. The recovery of cobalt oxide as a byproduct of the hydrometallurgy of copper had been attempted in Japan but was stopped after a short period because it proved uneconomical. The literature disclosed no method for the recovery of cobalt from cobaltiferous copper pyrite and it was therefore necessary to devise a new process. The following basic principles were considered in selecting the process: 1—A major alteration in copper production methods should not be necessary. 2—The first step should be the extraction of cobalt leaving the large quantity of iron unaffected. For this purpose wet metallurgy would be preferred.

Jan 1, 1952

By Ernest L. Ohle

IN 1943 diamond drilling from the surface in an area 2 miles southwest of Leadwood, Mo., discovered a lead deposit of a markedly different character from the usual southeast Missouri type. Subsequent drilling of about 500 holes indicated several million tons of ore, and in 1950 a 701-ft vertical shaft was sunk into the orebody. This paper describes the geology, of this interesting occurrence insofar as it is known from the drilling and the small underground exposure at the bottom of the shaft. Geology The location of the Southeast. Missouri Lead Belt and of 'the Hayden Creek property are shown in Fig. 1. As shown here, there are two separate producing areas, one from which the larger tonnage has come, located near Bonne Terre, Flat River, Desloge, and Leadwood, and the other to the south around Fredericktown and including famous old Mine LaMotte. The best published description of Lead Belt geology is by Tarr.* In pre-Cambrian time in this cherty dolomites. Several of these formations may be found in direct contact with the pre-Cambrian as their deposition progressively overlapped the older rocks on the flanks of the igneous knobs and ridges. Immediately overlying the pre-Cambrian there is, not uncommonly, a thin basal conglomerate of granite or porphyry boulders, which is incorporated into the overlying sediments. Deposition of the lower part of the rock section was fairly continuous, and the Lamotte sometimes grades almost imperceptibly into the lower sandy Bonneterre. Since the sediments were deposited on an uneven floor, they tend to reflect the irregularities in that floor. Most of the steep dips found in the district, that is, dips in excess of 10°, are original dips and not caused by deformation. Such domelike structures in the sedimentary rocks around the igneous knobs have localized a considerable number of the orebodies in the district and particularly those in the Fredericktown area. Many of the larger orebodies, however, have no close relation to the pre-Cambrian topography. Most of the lead production has come from the lower 150 ft of the Bonneterre formation, where disseminated ore spreads laterally parallel to the bedding for great distances. Average stoping height is about 20 ft, but in a few places there are stopes over-175 ft high.

Jan 1, 1952

By T. W. Smoot

Bentonites are composed chiefly of montmorillonites which are clay minerals generally distinguished from other clay minerals by their surface activity and extremely fine particle sizes. The uses of bentonite are many and varied, depending principally on one or more of the following characteristics: 1) Thixotropy, 2) Dispersion, 3) Plasticity, 4) Swelling, 5) Surface area, activity, ab- and adsorbtive properties. Some of the major uses of bentonite are briefly reviewed as are the mineralogical and physical properties. The uses of X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis and other tests for physical properties are reviewed as to their uses in evaluation. In the past 40 years, the industrial uses of bentonite have grown to include many applications. The physical and chemical properties of bentonites are such that they can be used as catalysts, adsorbants, plasticizers, binders, drilling muds, and pelletizers. Not all bentonites, however, can be used for all of these purposes and some are probably of little or no value for any use. The purpose of this paper is to briefly review the mineralogical, physical, and chemical characteristics and variations of bentonites. The determination of these characteristics and their uses in industry are also reviewed so that these determinations can be used as guides for evaluation. DEFINITION OF BENTONITE The word bentonite, as used in this paper, refers to a clay material, usually (but not necessarily) the result of the in-place-weathering of volcanic ash. Its mineralogical composition is dominated by the clay mineral montmorillonite and generally carries other clay minerals and silica minerals as the major 'impurities'. For this discussion, such a definition is justified since most of the economic uses of bentonite~ depend upon the physical and chemical characteristics of the montmorillonite minerals involved. The terms montmorillonite and bentonite have been used almost interchangeably in industry although the latter is much more commonly used. Therefore, where montmorillonite is discussed, it should be understood that the major feature of a bentonite is the subject. STRUCTIJRE OF MONTMORILLONlTE The economic importance of bentonites is generally based on one or more of the following characteristics of montmorillonite: 1) high-thixotropy and easy dispersion in water, 2) high-plasticity, 3) swelling properties, 4) large surface area/unit mass, 5) high surface activity, and 6) adsorptive properties. To understand these properties, an appreciation of the structural scheme of montmorillonite is helpful. Montmorillonite IS one of the three-layer clay minerals composed essentially of hydrous aluminum silicates. The essential building blocks of these layered silicate:; are: 1) silica tetrahedron composed of a silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms, and 2) aluminun (iron, magnesium, etc.) octahedral unit that, ideally, has one of these atoms surrounded by six hydroxal units. Fig. 1 is a diagrammatic sketch of the montmorillonite structure. In the montmorillonite structure, the tetrahedron are pointed inward and attached to the octahedral units so that the O= atoms replace the hydroxal units where they are bonded; hence two-thirds of the hydroxal units

