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By D. T. MacRoberts

This paper embodies the results of theoretical studies concerning gas reservoirs, especially the effect of drilling programs of various intensities upon pressure depletion and ultimate recoveries. The primary objective has been to determine the net quantity of recoverable gas that could be obtained as a result of each additional well, in comparison with the gas . that might be secured from a single well ideally placed with respect to both acreage and geological structure. No method is yet known whereby the relative merits of intensive and sparse drilling can be compared experimentally; a reservoir must either be drilled closely or developed with wide spacing, but both programs cannot be conducted simultaneously. Hence, the analytical method seems to be the only approach to the problem. While the present state of our theoretical knowledge does not offer a precise solution to the problem of gas flow in sand bodies, it takes such appropriate cognizance of the limitations of the methods used as to restrict any answer obtained to the realm of engineering accuracy. In solving the problem for the average gas field, it was found that practically the same answers resulted as to pressure distribution, regardless of the size of the drainage radius, even though the latter was assumed to vary from a few feet as a minimum to that of the entire reservoir as a maximum. Such limits represent extreme possibilities; therefore, the practical conditions that are associated with normal development programs, in which wells are placed in the center of tracts varying in size from 40 to 640 acres, will of necessity result in less extreme variations than those indicated in the tables accompanying this paper. Stated more concisely, the amount of gas unrecovered at abandonment (of the particular field used for illustrative purposes) will lie somewhere between 4.6 and 6 per cent of the total original content, no matter how intensively the field is drilled. Gas reservoirs may be divided into two general types, those in which the energy is intrinsic, and those of which the energy is extrinsic. † The first type contains energy in the form of a compressed gas, which expands

Jan 1, 1938

By P. E. Baker

A paper by A. S. Odeh' expounds a capillary-flow theory which purportedly provides a mechanism whereby relative permeability depends on oil-water viscosity ratio and may be greater than unity for high viscosity ratios. Core-measurement results are presented to support the theoretical development. This paper presents arguments to indicate that (1) the theoretical treatment is basically incorrect, (2) data reported are insufficient to support the conclusions and (3) literature cited does not support the theory or the conclusions. PROPOSED MECHANISM The essence of Odeh's theory is that oil flows as a filament along the central portion of a straight, uniform capillary of radius r filling the tube to a radius ri. Surrounding the filament of oil is an annulus of water in which exists vortex motion but no net flow. The water is described as being in "microscopic but not macroscopic" motion. The oil filament is aided in its flow by moving upon the water vortexes as if on roller bearings. This process is presented as a steady-state flow condition. The first objection to the existence of vortexes in the presumed water layer is that the theory provides no mechanism whereby they can be established. This fact was mentioned by C. F. Weinaug in a discussion published with Odeh's paper. The capillary contains no irregularities or obstructions, and the water is not presumed to be in turbulent flow. Apparently, cylindrical symmetry is assumed; therefore, the supposed vortexes must be toroidal, the line of zero velocity being a circle concentric with and in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the capillary. This is a rather difficult picture to accept. The author referred to Yuster's statement' that he had observed the "spinning in place" of otherwise immobile water. Yuster's article does not describe the conditions under which this motion was observed or the means used to observe it. However, the article does make clear that the observed motion was not in a straight, uniform capillary but, rather, apparently oc-cured in some kind of dead-ended pore space. Obvious- ly, such a report cannot be considered as support for Odeh's concept of two-phase capillary flow.

