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By E. C. Reed

Drilling operations in Nebraska during 1942 were reduced to approximately 50 per cent of the previous year's record. Forty- No new fields were discovered, but the Barada field was extended and developed. Deeper drilling in the Dawson field was disappointing in view of the high expectstions held for the Viola, but some small Viola production did result, the first from

Jan 1, 1943

By R. M. Brick

SEGREGATION can occur only in cast alloys that solidify over a range of temperatures with a difference in composition of liquid and solid phases within this range (ignoring monotectic systems and chemical reactions as in rimming. steels). Thus a pure binary eutectic alloy should show no segregation unless undercooling occurs for one of the solid constituents of the eutectic; e.g., chill-cast Al-12 per cent Si alloys. The phasial condition implicitly described above-solidification over a range of temperatures with a compositional difference between solid. and liquid-is found in nearly all solid solutions or combinations of solid solutions and eutectics. Metastable conditions of solidification of these types of alloys cause coring; i.e., a difference in composition between the center of a dendrite and its periphery. This composition gradient can be detected usually only by microscopic examination of etched structures; it is a "micro" effect. The gradient of more immediate industrial concern is that between the center of a cast section and the surface layers. This gross (macro) effect is usually determinable only by sampling of the casting at different points, with chemical analyses of each sample. If the compositional difference is of the same type as in coring, the first parts to freeze being enriched in higher-melting-point constituents, and vice versa, the effect is called normal segregation. When what is apparently the first part of the casting to solidify shows a higher concentration of low-melting-point constituents, the effect is called inverse segregation. These macro effects are quite separate from the micro effect, coring, yet the latter must be. described first because it is an essential part of the picture. CORING Solid Solution, Ni-Cu The nickel-copper phase diagram is reproduced in Fig. Ia, in which the solid lines represent the equilibrium liquidus 1, 3, 7 and solidus 2, 5, 8, and where the vertical 1, 4, 8 represents a 55 per cent Cu alloy. Upon moderately rapid solidification, the first dendritic axes of composition 2 (see Fig. 1b) start to form at a temperature somewhat under I. Solidification continues by growth of the dendritic nuclei, but at temperature 4 the increment solidifying is of composition 5. The rapidity of this crystal growth prevents diffusion of nickel and copper atoms from adjusting the composition of the entire dendrite at 5, which it would be under equilibrium conditions. The average composition of a specific dendrite, or the entire solid phase, at temperature 4 might be that indicated

Jan 1, 1944

By O. C. Wheeler

The principal interest in the oil situation in Colombia during the year centered around the enactment of the new petroleum law and the applications for concessions subsequently made by various interests. The year was a comparatively uneventful one from the standpoint of actual operations of drilling and development. There was a falling off both in exploratory work and in the development of producing properties; and as a result of curtailment of production, the output of oil from the country dropped to the lowest level since the completion of the looping of the Andian pipe line to the coast in 1927. Legislation Law No. 371 of 1931, with its Regulatory Decree No. 1270, was enacted during the year and marked Colombia's attempt to encourage more extensive exploration and development of the prospective oil resources of the country. Some of the outstanding provisions of the law are as follows: Tracts may be acquired by a concessionnaire directly and by transfer ranging from 5,000 to 100,000 hectares, except in certain reserved territories east of the summit of the eastern cordilleras where the maximum is increased to 200,000 ha. A security deposit of $1 per hectare, minimum $25,000, is required on government grants, and is returned to the concessionnaire only upon the fulfillment of stipulated terms of the law. Rentals, increasing progressively from 10c per hectare per year the first two years to 50c per hectare the sixth year, are required up to the start of the production period (beginning of development). The concession terminates 30 years after the beginning of the production period and can be extended for 10 years more at the option of the contractor. Wells must be produced at no less than 25 per cent of their maximum capacity. Royalties on oil from national lands vary from 2 to 11 per cent of the gross product, depending on the distance of the concession from the port of loading. Petroleum from private property is subject to a governmental tax varying from 1 to