Jan 1, 1962

The primary purpose of the Institute is to advance those sciences embraced by it through interchange of knowledge This can best be done by the presentation and discussion of technical papers by its mem¬bers Short practical papers are especially welcome In any case the author should satisfy himself that his material is of a quality that will be a credit to him and to the Institute The preparation of a good paper frequently leads to a reorientation of the author's thoughts, which is extremely valuable, and pertinent dis¬cussion thereof contributes in no small way to the professional standing of the author Members are urged to submit papers presenting the results of their work Attention to the following suggestions will greatly further the prompt and efficient handling of manuscripts 1 Subjects: The subject must be within the field of the Institute Original work, the results of field, plant, laboratory or theoretical investigations, new views on old but important problems and occasion¬ally reviews of timely and important subjects of wide interest to our members may constitute the basis of a paper The mere fact that the work is original does not necessarily justify publication it must be of a substantial nature, of value to a reasonable number of our members and worthy of permanent record It is rarely desirable to subdivide the results of a single research for publication in a variety of journals Pre¬vious publication is a bar to acceptance 2 Construction : Papers should be clearly and concisely written in good English Care in this regard insures wider reading and the saving in space permits the Institute to publish more papers The terminology and units employed should be those current in the particular field An examination of Institute publications will afford useful guidance in such

Jan 1, 1937

By C. H. Benedict, H. C. Kenny

A 2000-ton ammonia leaching plant has been operated by the Calumet & Hecla Mining Co., at Lake Linden, Mich., continuousl~ since February, 1917, except from April, 1921, to April, 1922, during the period of depression following the European war. A description of this plant has been published elsewhere.1 The present article describes the operation of the plant since 1917, together with the changes in the process that have been found to be advisable. In spite of the fact that this plant and that of the Kennecott Copper Co. are the only ones operating on a large scale, much experimental work is being done on ammonia leaching, as applied to oxidized ores, and it is to aid these and other investigators that this detailed account is given. For the benefit of those unfamiliar with the original article, the following short abstract is given, as an introduction to a more detailed account of the process and the reasons for present practice. Rêsumê of Previous Article Leaching on a commercial scale began in July, 1916, and by Februsry, 1917, the plant of 2000 tons capacity was in commission. The ore treated is a conglomerate containing native copper and no sulfides or oxidized copper minerals. Before leaching, the ore is crushed by steam stamps and Hardinge pebble mills to pass a 28-mesh screen. Free copper is removed, by gravity concentration, on Woodbury jigs and Wilfley tables, and colloidal slime for oil flotation is removed by quadruplex Dorr classifiers. The leaching sand remaining contains about 2 per cent. + 28-mesh material and 15 per cent. — 200-mesh and carries from 8 to 14 lb. of copper per ton, depending on the grade of ore worked. The solvent employed in leaching is a water solution of ammonium carbonate,

Jan 1, 1924

By E. J. Wasp, N. T. Cowper, R. A. Davis, W. F. McDermott

On October 26, 1967, the world's first long distance iron ore slurry line was put into service by Savage River Mines. The commissioning of this $5 million installation climaxed three years of development, testing, and construction. The mine and concentrator are located approximately 30 miles from the town of Waratah in a rugged semi-mountainous terrain. The open pit mine will produce approximately 5 million long tons a year of crude ore, which is ground in autogenous mills, separated magnetically, thickened and prepared for the pipeline. The 53-mile pipeline transports the 2,250,000 tons of concentrate north to Port Latta. The Port Latta facilities include the receiving, storage and thickening equipment for the slurry as well as filtering, balling and pelletizing equipment to produce the 2,250,000 tons of high grade iron ore pellets. Five vertical shaft furnaces are used for pelletizing.