By J. E. Sandor, P. F. Schmidt

A general review of the present knowledge of the semiconductor/oxide interface is given, with emphasis on silicon and germanium. The electrical properties of clean surfaces and the changes that occur upon oxidation are described. A brief disczcssion of the methods and mechanisms of oxidation of silicon is given, and the interaction between the semiconductor substrate and the oxide phase is considered. Physical properties of the oxide film, charge storage effects due to the dielectric, and some device applications of oxide films on semiconductors are discussed. THIS paper will be heavily preoccupied with the elemental semiconductors germanium and silicon. Undoubtedly some injustice is done thereby to other semiconductor-oxide systems, but it is not readily possible to cover all aspects of so vast a field in the present review. In considering the semiconductor/oxide interface, we may start out by discussing briefly an idealized clean semiconductor surface, and may then follow the changes brought about by oxidation, as the oxide is allowed to grow progressively thicker. The references given are not a complete list, but are to be taken as guides to the literature. Tamml suggested in 1933, based upon the study of a one-dimensional asymmetrical potential model, that localized surface states may appear at the surface of a crystalline lattice; it was pointed out by Fowler that these states should occur in pairs. shockley3 examined the origin of such surface states on the basis of a more general one-dimensional model and found that surface states may appear in the forbidden region between the highest filled and the lowest vacant band. This happens when the two bands overlap, as, for instance, the "s" and ('p" bands of the diamond structure. In a three-dimensional model these levels would produce a surface band which is half-filled for diamond, and the number of surface states should be approximately equal to the number of surface atoms. This picture of the surface has been refined by more recent theoretical work, like Handler's4 and Koutecky and Tomasek's~ without introducing essential modifications. When these concepts were applied to semiconduc-

Jan 1, 1965

By L. W. Kempf

DURING the recent development of aluminum alloys for free-cutting screw-machine rod, it became desirable to know something of the solubility of lead and bismuth in liquid aluminum and in some aluminum alloys. The literature is not particularly helpful in supplying this information. These portions, therefore, of the constitutional relationships of aluminum-ismuth and aluminum-lead alloys were investigated by thermal analysis and by chemical analysis of samples taken from aluminum-rich melts in equilibrium with precipitated lead or bismuth. The solubility of lead and bismuth in some liquid aluminum-copper alloys was also investi-gated. Some consideration was also given to the solubility of these elements in solid aluminum. Among the earliest investigators of the aluminum-lead and aluminum-bismuth systems was Wright,1 who reported that melts of aluminum and lead formed two layers indicating limited liquid solubility. Under his conditions, the aluminum-rich layer was reported to contain 1.91 per cent Pb and the lead-rich layer, 0.07 per cent Al. Subsequently, Pecheau2 found that in aluminum-rich alloy melts with more than 10 per cent Pb three layers were distinguishable. He reported that the middle layer contained from 3 to 10 per cent Pb. He also found that the melting point of aluminum appeared to be lowered slightly by the addition of lead. Gwyer3 investigated these alloys and found evidence of a slight lowering of the freezing point of aluminum by the addition of either lead or bismuth. He found no evidence of solid solubility in either case and made no attempt to determine the liquidus curves. Hansen and Blumen-thal4 reported that the addition of lead distinctly lowered the solidifica-tion point of aluminum. They also found that bismuth lowered the melting point of aluminum. Guillet5 reported almost complete mutual immiscibility for the aluminum-bismuth alloys in the liquid state. Bohner6 examined the effect of various concentrations of lead and bis-muth on the electrical conductivity of aluminum. He found decreases in conductivity on annealing at 500° C. as compared with the conductivity of the same alloys on annealing at 300° C.

Jan 1, 1938

By David H. Browne

The use of coal-dust fired reverberatory furnaces, or indeed of rever-beratory furnaces of any description, was for the Canadian Copper Co. a matter of necessity, and not of choice. For 20 years smelting had been done in blast furnaces alone, and with the Herreshoff furnaces used prior to 1904 there was no trouble in treating fine ores. But little flue dust was produced, and this, following the time-honored custom, was wetted down and put back with the charge. Whether the flue dust really smelted, or whether it was worn out by being chased around in a circle, was a problem that troubled no one. With the installation of modern blast furnaces and high-pressure blowing engines, in 1904, flue dust commenced to assert itself. Evidently more dust was made than could be smelted, but so many vital. problems engaged our attention at that time that this minor question was pushed to one side. In 1906, the details of blast-furnace smelting and the conversion of matte had been worked out to a satisfactory conclusion, and the ever-increasing piles of flue dust and fine ore on the stock yard demanded serious consideration. Numerous experiments in sintering, briquetting, mixing with converter slag, forming blocks of flue dust with green-ore fines and cement, and so on, were undertaken. None of these showed much promise. Our problem was still further complicated by the question of treating converter slag. The ore was basic, the slag was not needed as a furnace flux, and it was felt that under these conditions the old method of pouring slag in molds and resmelting in the blast furnace was an unnecessary expense. If the converter slag could be settled in basic-lined reverberatory furnaces, in which at the same time flue dust and green-ore fines could be smelted, two problems might thus be solved. Reverberatory practice with our ores was, however, an unknown factor. As carried on in the West, on siliceous ores and concentrates, at least 25 per cent. of fuel was required, and even this ratio depended greatly