Jan 1, 1932

By Oliver B. Hopkins

During 1931 Peru maintained its position as the ninth oil-producing country of the world, with an output somewhat greater than that of Trinidad and Argentina, and considerably less than for Colombia and Mexico. Outside of the three old producing fields, there was little or no activity of importance; no new areas were brought in and no extensive wildcat drilling was done. On the other hand, the old fields continued to produce at a rate only slightly below normal and such restriction as existed may be attributed to market and not to field conditions. Political disturbances during the spring led to several strikes in the field, causing temporary suspension of activities there. However, such troubles were of short duration and no permanent loss of production was sustained. The production in barrels during the past three years for the three coastal fields of Peru has been as follows: The oil industry in Peru is relatively old; 29 wells were drilled in the Negritos area between 1888 and 1898. Prior to 1900 the production was relatively insignificant but from 1900 until 1929, it has slowly but steadily increased to a maximum annual production of over 13,000,000 bbl. The potential production of the fields since 1939 has exceeded the production of those years; the actual production has been controlled by market conditions. The production of the property of the International Petroleum CO. since 1900 has been just over 100,000,000 bbl. The production from the Peruvian fields will doubtless remain for some years at approximately the same level as during the past few years.

Jan 1, 1932

By C. H. Pishny, Raymond M. Carr, E. J. Dickinson

Petroleum development in Oklahoma during the year 1932 was rather colorless. The crude price structure, while it was relatively stable, was too low to encourage wildcat drilling and proration restrictions were such that producing wildcats were usually faced with the drab prospect of being limited to 50 bbl. per day. Proration in flush and semiflush areas was for the most part successfully accomplished. Military enforcement of proration rulings was deemed necessary at Oklahoma City. The trend toward cost cutting and abandonment of unprofitable wells continued through the year. It is estimated that 1500 wells were abandoned and it is not unlikely that as many more were shut down which will never produce again. Oklahoma crude oil stocks were reduced by approximately 11 million barrels in 1932. It is generally conceded that inventories of material have been appreciably reduced. Leasing activity was limited principally to rental reductions and to close scrutiny of all lease holdings. There were numerous "leasing plays" based on geophysical information but with few exceptions they were small. It is estimated that over 15 per cent of the acreage under lease at the beginning of 1932 was surrendered during the year. There was a tendency through the year to prospect shallow pay sands formerly passed by in the search for deeper production. This is especially true of the Seminole area, where the Calvin sand received considerable attention, and where some good wells were completed. Prices There were two price changes during the year that affected the majority of crude sales. Using 36 gravity A.P.I. as a basis of comparison, the price was increased on April 11 from $0.77 to $0.92. On Dec. 16, the price dropped to $0.69. During the fall months there were several postings higher than this schedule but all postings were at the same level at the end of the year.

Jan 1, 1933

By James M. Winston

When I began my career (the first assignment was mucking the "drainage" ditch) an experienced miner told me, "Remember son, happiness is a journey, not a destination. . . ." If you missed the 100th Anniversary of AIME in New York this year, you are missing the journey. There are not enough superlatives to describe the event. Especially since New York is "known to have it all." An Indefinable Plus There was a little something different at this meeting. I cannot explain what, but there seemed to be more of everything. There were more wives there this year-what a pleasure to see all the lovely women mingling through the conference- which was reflected through our own attire and mannerisms. In fact, everyone looked so great, we checked to see if it really was a convention of miners. You wives keep coming to all of the events, because so much is added by your presence.

Jan 1, 1971

By Cyril Wells, Robert F. Mehl

The diffusion of carbon in gamma iron plays an essential role in many metallurgical processes. In carburizing, in graphitizing, in homogenizing, in the formation of pearlite from austenite, and in other processes, migration of carbon in gamma iron occurs.1'2 A full understanding of the rate at which these processes occur obviously requires a knowledge of the rate of diffusion of carbon. In carburizing, for example, the depth of carbon pentration is determined by the carbon concentration in solid solution at the surface, and by the rate of diffusion inward of the carbon. Until reliable data on the rates of diffusion of carbon are available it is unlikely that a full quantitative description of this process will be obtained. In the formation of pearlite from austenite, the segregation of carbon and alpha iron from the austenite obviously requires the diffusion of carbon; the rate at which pearlite nodules grow is evidently controlled at least in part by the rate of diffusion of carbon; it is unlikely that we shall understand the factors that determine the rate of growth unless data on rates of diffusion of carbon, and the variation of these with composition, grain size, and temperature are available. Accordingly it was decided: (1) to determine, more accurately than hitherto, the diffusion coefficients of carbon in austenite over a wide temperature and a wide concentration range, (2) to study the influence of grain size and impurities on this diffusion coefficient, and (3) to study the effect of manganese and nickel on the rate of diffusion of carbon in the austenite of manganese and nickel steels, respectively; the influence of carbon on the rate of diffusion of manganese and of nickel will be made the subject of later papers. The rate of diffusion of carbon in gamma iron has been studied by Runge3 by Tammann and Schonert4, by Bramley and co-authors,5-14 and