Jan 1, 1969

By Robert J. Willard

The scanning electron microscope (SEM), became commercially available in 1966. Embodying some unique features not provided by conventional electron microscopes, this new electron-optical instrument offers the scientific community a new way of observing the surfaces of materials. In rock mechanics research, the SEM should prove a useful basic tool in characterizing rock fracture on a very small scale and thus contribute to a better understanding of rock behavior at larger scales. This article presents one example of how the SEM is being applied to such research at the Twin Cities Mining Research Center operated by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in Minneapolis. This research center conducts theoretical and experimental studies on a broad range of mechanisms that induce disintegration by the application of energy to rock.1 Some of these studies are concerned with the relation of microstructure to rock behavior and are carried out mainly with the petrographic microscope. At the same time, however, the center recognizes that this relation must be studied through several orders of magnitude, from lattice-size units of rock-forming minerals to field-size rock units. The SEM fits this scheme by extending the capability of the petrographic microscope into smaller orders of magnitude. However, because its resolution is limited to about 200 A at 10,000x, the SEM is not capable of resolving lattice-size units, and hence a conventional electron microscope with a much greater resolution capability is necessary at this order of magnitude.

Jan 6, 1969

By D. C. Seidel, M. C. Fuerstenau, R. J. Roman

The existence of a surface charge on the alkali halide salts is shown, and a flotation mechanism involving surface charge and collector solubility is developed. Data suggest that KC1 is positively charged and that NaCl is negatively charged in saturated brines, and that the neutral molecule RNH,Cl is the collector in the amine-KC1 system, RSO, is the collector in the sulfonate-KC1 system, and RCOONa) is the collector in the fatty acid-NaCl system. A number of hypotheses have been advanced to explain the mechanism of soluble salt flotation; one of these involves exchange between collector ions and surface cations. With this mechanism Gaudin1 suggested that the differences in flotability of halite and sylvite with primary amines are due to the ionic size of the RNH;, Kt, and Na t ions. Fuerstenau and Fuerstenau expanded this hypothesis to include many other alkali halide salts. Several exceptions to this hypothesis are known. That is, this model does not explain why salts containing the same cation, or why salts of different degrees of hydration, respond differently to flotation. For example, why NaI is floated with an amine whereas NaI .2H,O is not. Further, no correlation between ionic size and flotation response can be made with sulfonate or car-boxylate as collectors. In addition, this hypothesis does not explain the effect of magnesium or lead activation, nor does it offer any explanation of the role of temperature in salt flotation. Rogers and Schulman3 realized some of the inadequacies of the ion exchange mechanism and proposed another mechanism based on the heat of solution of the salts. They concluded that weakly hydrated salts can be floated with alkyl amines and sulfonates, that strongly hydrated salts can be floated with fatty acids, and that excessively hydrated salts cannot be floated at all. Their work was not limited to the al-