Jan 1, 1915

By F. Lynwood Garrison

The future of the Witwatersrand depends upon the possibility of mining and milling profitably the large tonnage of relatively low-grade gold ores known to exist in that area. The problem must be solved if the existence of the gold-mining industry in South Africa is to be saved and continue. To show that this disaster may be avoided, or at least postponed for another decade or longer, the following official statement is of interest: "There is a fairly large area of possible orebody on the East Rand of whose value and depth from the surface we have some though not very accurate knowledge. There is a far larger area south of the Central Rand which probably carries much payable ore, but at depths that at present appear too great to mine. Finally, there is a narrow strip of country over 100 miles in length stretching south from the Rand to Klerksdorp and beyond, which may contain large ore-bodies. The Witwatersrand rocks outcrop over portions of this ground and in places conglomerates occur in it that carry small bodies of payable ore. There is reason to believe that conglomerates of the Witwatersrand system exist over all this strip, though they are for the most part covered by later sediments. It seems probable also that there are large blocks of payable reef in this belt, at any rate in the area that lies close to the present western limit of the developed mines. The structure in this neighborhood is however very complicated and to prove the orebodies will be both difficult and costly." Ores in the Witwatersrand It should be explained in this connection that the conglomerates mentioned here were originally old gravel beds now consolidated into bedded sedimentary rocks, very hard because strongly cemented with secondary silica. The gold exists in this cement and is rarely found in the pebbles composing the rock or bed called locally reef. It is important to realize that these gold deposits are beds; not veins as generally understood by mining engineers and geologists. In addition to these low-grade ore reserves we have also to consider the ore left behind in the old stopes of the upper levels near the surface,

Jan 1, 1931

By T. G. Chapman

THE writer has carried on experimental work for several years with respect to the simultaneous dissolution of gold by cyanide and the adsorption of the dissolved gold on activated charcoal in ore pulps, followed by the recovery of the charcoal by flotation. The results of this experimental work have been sufficiently encouraging to suggest a new process based on the principle of simultaneous dissolution and adsorption of gold, applicable to certain ores and tailings that cannot be treated to advantage by countercurrent decantation or filtration. Applications for patents have been filed and The Dorr Company, Inc. has the exclusive right to license the use of the process. The purpose of this paper is to describe such a process, state its possible advantages and immediate field, and give some results obtained on a laboratory scale. EARLY EXPERIMENTAL WORK In the early stages of the experimental work attempts were made to precipitate soluble gold from cyanide solutions with zinc and aluminum in ore pulps followed by flotation of the precipitated gold, but since the results were not promising enough to continue with these precipitants attention was directed to carbon. The first experiments with carbon comprised the addition of cyanide and alkali to the ore pulp, the addition of carbon at or near the end of the dissolving period, and the recovery of the carbon by flotation. With this method of procedure the assumption was made that carbon functioned as a precipitant of gold from cyanide solutions and as such should be added as are other precipitants, including zinc and aluminum; namely, at the end of the dissolution period. The assumption was then made that carbon functioned as an adsorbent, and that if such assumption proved to be correct, it could be added with success to the ore pulp at the time of adding the cyanide. The first experiment along this line was successful in that the feasibility of the dissolution of gold by cyanide and the simultaneous extraction of the dissolved gold by carbon in ore pulps was demonstrated, at least with respect to such treatment on a laboratory scale.