Jan 1, 1940

By Cyril Wells, Robert F. Mehl

The diffusion of carbon in gamma iron plays an essential role in many metallurgical processes. In carburizing, in graphitizing, in homogenizing, in the formation of pearlite from austenite, and in other processes, migration of carbon in gamma iron occurs.1'2 A full understanding of the rate at which these processes occur obviously requires a knowledge of the rate of diffusion of carbon. In carburizing, for example, the depth of carbon pentration is determined by the carbon concentration in solid solution at the surface, and by the rate of diffusion inward of the carbon. Until reliable data on the rates of diffusion of carbon are available it is unlikely that a full quantitative description of this process will be obtained. In the formation of pearlite from austenite, the segregation of carbon and alpha iron from the austenite obviously requires the diffusion of carbon; the rate at which pearlite nodules grow is evidently controlled at least in part by the rate of diffusion of carbon; it is unlikely that we shall understand the factors that determine the rate of growth unless data on rates of diffusion of carbon, and the variation of these with composition, grain size, and temperature are available. Accordingly it was decided: (1) to determine, more accurately than hitherto, the diffusion coefficients of carbon in austenite over a wide temperature and a wide concentration range, (2) to study the influence of grain size and impurities on this diffusion coefficient, and (3) to study the effect of manganese and nickel on the rate of diffusion of carbon in the austenite of manganese and nickel steels, respectively; the influence of carbon on the rate of diffusion of manganese and of nickel will be made the subject of later papers. The rate of diffusion of carbon in gamma iron has been studied by Runge3 by Tammann and Schonert4, by Bramley and co-authors,5-14 and

Jan 1, 1940

By Gaudin. A. M., S. C. Sun

THIS paper presents the results of a study of the relationship of the electrokinetic or zeta potential to flotation phenomena. The relationship is established on the experimental evidence that mineral behavior in flotation and in cataphoresis is generally governed by the chemical properties and amount of the reagents adsorbed at mineral surfaces. Cataphoresis1-5 or electrophoresis is the name given to the movement of a charged particle in a liquid medium under the influence of an applied electric field. Mineral behavior in cataphoresis, as indicated by the magnitude and sign of its ionic charge, can be represented by the term zeta potential. In this paper, the zeta potential represents the difference in potential between the immovable liquid layer attached to the surface of a solid particle and the movable liquid layer in the body of the liquid, and is the result of the tendency of ions on the surface of the particle and within the liquid boundary layer to establish a condition of equilibrium. A high positive zeta potential means that the mineral surface is dominated by cations, a high negative zeta potential indicates domination by anions, and a low zeta potential indicates that the surface is influenced almost equally by cations and anions. In terms of observed quantities the zeta potential is given by the relation [z = 47ruu(300)$ Kx] in which z is the zeta potential expressed in in volts, u the viscosity of the solution in poises, u the velocity of particles in centimeters per second, x the impressed potential gradient in volts per centimeter, and k the dielectric constant of the solution in c.g.s. units. A convenient source for the derivation of the equation is the book by Thomas,6 The term zeta coefficient is an expression coined to denote the difference between the magnitude of the zeta potential of a mineral suspended in solution A, and that of the same mineral suspended in solution B, which consists of solution A and an additional chemical agent, but is at the same pH. For example, the difference between the zeta potential of galena particles in distilled water and that in any chemical solution at the same pH is a zeta coefficient. Or, when the zeta potential of a mineral particle is measured first in distilled water, then in a mixture of water and copper sulphate, and finally in a mix-