Jan 1, 1969

By R. V. Norris

IRving Ariel Stearns died at his home, 60 South River St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa., on Tuesday morning, Oct. 5, 1920, of pneumonia, after an illness of about a month. In his death, the Wyoming Valley loses one oflits most eminent and best loved citizens, and the loss of so strong a participant in the activities of the Valley will leave a gap most difficult to fill. Despite his more than three score and fifteen years, Mr. Stearns, at the time of his death, was president of the Wilkes-Barre City Hospital, Wyoming National Bank, and the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, chairman of the Board of the Vulcan Iron Works, and a director of the Spring Brook Water Supply Co., and of the Wilkes-Barre Lace Manufacturing Co. Mr. Stearns came of New England stock, a descendant in the eighth generation of Charles Stearns who was admitted freeman in Watertown in 1646. Irving Ariel Stearns was born Sept. 12, 1845, in Rushville, N. Y., a son of George W. and Miranda (Tufts) Stearns. He was graduated from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, N. Y., in the celebrated Class of 1868. After graduation, he was assistant professor of chemistry in charge of the analytical laboratory for a year, then went to Wilkes-Barre in 1869, as engineer in the office of R. P. Rothwell, at that time the leading mining engineer of the region. From 1871 to 1872, he was superintendent of the McNeal Coal & Iron Co. of Schuylkill County, Pa. and in 1872 succeeded to Mr. Rothwell's business when the latter became editor of the Engineering & Mining Journal of New York. From 1872 to 1885, Mr. stearns was in private practice as a mining engineer, handling a great amount of business in the anthracite region, including the building of the bridges at Shickshinny and Pittston, and the surveying and mapping of many of the individually operated mines. His practice extended throughout the country, with numerous examinations and reports upon mining properties in Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Arkansas, Colorado, California, Wyoming, Idaho and Utah; he was responsible for the design and execution of the Lehigh Valley Railroad Co.'s great Tifft Farm improvements at Buffalo, N. Y. including canals, docks, coal stocking plant, etc. He was commissioned Quartermaster of the Ninth Regiment, N. G. P., March 29, 1880, was promoted to Major on May 15, 1884, and resigned Apr. 1, 1885. He always retained his interest in the National Guard and was trustee and president of the Ninth Regiment Armory Association.

Jan 1, 1922

By R. V. Norris

IRving Ariel Stearns died at his home, 60 South River St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa., on Tuesday morning, Oct. 5, 1920, of pneumonia, after an illness of about a month. In his death, the Wyoming Valley loses one oflits most eminent and best loved citizens, and the loss of so strong a participant in the activities of the Valley will leave a gap most difficult to fill. Despite his more than three score and fifteen years, Mr. Stearns, at the time of his death, was president of the Wilkes-Barre City Hospital, Wyoming National Bank, and the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, chairman of the Board of the Vulcan Iron Works, and a director of the Spring Brook Water Supply Co., and of the Wilkes-Barre Lace Manufacturing Co. Mr. Stearns came of New England stock, a descendant in the eighth generation of Charles Stearns who was admitted freeman in Watertown in 1646. Irving Ariel Stearns was born Sept. 12, 1845, in Rushville, N. Y., a son of George W. and Miranda (Tufts) Stearns. He was graduated from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, N. Y., in the celebrated Class of 1868. After graduation, he was assistant professor of chemistry in charge of the analytical laboratory for a year, then went to Wilkes-Barre in 1869, as engineer in the office of R. P. Rothwell, at that time the leading mining engineer of the region. From 1871 to 1872, he was superintendent of the McNeal Coal & Iron Co. of Schuylkill County, Pa. and in 1872 succeeded to Mr. Rothwell's business when the latter became editor of the Engineering & Mining Journal of New York. From 1872 to 1885, Mr. stearns was in private practice as a mining engineer, handling a great amount of business in the anthracite region, including the building of the bridges at Shickshinny and Pittston, and the surveying and mapping of many of the individually operated mines. His practice extended throughout the country, with numerous examinations and reports upon mining properties in Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Arkansas, Colorado, California, Wyoming, Idaho and Utah; he was responsible for the design and execution of the Lehigh Valley Railroad Co.'s great Tifft Farm improvements at Buffalo, N. Y. including canals, docks, coal stocking plant, etc. He was commissioned Quartermaster of the Ninth Regiment, N. G. P., March 29, 1880, was promoted to Major on May 15, 1884, and resigned Apr. 1, 1885. He always retained his interest in the National Guard and was trustee and president of the Ninth Regiment Armory Association.