Jan 1, 1939

By W. A. Schaeffer, M. Albertson

The Yates field is situated in northeastern Pecos County, Texas. Its productive area is about 15,000 acres. Production is chiefly from limestone of Permian age. Depths of wells vary from 1100 to 1800 ft. Initial productions range from a few barrels to 8000 bbl. per hour. The field outlet has always been prorated. Gas-oil ratios originally varied from less than 100 cu. ft. up to 8000 cu. ft. per barrel at allowable production rates. The average ratio was about 500 cu. ft. Fig. 1 shows the structure of the field and the location of the Tippett lease, on which the original experimental tubing work was done. Before the latter part of the year 1929, little actual effort in practice had been given to determination of the conditions under which the highest efficiencies may be realized in naturally flowing wells. For the preceding few years attention had been given to gas-oil ratios and their possible reduction by maintenance of back-pressure by choking at the well head. Some attempts had been made toward reduction of ratio by bottom-hole choking. In late 1929, the Shell Petroleum Corp. started the experimental installation of specially designed flow columns adapted to high-pressure flowing conditions in the Yates field. The objectives in view were the attainment of low gas-oil ratios at low rates of flow and the maintenance of high bottom-hole pressures. All naturally flowing wells should be provided with a suitable eductor string immediately upon completion of the well, so that the benefits of efficient flow will be derived from the beginning. This paper presents a method of tubing for efficient flow and a discussion of some complex factors which influence well behavior. Factors Influencing Gas-oil Ratios Many factors influence the production of gas from naturally flowing wells. The writers believe that in some instances gas control is effected mainly in the reservoir itself, in others in the well bore, and in still others both sets of factors may be significant. Some wells apparently have penetrated productive zones in which practically all of the gas is closely associated with, and mostly dissolved

Jan 1, 1932

By T. G. Chapman

The writer has carried on experimental work for several years with respect to the simultaneous dissolution of gold by cyanide and the adsorption of the dissolved gold on activated charcoal in ore pulps, followed by the recovery of the charcoal by flotation. The results of this experimental work have been sufficiently encouraging to suggest a new process based on the principle of simultaneous dissolution and adsorption of gold, applicable to certain ores and tailings that cannot be treated to advantage by countercurrent decantation or filtration. Applications for patents have been filed and The Dorr Company, Inc. has the exclusive right to license the use of the process. The purpose of this paper is to describe such a process, state its possible advantages and immediate field, and give some results obtained on a laboratory scale. Early Experimental Work In the early stages of the experimental work attempts were made to precipitate soluble gold from cyanide solutions with zinc and aluminum in ore pulps followed by flotation of the precipitated gold, but since the results were not promising enough to continue with these precipitants attention was directed to carbon. The first experiments with carbon comprised the addition of cyanide and alkali to the ore pulp, the addition of carbon at or near the end of the dissolving period, and the recovery of the carbon by flotation. With this method of procedure the assumption was made that carbon functioned as a precipitant of gold from cyanide solutions and as such should be added as are other precipitants, including zinc and aluminum; namely, at the end of the dissolution period. The assumption was then made that carbon functioned as an adsorbent, and that if such assumption proved to be correct, it could be added with success to the ore pulp at the time of adding the cyanide. The first experiment along this line was successful in that the feasibility of the dissolution of gold by cyanide and the simultaneous extraction of the dissolved gold by carbon in ore pulps was demonstrated, at least with respect to such treatment on a laboratory scale.

Jan 1, 1939

By C. E. Reinhard

A useful accelerated weathering test should be capable of placing any series of metals quantitatively in the same order of endurance as that noted under a particular set of actual exposure conditions. The development of such a test must necessarily depend to a considerable extent upon data obtained from a wide variety of exposures. This paper offers preliminary data from exposure tests on nine metals placed in 11 locations in the Lehigh Valley, within a radius of 20 miles from Palmerton. The exposure conditions vary from a severe industrial atmosphere to a pure rural atmosphere. The data are offered as evidence of the necessity for the identification and evaluation of the variables of corrosion and as illustration of some of the variations to be considered in the development of a useful accelerated test. It is quite clear, from this evidence, that a useful accelerated test must be versatile to the extent of showing the probable variations of corrosion resulting from differences in atmosphere as well as from differences in the metals. The paper is presented solely with the object of pointing out the wide variations in relative merits of several common metals in resisting corrosion and without any thought of initiating controversy regarding the merits of particular metals. For this reason the metals are designated only by symbols in the tables and no key is given to these symbols. Test Procedure Specimens, 4 by 6 in., were cut to accurate dimensions from each of the following metals or alloys: aluminum, ascoloy, copper, copper steel, galvanized iron, and zinc. Additional grades of these metals bring the total to nine types. Since it was impossible to obtain the required number of copper-steel specimens having equal surface conditions of rust and scale, it was thought advisable to pickle these specimens in a hot solution of 10 per cent. sulfuric acid. All other specimens were carefully cleaned in ether and alcohol and weighed just prior to exposure. Four specimens of each type of metal were mounted on a test rack by means of porcelain insulators. The racks were so constructed that