Jan 1, 1946

By G. S. Hume

Production of petroleum and natural .gas increased in Canada in 1940 over the previous year. Alberta produced more than 97 per cent of the total Canadian production of 8,718,053 bbl. of oil, an increase for this province of nearly 12 per cent, whereas in Ontario and New Brunswick, where the production is relatively small, there was a slight decline. In Alberta the main producing field is Turner Valley, on the eastern edge of the foothills southwest of Calgary, and development continued in this field in 1940 with the completion of 36 wells, all of which obtained production. In the Red Coulce field, close to the International Boundary, near Coutts, no new wells were drilled and the seven producing wells showed a decline of 900 bbl. below the previous year. Also, in the Wainwright field of east central Alberta, four wells, yielding heavy crude oil, produced 4000 bbl. less oil than in 1939, owing possibly rather to discontinuous operation than to actual decline in potential yield. This decline was more than offset by production from a new field 40 miles northeast of Wainwright, at Borradaile, producing oil of 14" to I 5° A.P.1. There was a small increase in production during 1940 from the Del Bonita field, in southern Alberta, where the production is from two wells. The outstanding development of the year was the completion of Standard Oil Princess No. 2 well in the Steveville area, on the Plains 100 miles east of Calgary. This well was completed late in December with an initial flow1 of 520 bbl. of 26.3" A.P,I. oil, and 12,750 M cu. ft. of gas from the upper part of the Mississippian limestone. It has opened up a new field and given a further proof of the potentialities of the Southern Plains. The production of petroleum in Canada is shown in Table I. Since most of the yield comes from Alberta, the production is shown from the various fields in Table 2. The sale value of the petroleum produced in Canada in 1940 exceeded 11.1 million dollars, which is still somewhat less than the value of the natural gas production, shown in Table 3. Table i.—Production of Petroleum in Canada" Barrels Province 1939 1940 New Brunswick........ 20,101 21,161 Ontario............... 206,196 186,471 Alberta............... 7,595,000 8,493,237 Northwest Territories. . 17,013 8,493,23717.184 Total............... 7,838,310 8,718,053 Value............... $10,353,351 $11.113,000 0 Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa. Turner Valley, Alberta Turner Valley continues to be by far the largest producing field in Canada (details are given in Table 4), The limits of the Pr in- field are now Known. On the east the oil area is bounded by the gas cap, which in turn is cut off on its east side by a major overthrust fault; on the west, ii is defined by edge water at a level of 4roc

Jan 1, 1941

By G. S. Hume

Production of petroleum and natural .gas increased in Canada in 1940 over the previous year. Alberta produced more than 97 per cent of the total Canadian production of 8,718,053 bbl. of oil, an increase for this province of nearly 12 per cent, whereas in Ontario and New Brunswick, where the production is relatively small, there was a slight decline. In Alberta the main producing field is Turner Valley, on the eastern edge of the foothills southwest of Calgary, and development continued in this field in 1940 with the completion of 36 wells, all of which obtained production. In the Red Coulce field, close to the International Boundary, near Coutts, no new wells were drilled and the seven producing wells showed a decline of 900 bbl. below the previous year. Also, in the Wainwright field of east central Alberta, four wells, yielding heavy crude oil, produced 4000 bbl. less oil than in 1939, owing possibly rather to discontinuous operation than to actual decline in potential yield. This decline was more than offset by production from a new field 40 miles northeast of Wainwright, at Borradaile, producing oil of 14" to I 5° A.P.1. There was a small increase in production during 1940 from the Del Bonita field, in southern Alberta, where the production is from two wells. The outstanding development of the year was the completion of Standard Oil Princess No. 2 well in the Steveville area, on the Plains 100 miles east of Calgary. This well was completed late in December with an initial flow1 of 520 bbl. of 26.3" A.P,I. oil, and 12,750 M cu. ft. of gas from the upper part of the Mississippian limestone. It has opened up a new field and given a further proof of the potentialities of the Southern Plains. The production of petroleum in Canada is shown in Table I. Since most of the yield comes from Alberta, the production is shown from the various fields in Table 2. The sale value of the petroleum produced in Canada in 1940 exceeded 11.1 million dollars, which is still somewhat less than the value of the natural gas production, shown in Table 3. Table i.—Production of Petroleum in Canada" Barrels Province 1939 1940 New Brunswick........ 20,101 21,161 Ontario............... 206,196 186,471 Alberta............... 7,595,000 8,493,237 Northwest Territories. . 17,013 8,493,23717.184 Total............... 7,838,310 8,718,053 Value............... $10,353,351 $11.113,000 0 Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa. Turner Valley, Alberta Turner Valley continues to be by far the largest producing field in Canada (details are given in Table 4), The limits of the Pr in- field are now Known. On the east the oil area is bounded by the gas cap, which in turn is cut off on its east side by a major overthrust fault; on the west, ii is defined by edge water at a level of 4roc