Jan 1, 1922

By I. Fatt

Laboratory relative permeability data on reservoir rock are obtained on samples which are not subjected to overburden pressure during the permeability measurements. These data are then used for calculating the performance characteristics of reservoirs in which the rock is under the pressure of the overburden. Recent observations have shown that the permeability and porosity of reservoir sandstones are decreased by application of overburden pressure. These observations led us to a study of the effect of overburden pressure on the relative permeability characteristics of sandstones. A previous note from this laboratory1 showed that overburden pressure, simulated by applying hydraulic pressure to the outside of a plastic mounted core. caused a reduction in permeability of the core by as much as 50 per cent at 10,000 psig. In a multiphase fluid flow system, the relative permeability at a given saturation will change if the permeability or the effective permeability changes but not if both permeability and effective permeability change by the same ratio. The tests described in this note were made to determine the effect of overburden pressure on permeability and effective gas permeability in the gas-oil system. The gas-oil system was chosen because the available equipment was best suited for studying this system. The resultant data can be applied to other systems of interest because the gas permeability in the gas-oil system is the permeability of the nonwetting phase and, as such, is equivalent to the gas permeability in the gas-oil-water system and to the oil permeability in the oil-water system. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Cylindrical test plugs, one in. in diameter and one in. long, were cut from sandstone core samples from three different reservoirs. After extraction in toluene, the plugs were mounted in Lucite by conventional core mounting methods.3 The core properties are given in the legend in Fig. 1. The mounted cores were machined to fit the apparatus shown in Fig 4. Air permeabilities as a function of overburden pressure were measured by connecting lines (1) and (2) to a conventional air permeameter. To measure porosity changes as a function of overburden pressure, the lines leading to (1) and (2) and the core were saturated with kerosene; line (1) was capped and a small bore precision calibrated pipet was connected to (2). Changes in pore volume of the core as overburden pressure was applied were noted by reading the amount of kerosene produced into the pipet. To correct for the change in volume of the lines inside the hydraulic cell as a function of pressure, a pressure-vs-volume run was made with a solid Lucite cylinder substituted for the core. The change in volume of the lines was about 10 per cent of the change in pore volume of the core. No correction was needed for the permeability measurements because there was no measurable pressure drop in the lines at the maximum overburden pressure. Relative gas permeabilities were measured by the stationary liquid method described by Osoba, et al.' Gas saturations were obtained by allowing the kerosene from a kerosene saturated core to evaporate out. This procedure was followed

Jan 1, 1953

By C. F. Gates, H. J. Ramey

Recent literature shows that pronounced increases in oil recovery can result from the use of miscible systems in recovery operations. This literature also points out certain problems associated with maintaining miscibility, e.g., compositional changes resulting from alterations in pressure and temperature or from zone dilution. The purpose of the work described in this paper was to study miscible zones for possible use in waterflooding operations and examine the manner in which these zones break down. The fluid system selected for study was oil—terNary-butyl alcohol—water, which, because of its narrow range of miscibility, is ideally suited for investigation in short, linear systems. The laboratory-observed effects on oil recovery and zone stability of a number of variables are reported. Among the variables investigated were miscible zone size, viscosity ratio, length of travel, and interstitial water saturation. Results obtained with this system show that interstitial water adversely affects recoveries because of premature phase break. Salinity of the water further aggravates Ais situation. This effect, although pronounced for this system, would probably occur in any fluid system containing an alcohol. As expected, viscosity ratio has a decided influence on recovery efficiency and zone stability. The results also show that use of a suficieno zone size, even though the system has poor phase characteristics, yields higher oil recoveries than are obtained from straight water floods. Length-of-travel studies showed a square root relationship between zone growth and path length for favorable viscosity ratios. No such clear-cut dependence was observed under unfavorable viscosity conditions. INTRODUCTION As new oil reserves have become increasingly more difficult and expensive to find and develop, the oil industry has devoted more and more time and money to finding more efficient methods for exploiting known reserves. The increasing number of water floods is one manifestation of this attempt to improve oil recoveries from existing fields. Since considerable quantities of oil are by-passed by the waterflood process, it is only a partial answer to the problem. The search continues. Of late, several proposed processes have received the critical attention of investigators. Among them are gas drives, in situ thermal reactions and miscible displacements. The present paper is concerned with miscible displacements in conjunction with water floods. Recent literature1- reports that, under proper conditions, oil recoveries from LPG floods, propane sweeps, condensing gas drives, etc., approach 100 per cent of the oil in place in the region contacted by the flood. This literature also points out some of the problems associated with these processes, one of the main ones being the maintaining of miscibility. Compositional changes resulting from pressure and temperature variations or from zone dilution give rise to phase breaks and loss of miscibility, the conclusion being that, after loss of miscibility, much of the beneficial influence of the zone is lost.' The results of the subject work show that, if sufficient zone material exists ahead of a phase interface, considerable improvement in oil recovery can be obtained. In order to increase our understanding of the behavior of miscible systems as they degenerate into immiscible processes, a laboratory system having rapid deterioration characteristics was needed. The fluid system oil—ter tiary-butyl alcohol (TBA)—water possesses these properties and was the system investigated. Although these fluids are different from those generally employed in miscible studies, an understanding of their behavior can be applied to other miscible slug processes. However, under conditions where mass transfer maintains a miscible system through multiple contacts, e.g., enriched gas drive or high pressure gas drive, the observed behavior of alcohol zones would not be applicable. The variables of interest were zone size, viscosity ratio, length of travel, initial water saturation, rate and core characteristics. Of these, only the effects of the following on zone breakdown and oil recovery are reported in detail: (1) zone size, (2) path length, and (3) initial water saturation. The effects of viscosity ratio and core characteristics are discussed in conjunction with other variables. Although initial water saturation is not envisioned as important to the phase behavior of hydrocarbon systems, e.g., LPG, it is important in alcohol systems. The properties of the fluids and cores used are given in Table 1. As previously stated, this fluid system was selected because of the limited range of miscibility