Jan 1, 1929

By Henry M. Howe

Many direct processes have been proposed for the treatment of oxidized ores of copper by reducing the copper oxide to the metallic state, and by separating it from its impurities by a subsequent fusion. The radical objection common to all the methods which have come to my notice, except those in which sulphur plays the prominent part, is that the very deoxidizing agent which effects the reduction of the copper oxide, inevitably reduces at the same time a very considerable part, if not the whole, of the iron which almost invariably accompanies copper in its ores. The result is that, when the ore is subsequently fused, a very great quantity of the already reduced iron separates from the slag along with the copper, alloying with it, and necessitating costly subsequent operations for its separation. Thus, at Perm, in the Urals," the product of the fusion of ferrnginous copper oxides is a mixture of one hundred and fifty-tive parts of highly cupriferous pig iron with two hundred and fire parts of very impure and ferruginous black copper, containing Pome 10 per cent. of' carbon and iron, though free from sulphur, and of course very difficult to refine. If, in order to avoid this reduction of iron to the metallic state, the reducing action be made feebler, it inevitably results that a considerable part of the copper as well escapes deoxidation; and, consequently, the slags are so rich that it becomes necessary to treat them subsequently in order to recover the copper which they contain. Thus,. in treating native copper, at Lake Superior, where the reducing action is purposely made feeble in order to prevent the deoxidation of the iron, the slags from the first fusion of the ore carry so much copper as to render it imperative to treat them again, which is done in a cupola. And yet, in spite of so far weakening the reducing action as to cause a notable slagging of the copper, a very considerable reduction of iron actually takes place. These are the two dangers which threaten the smelter of oxidized copper ores. If he wishes to avoid slagging his copper, he must have so strong a deoxidizing action as to reduce a great deal of his

Jan 1, 1879

By C. E. Reinhard

A useful accelerated weathering test should be capable of placing any series of metals quantitatively in the same order of endurance as that noted under a particular set of actual exposure conditions. The development of such a test must necessarily depend to a considerable extent upon data obtained from a wide variety of exposures. This paper offers preliminary data from exposure tests on nine metals placed in 11 locations in the Lehigh Valley, within a radius of 20 miles from Palmerton. The exposure conditions vary from a severe industrial atmosphere to a pure rural atmosphere. The data are offered as evidence of the necessity for the identification and evaluation of the variables of corrosion and as illustration of some of the variations to be considered in the development of a useful accelerated test. It is quite clear, from this evidence, that a useful accelerated test must be versatile to the extent of showing the probable variations of corrosion resulting from differences in atmosphere as well as from differences in the metals. The paper is presented solely with the object of pointing out the wide variations in relative merits of several common metals in resisting corrosion and without any thought of initiating controversy regarding the merits of particular metals. For this reason the metals are designated only by symbols in the tables and no key is given to these symbols. Test Procedure Specimens, 4 by 6 in., were cut to accurate dimensions from each of the following metals or alloys: aluminum, ascoloy, copper, copper steel, galvanized iron, and zinc. Additional grades of these metals bring the total to nine types. Since it was impossible to obtain the required number of copper-steel specimens having equal surface conditions of rust and scale, it was thought advisable to pickle these specimens in a hot solution of 10 per cent. sulfuric acid. All other specimens were carefully cleaned in ether and alcohol and weighed just prior to exposure. Four specimens of each type of metal were mounted on a test rack by means of porcelain insulators. The racks were so constructed that