Jan 1, 1941

By Henry Morris

AS STATED last year, in a similar review by David White and the author, any review of the petroleum industry purporting to cover such a wide field can only mention the principal facts. This incompleteness is necessitated not only by the limitations of space, but by the delay in receiving detailed information. The principal feature of the year, in Europe, was a material increase in the consumption of petroleum products, and a notable decline in prices. Although there we relative increases in production in Roumania and Poland, the total did not by any means keep pace with the increase in consumption, which, as usual, was supplied "from America and both the Near and Far East. The interest in Asiatic production, as usual, centers around the Persian fields, which, according to the annual report of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. published at the close of last year, it was estimated would amount to 3,775,000 tons by the close of the fiscal year, March 1, 1924. Russia also showed an increase in production. In Africa there was nothing of outstanding interest in production, although Egypt showed a decrease and the goverment refinery at Port Said was closed.

Jan 3, 1924

By O. G. Lellep

IN every country economic circumstances prescribe the method used to produce a commodity at lowest cost. In Pennsylvania a man's wages for working 4 hr buys a ton of coal wholesale; in Germany a laborer must work 40 hr, or ten times as long. In western Europe, therefore, conservation of fuel is of primary importance, and recent practices of burning lime and cement differ from those employed in the United States. This paper presents data collected during a trip through western Europe in 1953. Considered uneconomical, shaft kilns for burning cement disappeared in the United States two generations ago. But because required capital investment is low and operation greatly improved, shaft kilns are still used to some extent in Europe, where fuel costs are high, and are even included in designs for plants under construction. During the last 50 years shaft kilns have been maintained at the same physical size, while their output has been increased at least four times.

Jan 7, 1954

By THOMAS J. CLIFFORD

IN 1926, finer grinding began to be a feature of the milling practice of the Southeast Missouri lead district. Nothing since the adoption of flotation has caused greater changes and greater improvement in results. The trend toward finer grinding, with the consequent discarding of tailing at finer sizes, and consequent lower assays in lead, continued to progress until 1931, when the abnormally low price of lead brought a halt: that is, the better metallurgical results obtained would not offset the increased costs due to higher power and necessary maintenance. Since 1931 a slight tendency toward the discard of coarser tailing has taken place. , In 1926, larger rod mills i.12 ft. 1 in. by 6 ft. 6 in.) than any previously used in the district were installed in cue plant, and a new primary crushing plant, of greater capacity was built. This combination demonstrated immediately the better metallurgical results obtainable by finer grinding and all the mills now running have adopted the practice.

Jan 1, 1934

The production of petroleum in India (including Burma) increased from 334,811,624 gal.' ill 1936 to 350,322,222 gal. in 1937, the highest figure in the history of the industry. The increase in 1937 was clue to an increase of some 20 million gallons from Singu, 51/2 million gallons from Attack, 11/4 million gallons from Thayetmyo, and 1 mi1lien gallons from Digboi, accompanied by decrcases of 91/2 million gallons from Yenan-gyaung and 2 million gallons from Yenangyat,. The amount of gasoline produced from natural gas during the year was 10,616,313 gal. in Burma and 456,780 gal. in the Punjab. Yenangyaung Field.—The Yenangyaung field maintained its reputation of being one of the most wonderful oil fields in the world. The total production during 1937 was less than in the previous year but the resources of the field as a whole are sufficient to ensure an adequate supply of oil for many years. At the end of 1037 there were 2910 wells producing in the field. Besides a large number of ells drilled to shallow sands, this total includes 180 hand-dug wells, whose continued existenice is one of the interesting features of the field. During the year the deep drilling activities of 1936 in the southern part of the field died down, owing to the disappointing results obtained. On the eastern flank the limit of present economic extension of the oil sands was approximately demareated. Satisfactory results continue to be obtained from gas drives in the leased blocks; gas is also injected for repressuring and storage. Casing policies continue to be carefully designed to protect the oil sands against the danger of flooding by water and, in general, production methods throughout the field are characterized by a realization of the importance of the conservation of oil and gas and the prevention of waste, whether simple or underground. Singu Field.—-In 1937 the increase in the output from the Singu field was continued. This increased production was due not only to the rapid development of the valuable area in the southern part of the field but also to the successful results obtained from the first wells to produce from behind the practically completed river training wall of the Burmah Oil