By R. Schuhmann

As a response to rapidly growing specialization in various branches of metallurgy, it is proposed that undergraduate education in metallurgical engineering should be built up around four principal scientific themes: 1—thermodynamics, 2—structure, 3—mechanics, and 4-—rate processes. THE following quotation from a recent article by von Bertalanffyl describes very well the situation which today challenges curriculum designers in all branches of science and engineering: "Modern scientific education is presented with a well known dilemma. The amount of facts in modern science, and in any of its smallest branches, is enormous. Life in general, and the academic curriculum in particular, is short. The abundance of factual data, as well as the intricacy of modern scientific techniques, experimental and theoretical, necessitates utmost specialization. This specialization, unavoidable though it is, involves serious danger for both the education of the scientist and the social function of science. "In so far as the advancement of science is concerned, history shows that interconnection of different fields and problems is a most important basis of progress. Many of the paramount achievements of science arose on borderlines, and from the synthesis of formerly separate fields . . ." Specialization in subfields of metallurgy has become a serious educational problem only in about the last decade. The growth in specialization, almost as a necessity, has paralleled the rapid growth in metallurgical knowledge during this period. Moreover, in planning future educational policies, the educator must be concerned not only with the rate of increase in metallurgical knowledge and with the concomitant rate of increase in specialization, but also with the second derivatives, that is, with the rates of increase of the rates of increase. These second derivatives are positive and large; the growths being dealt with are self-catalyzing, or like a chain reaction. As a measure of specialization, the length of the list of different kinds of metallurgies can be considered, the kinds of metallurgy which represent one person's particular interests and those of other practicing metallurgists. To start with, there are physical metallurgy, process metallurgy, and mineral dressing, then mechanical metallurgy, metal processing, foundry metallurgy, corrosion, solid state physics, high temperature metallurgy, welding, powder metallurgy, nuclear metallurgy, etc. Each of these fields is growing so rapidly that any one metallurgist can hope at best to keep up to date in only one or two. What is the impact of all these "metallurgies" on metallurgical education and metallurgical curricula? In answering this question, it can be said, first, that educators have resisted fairly well the temptations to split up metallurgy, with different curricula, different options, degrees with different labels, and the like—degrees are still given in plain Metallurgy and Metallurgical Engineering. In other ways, though, the pressures of specialization have had noticeable effects. There is a tendency to think of these "metallurgies" as the important subdivisions of Metallurgical Engineering and to work up