Jan 1, 1929

By Ralph J. Schilthis

Several investigators1-8 have reported evidence of the existence of native or connate water in oil-and-gas-bearing strata. Both water and salt have been detected in cores of oil sands that yielded oil and gas exclusively when produced. Electrical logs often reveal unexpectedly low resistivity through oil and gas sands, indicating the presence of some material that is a considerably better conductor of current than oil and gas. Furthermore, calculationsg of the oil and gas content of reservoirs based upon production and reservoir-pressure decline data indicate appreciably lower values than are arrived at under the assumption that the pore space is occupied completely by oil and gas. Origin and Occurrence of Connate Water in Oil-and-gas-bearing Formations The view has been expressed, 10-15 and is generally agreed upon, that the expulsion of oil and gas material from source beds and the subsequent migration and accumulation occurred in the presence of salt water. As the strata that usually form reservoirs for oil and gas were laid down by, or in the presence of, ancient seas, the pore space within the strata must have been saturated with salt water before the entrance of the oil and/or gas. Thus, the accumulation of oil and/or gas in the upper regions of structures suitable for reservoirs must have required displacement of the connate water therefrom. In the absence of any forces other than gravitational, it would be expected that the displacement of the connate water out of the zones finally occupied by gas and oil would be complete, and that the vertical distribution of gas, oil, and water in a reservoir would be strictly in the order of their densities. Apparently, however, surface and interfacial forces that will not permit complete segregation of the fluids are active within the capillary spaces comprising a reservoir. The effects of these forces on both accumulation and production of oil and gas have been the subject of study by a number of investigators.16-37 In general, the view is held that the character of most materials that make up the reservoir rock leads to preferential wetting of the rock by

Jan 1, 1938

By Ezequiel Ordonez

The great activity with which the oil resources of the northern Cantons of the State of Veracruz have been developed has largely resulted from the great success obtained by the important explorations carried out since 1902 in the Ebano district in the North, and several years later near Tuxpam, in the South. It must not be thought that these successes were quickly obtained, since the preliminary studies by good experts, the acquisition of what were thought to be the most promising coast lands, the extensive clearing thereof, and finally the number of unsuccessful drillings at great depth, signified an original outlay of some tens of millions of dollars before finding commercial oil. The discovery of oil in industrial quantities at Cerro de la Pez, Ebano district, and the famous Dos Bocas gusher some years later, which was burned, once and for all made famous the Veracruz coast, where today is concentrated the Mexican output of mineral oil. In 1917, this production was nearly 61,000,000 bbl. It is well known that this output represents only a fraction of what the wells in actual production can furnish, because with adequate means of transportation and storage, the present extraction could be somewhat over 300,000,000 bbl. a year. These enormous potential oil resources of the Veracruz coast proceed from a relatively small number of wells, scattered over a few oil fields, separated from each other by large unexplored areas, wherein may be found other favorable fields which, in time, will undoubtedly become just as great centers of oil production. Experts who know our Gulf Coast believe that lands with commercial oil resources lie not only between the Pgnuco and Tuxpan Rivers, but that indications are that the oil zone of Mexico, with more or less interruption, takes in the coast zone from Northern Tamaulipas to the foot of the Sierra Madre of Chiapas, and the banks of the Usumacinta River. This generalization is not merely the outcome of optimism, but is the result of the persistency with which one finds, throughout this Gulf Coast, the most usual characteristics upon which we depend for recognizing oil-bearing lands.

Jan 1, 1920

By E. L. Bruce

THE district of. Patricia, in the province of Ontario, lies northwest of the Albany River and extends northward to Hudson's Bay. Formerly this was the unorganized district of Keewatin, the southern part of which was divided in 1912 between the provinces of Manitoba and Ontario. The interprovincial boundary now runs north from Lake of the Woods for 275 mi. and thence northeast 375 mi. to Hudson's Bay. This district is comparable in size to all the older part of Ontario south of the Canadian Pacific Railway east of Lake Huron-thus it is roughly one-third of the whole of the present provincial area. The central part of this great triangle is one of the least accessible parts of Canada. From it streams flow southward to the English River, southeastward to the Albany, northward to Hudson's Bay and the Hayes River, and westward to Lake Winnipeg. None of the streams is large and canoe travel is not easy. The only industry it has ever had is the trade in furs. Until the development of the airplane on a commercial basis, the only means of travel was by canoe or dog-train. There is not a mile of railway in the whole district. The two areas to be dealt with lie in the southwestern part of Patricia. Red Lake is 50 mi. east of the Manitoba boundary and 75 mi. north of the transcontinental railway from Cochrane to Winnipeg. Woman Lake is 50 mi. farther east and slightly farther north. The late Dr. D. B. Dowling, of the Geological Survey of Canada, visited Red Lake and spent some time there during his exploration survey from Lac Seul to Berens River in 1893. He also visited the Woman Lake basin during the same journey, but his examination of it was much less detailed, the great area covered by him during the one field season making it impossible to make more than a hurried reconnaissance. Some prospecting in the Red Lake district followed Dowling's exploration, but the distance from railway was too great for any systematic work to be done.