Jan 1, 1939

The production of petroleum in India (including Burma) increased from 334,811,624 gal.' ill 1936 to 350,322,222 gal. in 1937, the highest figure in the history of the industry. The increase in 1937 was clue to an increase of some 20 million gallons from Singu, 51/2 million gallons from Attack, 11/4 million gallons from Thayetmyo, and 1 mi1lien gallons from Digboi, accompanied by decrcases of 91/2 million gallons from Yenan-gyaung and 2 million gallons from Yenangyat,. The amount of gasoline produced from natural gas during the year was 10,616,313 gal. in Burma and 456,780 gal. in the Punjab. Yenangyaung Field.—The Yenangyaung field maintained its reputation of being one of the most wonderful oil fields in the world. The total production during 1937 was less than in the previous year but the resources of the field as a whole are sufficient to ensure an adequate supply of oil for many years. At the end of 1037 there were 2910 wells producing in the field. Besides a large number of ells drilled to shallow sands, this total includes 180 hand-dug wells, whose continued existenice is one of the interesting features of the field. During the year the deep drilling activities of 1936 in the southern part of the field died down, owing to the disappointing results obtained. On the eastern flank the limit of present economic extension of the oil sands was approximately demareated. Satisfactory results continue to be obtained from gas drives in the leased blocks; gas is also injected for repressuring and storage. Casing policies continue to be carefully designed to protect the oil sands against the danger of flooding by water and, in general, production methods throughout the field are characterized by a realization of the importance of the conservation of oil and gas and the prevention of waste, whether simple or underground. Singu Field.—-In 1937 the increase in the output from the Singu field was continued. This increased production was due not only to the rapid development of the valuable area in the southern part of the field but also to the successful results obtained from the first wells to produce from behind the practically completed river training wall of the Burmah Oil

Jan 1, 1939

By F. Hulsmeir

The increase in drilling activities in Venezuela noted during the latter half of 1932 continued, and 132 wells were completed in 1933 as compared to only 60 completed during 1932. Notwithstanding these new wells, 114 of which were producers, and also the appreciable increase in artificial lifting installations during the year, Venezuelan production was maintained at only a slightly higher level than in 1932, amounting to 120,356,000 bbl. in 1933 as compared to 118,167,000 bbl. in 1932. However, at the end of the year the daily average production of 358,-860 bbl. was 16 per cent higher than that at the end of 1932. Exports from Venezuela recorded an increase of approximately 4 per cent, totaling

Jan 1, 1934

By Gordon W. Hodgson, Edward Tipman

INT'RODUCTION An appreciable number of the oil fields in Western Canada are accumulations of heavy black oils in more or less unconsolidated sandstones. When the crude oils are produced by conventional means, they are frequently contaminated with both sand and oilfield water. The water is usually present as emulsified water, and the sand and other solid materials are suspended in the emulsions. The presence of the solid material in the crude oils is troublesome and, in general, little is known about the behavior of suspended solid particles in emulsions. The Stokes equation describes the behavior of suspended particles in homogeneous fluids in terms of particle size, density differential, and fluid viscosity. In the case of an emulsion, particle size and density differential introduce no difficulties, but considerable doubt centers around the viscosity term. It has been reported1 that the viscosity of an emulsion is related to the viscosity of the continuous phase by an expression of the type: n = a, (1 + a C) where n is the viscosity of the emulsion, n,, is the viscosity of the continuous phase, a is a constant, C' is the volume concentration of the disperse phase. The value of 17, the coefficient of the concentration term, has been determined for various systems, and has been found to vary from a value of 1 to 4.75. The value of 2.5 has been found to be applicable to a large number of systems, and this is the value that is widely used in the equation which then becomes the Einstein equation for the viscosity of emuls~ons. It is of considerable significance that neither the particle size nor the viscosity of the disperse phase enters the expression; the expression for the viscosity of the enlulsion is based solely upon the viscosity of the continuous phase and the concentration of the disperse phase. For crude oil emulsions the Simha equation and the data presented by Fukushima and lchimurai show a non-linear dependence of the viscosity ratio on the water concentration. While it is undoubtedly reasonable to use these data for predicting the viscosity of a specific emulsion, and while it is equally reasonable to expect the calculated viscosity to predict the settling rate of a solid spherical particle in the emulsion by means of Stokes equation, there seems to be no direct evidence that this calculation is indeed sound for describing the settling rates of solid particles in emulsions of water in crude oils. PROCEDURE A direct approach to the problem was thus indicated. Laboratory equipment was designed and built for the direct determination of the rate-of-fall characteristics of solid particles in emulsions of water in oil. Although the apparatus incorporated the basic design of conventional falling-ball viscometers, the study was concerned directly with the rate-of-fall characteristics of particles in emulsions, rather than with the viscosity of the emulsions as such. The crude oil used in this study was a very heavy black crude oil—the McMurray oil obtained from oil-soaked sands outcropping on the Athabasca River in northeastern Alberta. It was produced from the sands by strip mining followed by hot-water separation of the oil in the separation plant of the Alberta Government at Bitumount'. The primary plant product was a wet crude oil containing about 5 per cent solids and 35 per cent water. The final plant product was only slightly different from the native oil, having lost only about 4 per cent of its bulk as light ends during dehydration distillations. In the present investigation two kerosene dilutions of the McMurray oil were used in addition to the dry plant product. The McMurray oil contained 1.92 per cent solids. Analysis of the solids by X-ray diffraction showed the presence of kaolinite, pyrite, and illite as major constituents. with lesser amounts of quartz. Particle size of the pyrite and quartz was less than 10