Jan 1, 1956

• In 1949 the United States imported 7,400,000 tons of iron ore; Chile, Sweden and Canada, in that order of importance, supplied over 80 pct of this amount. U. S. imports have increased from 3 pct of the total supply in 1940 to 8 pct in 1949. • Mica has been successfully synthesized by scientists of the National Bureau of Standards. quartz, magnesite and bauxite, plus a fluorosilicate compound to act as a crystallizing agent, are heated to 2500°F in a platinum-lined crucible and as the furnace cools mica crystals grow. The key to parallel growth to make sheets is in precision control of temperature. • Inland Steel Co. of Chicago has taken an option to lease from Steep Rock Iron Mines, Ltd., of Canada -- a large undeveloped acreage in the vicinity of Steed Rock Lake, Ontario -- for the purpose of exploring and developing a new iron ore mine. The exploration program is expected to begin at an early date. •A 20-yr test conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines with the cooperation of Cleveland-Cliffs indicated that chemically treated timbers last from 2 to 3-1/2 times as long as untreated ones set in the same passageway. Of the three reagents used, zinc chloride gave the best result -- 13.3 yr as compared to 3.8 yr for untreated timber. •Senator Pat McCarran charged that President Truman used a "shotgun approach" to the taxation problem when he accused the mining industry of enjoying excessive depletion exemptions when actually mining taxes should be lowered. He introduced to the Senate a report of the National Advisory Council -recommending a decrease * The country's first graduate program of research and instruction in conservation of natural resources will begin at Yale in September. The Conservation Foundation is supplying $20,000 a year to finance the program. •Felix E. Wormser urged that adequate tariff protection should be provided to offset effects of devaluation on the domestic mining industry in an address before the Colorado Mining Association. He advocates tariffs rather than subsidy legislation, such as S. 2105, for the protection of the lead-zinc miners because the latter would promote inefficiency and "impair our priceless free market." •"It may be startling to realize that for the world's white population the per capita requirements for minerals have multiplied 30 times in 30 yr, or that more minerals have been mined in the last 40 yr than in all prior history." -- Evan Just, in "Mineral Depletion and Metal Supply." •The National City Bank in its monthly letter states that both management and the unions concede that there are too many miners trying to make a living out of the industry for its present market. •On Feb. 3 it was reported that 6000 Anaconda employes in Chile quit jobs in sympathy with striking telephone and electric workers. The government has ordered them back to work on penalty of discharge. It appears that the walkout will not be prolonged in view of the government stand.

Jan 3, 1950

By Paul Tyler

THE extensive employment of nonmetallic minerals antedates the use of metals, but only within the last two decades has the production of nonmetals begun actually to keep pace with the complicated activities which characterize the so-called Machine Age. The economic changes ushered in by the Industrial Revolution were reflected first in an increased demand for metals and for fuels. In the modern sense, therefore, the nonmetallic mineral industries are new and afford new opportunities for engineer and economist alike. A certain amount of caution is indicated, therefore, before attempting to apply ready-made formulas to the problems of these industries. Economics is not an exact science. In the field of production technology where the number of variables is fairly well known, the principles of economics are readily applicable, but as the student proceeds through the province of marketing into the unexplored regions of psychology and sociology he must distinguish carefully between scientific reasoning and purely metaphysical speculation, even when the latter masquerades as economics. The present paper attempts to prove no preconceived theorems and is designed primarily to stimulate careful thinking on sundry neglected phases of these industries. An attempt is made to differentiate the general problems into single aspects which afford promise of being comprehended separately; also, some fundamental statistical data are presented, but merely to indicate a method of scientific approach applicable to more intensive studies.

Jan 1, 1933

By R. A. Grange, H. M. Stewart

Man.; steel parts may crack if quenched directly into a bath near room temperature, but not if quenched at a temperature just above the range where martensite forms and then allowed to cool slowly to room temperature. This latter procedure, which is the basis for such modern hardening techniques as "martempering" and "isothermal quenching," may entail some sacrifice in depth of hardening but very little, if any, in intensity of hardening. In planning such treatments, it is necessary to know the upper limit of the martensite range, and often desirable to know the proportion of martensite that would form on cooling to any lower temperature; furthermore, the tendency of a particular steel to crack when quenched is unquestionably associated with the temperature range of martensite formation, and consequently knowledge of this range aids in selecting the optimum composition for a given application. Certain puzzling phenomena associated with the properties of quenched and tempered steel may be at least partly clarified as the manner in which martensite forms is more fully understood. Information on the temperature range of martensite formation, particularly with respect to how much martensite results from quenching to a given temperature, is lacking for most commercial types of carbon and low-alloy steel. These considerations led us to study martensite formation in 14 carbon and low-alloy steels. The resultant data may be directly used in the following ways: (I) for selecting the lowest quenching temperature at which no martensite will form; (2) for selecting the highest quenching temperature at which virtually all marten . site will form, thereby avoiding quenching to an unnecessarily lower temperature with attendant danger of cracking; and (3) in producing a mixture of tempered martensite and bainite, which in high-carbon steels has been found to possess somewhat better ductility than tempered martensite, yet does not require the full transformation time necessary for a completely bainitic (austempered) structure. PART I. OBSERVATIONS OF MARTENSITE FORMATION IN FOURTEEN CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY STEELS Transformation of austenite to pearlite or bainite can be conveniently studied by observing the change that occurs over a period of time at constant temperature; such studies are the basis of the isothermal transformation diagram (S-curve). This isothermal technique is not applicable to martensite formation, which occurs within a time interval too small to measure, at least by any ordinary means. For all practical purposes, therefore, martensite may be regarded as forming only during cooling and not during a period of time at constant temperature. As austenite is cooled below