Jan 1, 1928

By David R. Maneval, Jack M. Campbell

The regulatory process by which governmental authorities acknowledge and, in turn, permit the location, construction, and operation of large scale energy-related facilities has become extremely detailed in recent years. One example of the detail that is entailed in the regulatory process is the number of permits that must be acquired by operators prior to the construction and operation of energy-related facilities. It has been estimated, for example, that 75 permits are required prior to the opening of a new coal mine in Pennsylvania while 50 are required in Kentucky. From the perspective of facility owners and operators the regulatory process often appears overly complex and may be perceived as a constraint to the corporate decision making process. From the perspective of those responsible for administering regulations, the process is perceived as a means by which public desires-pursuant to social objectives such as environmental protection and occupational safety-can be achieved. As a result of conflicting organizational interests, the clash between energy facility owners and operators and their regulators appears to be inevitable. Furthermore, the resolution of this conflict lies in the trade-off between objectives and the costs of regulation. The balance of objectives and costs is a subject of the political process and not a topic of consideration in this paper. This paper is concerned with the actual administration of regulations, that is, the implementation of that which arises from the interplay of organizational interests. The paper assumes that environmental control laws will not likely be repealed, that regulations to implement the intent of these laws are here to stay and thus the paper seeks to assess how regulations are administered at various levels of government pursuant to objectives. The paper hypothesizes that the administration of objectives (or policy) has an impact on decision making which affects energy facility decision making. While recognizing the fact that regulatory policy cannot be totally divorced from administration, this paper proceeds under the assumption that elements of the regulatory process may be examined individually. The subject of this study is limited to the interplay between regulatory agencies and their clientele.

Jan 1, 1979

By Earl Oliver

The term oil property, in this discussion, includes any type of easement or grant under which petroleum might be produced; it ranges from the mere right to drill on undeveloped wildcat acreage up to a fully developed oil property. The values of an oil property, as thus defined, vary widely according to the use for which it is intended, whether it is from the viewpoint of the speculator, the fraudulent stock promoter, the refiner and pipe-line owner, or the oil producer. The market value of a property is usually a combination of some two or more of these influences, and occasionally a combination of all of them, but we prefer to treat each viewpoint as distinct from the others, allowing the reader to make his own combination in such proportions as his inclination and property seem to require. This paper will treat the subject from the viewpoint of the oil producer. However, the other influences have such bearing on the cost of property to the producer and on the price he might obtain by its sale as to warrant brief discussion of them. Speculation, particularly lease speculation, is a parasitic growth on the oil industry, healthy enough, but of no economic value. The class of property usually dealt in for this purpose is the undeveloped lease. Its speculative value may have some relation to its probable productive value, but most frequently this value is the product of temporary excitement due to local development. The lease speculator, seeking out the trend of development or securing early information regarding a proposed test or a new discovery, immediately secures leases whose market value will be increased when the existence of such development becomes more widely known. His profits are purely unearned increment. Not proposing to spend money in exploration, he can afford to compete in purchase with the operator, who, in addition to bonus paid, must spend large sums in testing out his own acreage and that of the nearby speculator as well. It has a tendency to compel unduly high bonuses. The so-called "checker-board1' system of leasing wildcat acreage by the larger companies is on the same principle of attempting to secure the