Jan 1, 1957

Both drilling and production in Rumania showed increases in 1934 over 1933. The drilling totaled 1,138,000 ft. and production 63,500,-000 bbl., being increases of 50 and 15 per cent, respectively. During the year production gradually increased from 155,000 bbl. per day in January to 180,000 bbl. in September, and then declined slightly to the end of the year. The increases were largely due to competitive drilling in the Gura Ocnitei field (including west extension to Viforata). Wells completed during the year totaled 238, of which 215 were oil producers. The outstanding development of the year was the discovery by Steaua Romana of what appears to be a major field at Bucsani. Other important discoveries were a three-mile west extension of the Gura Ocnitei fault to Viforata and a five-mile east extension of the Moreni field to Calinesti. Strictly speaking, the latter cannot as yet be called an extension. Oil sands have been corded in the Meotic, and in all probability production will be established in 1935. The Calinesti discovery greatly restricts the unproved area between Moreni and Baicoi, and the probabilities of

Jan 1, 1935

By Walter Miller

The broad picture of petroleum refining engineering during 1934 continued to show a tendency in the direction of highly specialized processing improvements, particularly in manufacture of lubricating oil. The slowing up of the trend toward higher octane products in non-premium gasoline noticed in 1933 was definitely established as a fact by 1934 development, with just a slight indication of recession. No outstanding engineering achievements can be credited to 1934 in refinery cracking, unless the completion and successful operation of the 30,000-bbl. crude capacity combination cracking and skimming unit at Texas City, Texas, and a 20,000-bbl. similar unit in the East can be listed as such. Development and improvement was largely a continuation of previous lines of endeavor. Such trend as there is shows a continnation in the direction of very large integrated skimming and cracking units. A lessening of the cost of ethyl lead, coupled with the reaching of the octane number "ceiling," kept the subject of "reforming" low-octane gasoline into high-octane products pretty well in the background. Considerable interest, however, was shown during the year in cracking and polymerizing of refinery gases into high-octane motor fuel. The commercial development and application of this activity was greater in 1934 than during any previous year. Fair yields of gasoline of satisfactory stability and high antiknock value were reported, ranging from 2 to 8 gal. per 1000 cu. ft. of fixed refinery gas, yields varying with both the nature of refinery gas treated and processing methods. Assuming economic feasibility, regarding which there is still difference of opinion, gas polymerization offers the industry a possible outlet for its gases more in keeping with its basic chemical composition and value. The increased interest of railroads and heavy-duty truck and tractor manufacturers served to focus more attention on diesel fuels. The publicity given the Union Pacific diesel train, the Burlington "Zephyr" and others operated on special diesel fuels served to revive the intimations and fears of several years ago as to the ultimate replacement of the gasoline motor by diesel engines in even the passenger car field. How-

Jan 1, 1935