Jan 1, 1947

By H. M. Stewart, R. A. Grange

Man.; steel parts may crack if quenched directly into a bath near room temperature, but not if quenched at a temperature just above the range where martensite forms and then allowed to cool slowly to room temperature. This latter procedure, which is the basis for such modern hardening techniques as "martempering" and "isothermal quenching," may entail some sacrifice in depth of hardening but very little, if any, in intensity of hardening. In planning such treatments, it is necessary to know the upper limit of the martensite range, and often desirable to know the proportion of martensite that would form on cooling to any lower temperature; furthermore, the tendency of a particular steel to crack when quenched is unquestionably associated with the temperature range of martensite formation, and consequently knowledge of this range aids in selecting the optimum composition for a given application. Certain puzzling phenomena associated with the properties of quenched and tempered steel may be at least partly clarified as the manner in which martensite forms is more fully understood. Information on the temperature range of martensite formation, particularly with respect to how much martensite results from quenching to a given temperature, is lacking for most commercial types of carbon and low-alloy steel. These considerations led us to study martensite formation in 14 carbon and low-alloy steels. The resultant data may be directly used in the following ways: (I) for selecting the lowest quenching temperature at which no martensite will form; (2) for selecting the highest quenching temperature at which virtually all marten . site will form, thereby avoiding quenching to an unnecessarily lower temperature with attendant danger of cracking; and (3) in producing a mixture of tempered martensite and bainite, which in high-carbon steels has been found to possess somewhat better ductility than tempered martensite, yet does not require the full transformation time necessary for a completely bainitic (austempered) structure. PART I. OBSERVATIONS OF MARTENSITE FORMATION IN FOURTEEN CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY STEELS Transformation of austenite to pearlite or bainite can be conveniently studied by observing the change that occurs over a period of time at constant temperature; such studies are the basis of the isothermal transformation diagram (S-curve). This isothermal technique is not applicable to martensite formation, which occurs within a time interval too small to measure, at least by any ordinary means. For all practical purposes, therefore, martensite may be regarded as forming only during cooling and not during a period of time at constant temperature. As austenite is cooled below

Jan 1, 1947

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from the Circular to Authors. The field is the unit in this tabulation. In cases of fields extending across State boundaries, such as Rodessa, it is suggested that each State author treat the section of the field in his State as a unit, and by a footnote indicate that the field extends into an adjacent State. Each space in Table 1 may represent one of four possibilities; either it is not applicable to the particular field, or the proper entry is not determinable, or the proper entry may be determinable but is not determinable from data available to the author, or the proper entry is determinable. When spaces are not applicable, leave blank; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable from data available to the author, please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author, make such entries. y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. The entry of an 0 is a positive declaration, and an important declaration where it is in order. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entry need not be hedged to such extent as when the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. It is thought that the nearest whole numbers are sufficiently accurate for our purposes except as to percentage of sulphur in oil. If an author desires to report any other figures to tenths, he may do so. The quantity of gas produced should include, where possible, gas sold or otherwise marketed, and gas blown into the air, burned as flares or otherwise wasted. Segregation of these figures would be interesting if the authors can make such segregation. In any event, the figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir. Under the columns on "Depth," the average depth to the top of the productive zones and to the bottom of the productive wells, when subtracted, should give the approximate thickness of the productive zone. For fields where this is not true

Jan 1, 1940