Jan 1, 1921

By Howard Eavenson

THE mines of the United States Coal & Coke Co. are located in the Pocahontas coal field, in McDowell County, West Virginia. Twelve plants have been opened and equipped, of which, by reason of the present business depression, only nine are now in operation. These twelve plants serve eighteen mines; some of the plants having several openings, in either the same seam or in different seams, tributary to the same tipple. Only nine of these mines are now being worked at the plants in operation. Construction work was begun in 1902, and coal from the first three plants started was shipped in December of that year. An additional plant was opened in 1903, two in 1904, two in 1905, two in 1907 and the last two in 1908. On Jan. 1, 1915, the plants have been in operation an average period of 8.8 years. The rules of the company, which have been in operation since work was first begun, are similar to those in use by the H. C. Frick Coke Co. at its mines in Pennsylvania, in which "Safety First" was incorporated as early as 1907; and it has always been the policy of both companies to look carefully after the safety of their employees. Although the field is an extension of the old Pocahontas field, the mines, located upon a new branch railroad, are away by themselves, and, as is usual in such cases, the class of labor attracted at first was temporary in character. The rapid development of the mines required the employment of many new men and officials each year; and, while the accident record from 1904 to 1909 was as good as the average of the field, it was felt to be not as good as it could be made, and a determined campaign was inaugurated for preventing accidents of all kinds. Fig. .1 shows the tonnage of coal produced per fatality, both total and for inside accidents only, at our mines; the tonnage per fatality of all West Virginia mines, and of those in the Pocahontas field.

Jan 2, 1915

By W. D. Robertson, H. H. Uhlig

The intermetallic compounds MgzSn and Mg2Pb are two of the important series of stoichiometric compounds which magnesium forms with elements of the fourth group of the periodic system. Since there is a complete series of compounds, all possessing the same comparatively simple structure, a unique opportunity is presented to study their properties with respect to increasing atomic number of the anion as it varies from silicon and germanium, through tin and lead. The present work deals with the two lower members of this group, and it is hoped eventually that additional data regarding the silicide and germanide will be obtained. The results of such a complete study provide part of the essential basis for the empirical correlation and theoretical treatment which, in other systems, has contributed to an understanding of inter-metallic compounds and the metallic'state in general. Some experimental data are already available in the literature. However, they are fragmentary and limited in significance owing to the methods of preparation employed and the impure materials available at the time. It was our objective, therefore, using pure metals and improved metallurgical methods of preparation, to produce stoichiometric compounds of high purity for the study of their electrical and chemical properties. We felt that a detailed investigation of chemical properties, about which relatively little is known, combined with electrical properties, would be a significant contribution to the understanding of these compounds and in particular to the mechanism of corrosion associated with types of bonding in alloy systems. The chemical studies are reported elsewhere. Previous Investigations Previous work concerning the electrical properties of these compounds was undertaken in connection with the establishment of the two phase diagrams which are available in Hansenl and Beck. The first comprehensive investigation of the electrical conductivity of magnesium-tin and magnesium-lead alloys was made by Kurnakov and Stepanov.3 This was followed by Grube and Voss-kiihler4 who studied electrical conductivity and thermal expansion over a wide range of temperature and who, unlike Stepanov, appreciated the significance of the large solid solubility of tin in magnesium and took some precautions to obtain an equilibrium state. However, at the time these investigations were made, neither pure magnesium nor

Jan 1, 1949

By A. W. Gauger

For perhaps one hundred years scientists have been engaged in attempts at devising a satisfactory method of classification of coal. During this time many charts, tables and graphs have been proposed, some of which have had considerable merit, but no one system has been found to be applicable to all ranks of coal, nor has any one system received general acceptance. In many of the proposals, water eliminated between room temperature and 105" C. has been regarded as extraneous matter and calculations have been made to the air-dry or water-free basis. Such methods of calculation do not lend themselves to satisfactory grouping of the high-moisture coals.1, 2 A consideration not only of the properties of the high-moisture coals and their behavior on drying but of the generally accepted ideas of the coalification process and the role of water in this process indicates that water is an essential constituent of all coals and therefore should not be neglected. For example, in such low-rank coals as the lignites of the Northern Great Plains' deposits the inherent moisture of the lignite as mined plays a very important part in the physical properties thereof. Freshly mined lignite contains upwards of 30 per cent water and is extremely tough and resistant to shock. Upon exposure to the atmosphere, the lump loses part of its moisture and checks and splits, leaving a friable and broken up residue. So far as we have been able to determine, water is the only thing lost in this process and we are forced to the conclusion that moisture plays an extremely important part in the structural properties of the original lignite. With reference to the coalification process, Mack and Hulett3 pointed out in 1917 the important part that water played therein. They observed that water cannot be removed from peat or coal by pressure alone, but only as the result of chemical reaction, and suggested that peat in its early stages may be largely a hydrosol. Slow chemical changes occur over a long period of time until finally the mass becomes more largely a hydrogel. These views are substantiated to some extent by the experi-

Jan 1, 1932