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By Schneider, W. G.

IT is not my purpose to burden you with many statistics. The charts herewith should be considered merely as indicating the trend. I believe' that is what is really of interest to us. It is difficult, if not impossible to forecast with any assurance future developments, because of possible new mines, competitive materials, curtailment' or increase in the use of the metal in certain markets, and many other factors that have a vital bearing on any industry. Fig. 1 shows United States smeltet output of copper, starting with 1845. It is estimated that in 1928 the smelter output of copper will be about 1,010,000 tons. Between 1895 and 1905 it increased about 200,000 tons, and between 1905 and 1915 about 240,000 tons. Between 1915 and 1925 the increase was about 140,000 tons. This is an average increase over 30 years of about 190,00Q tons per ten-year period. At the present time the indications are that this demand for increased production will continue. As to whether or not we have the supplies or facilities to maintain this increase or a greater one, remains to be seen. Provided it is possible for United States smelters to increase their production, they should be producing at the rate of about 1,210,000 tons or more per year by 1935.

Jan 1, 1928

By David B. Reger

New discoveries of gas in the southern counties featured the petroleum industry in West Virginia during 194;. Drilling for oil increased slightly over 1944 and a small increase of initial production resulted. Out of 28 wildcats drilled, there were 16 gas discoveries and 12 dry holes. No commercial oil was found in the 28 wells.

Jan 1, 1946

US 4,134,618-Method for restoring an underground reservoir subsequent to the solution mining of an ore body of uranium, copper, nickel, vanadium, molybdenum, silver, rhenium, or selenium. Clean water a cycled through the mined area, via the injection and production wells used during mining, at a flow rate sufficient to entrain residual dissolved solids. The solids are separated at the surface and disposed of, e g., in a deep disposal well, while clarified water is recycled C A. Kossack, assigned to Atlantic Richfield Co. Jan 16, 1979 4 pp. (299-5) Filed. 12-29-77 (865,646) US 4,155,982-In situ leaching of a subterranean uranium ore deposit The ore is leached with a dilute aqueous solution of ammonium bicarbonate containing a small amount of hydrogen peroxide in order first to convert tetravalent uranium in the ore to the hexavalent state and second to dissolve the hexavalent uranium preferentially to the other metals or elements commonly occurring In such ore The uranium- enriched leach liquor IS brought to the surface, and the uranium recovered by means of adsorption on a particulate ion exchange resin, elution with an acid, and treatment with ammonia to precipitate relatively pure ammonium diuranate. G G. Hunkin, T P. Fife, and J R Stano, assigned to Wyoming Mineral Corp. May 22, 1979. 13 pp (423-7). Filed: 10- 9-74 (51 3,445). Same: Canadian 1,027,849, dated Mar. 14, 1978. US 4,157,847-In the mining of sulfur by the Frasch process hot water accumulating above subterranean sulfur from previous mining operations is recycled downward to contact and heat additional solid subterranean sulfur. Advantageously, pressurized and superheated drive water from above ground is commingled with the underground water to raise its temperature before it is recycled downward R. L Williams, R L Latiolais, J. L Gabriel, and R. L Bouis, assigned to Freeport Minerals Co June 12, 1979. 13 pp (299- 6) Filed 7-28-77 (81 9,879). US 4,158,76%1n this method for determining the uranium content of a solution obtained in the solution mining of an underground uranium ore deposit, the intensity of gamma radiation from the Th-234 daughter of U-238 emitted by the solution is determined as it impinges on a scintillator after being passed successively through filter foils of a ytterbium- tin alloy, a lutecium-tin alloy, and a hafnium-zirconium alloy This scintillation is evaluated as a measure of the uranium content To assure that the uranium-thorium conversion has reached a stable state, the measurement should be made about three months after the uranium solution has been produced R C Smith, assigned to Westinghouse Electric Corp. June 19, 1979 11 pp. (250-255). Filed. 10-20-77 (843,770).

Jan 1, 1980

By John R. Green

ROTARY kilns, varying in construction, are used in a variety of processes. Products differ and operating conditions vary according to economic requirements. All of these variables influence the degree of instrumentation and type of control necessary or profitable to install. Products fired in rotary kilns are the results of combined temperature and time treatment and the interrelation of these two factors should be kept constantly in mind in the perusal of this paper. MEASUREMENTS OF KILN TEMPERATURE The securing of proper temperatures within the rotary kiln, either of the charge or of the kiln lining in the high fire zone, are basic objectives of kiln operation; therefore the measurement of these high-temperature conditions merits first consideration.. For these measurements, radiation pyrometers, properly designed and protected, have proved adequate, particularly where records or automatic control are desired, while optical pyrometers may serve as portable indicators. Light-sensitive devices or photoelectric cells in this service are capable of producing records as well as certain forms of automatic control. High-temperature measuring devices for rotary-kiln work should have the measuring unit protected from dust, as a continued accumulation of deposit would lower the readings. Fig. I shows a typical application of radiation equipment to a rotary kiln, mounted far enough away from the sighting hole through the kiln hood to be protected from puffs or stingouts and with a sighting tube having a series of settling chambers, to prevent dust from reaching the lens. Although dust conditions inside the kiln itself usually fluctuate considerably and have their effect upon the readings at that moment, such effects are not cumulative and show as a continuous fluctuation in the temperature indicated, provided the radiation unit and recorder are responsive to such slight and rapid temperature fluctuations. The ambient temperature to which a measuring unit is subjected fluctuates from possibly o° to over 200°F., therefore these changes should have no effect upon the final reading or upon the life of the measuring unit. A very narrow sighting angle is desirable, so that measurement of temperature may be made as far as possible into the high fire zone without. effect of the flame temperature. There should be some sighting means on the measuring unit, so that the proper field may be viewed. Measurement of wall temperature taken at a point where the charge has just left the wall is less affected by dusting conditions than when taken elsewhere. Factors Influencing Temperature Table I gives an outline of the factors that produce kiln temperatures and com¬ments on the possibility of measurement and control. Of greater number and of varied influ¬ence are the factors that control when, where and how the heat is delivered to the kiln, the type of flame and the rate of

Jan 1, 1941

By J. D. Lubahn, R. P. Carreker, J. G. Leschen

The formation of slip bands in crystalline solids undergoing plastic deformation has recently been treated as a problem of nu-cleation and growth.' A simplified theory was developed and shown to be qualitatively consistent with certain experimental observations reported in the literature, such as the frequent failure of slip bands to traverse the entire crystal, the effect of specimen diameter and temperature on the yield stress, and the occurrence of incubation periods in the deformation of suddenly loaded crystals. The theory further predicts the appearance of transients in the rate of strain of a crystal when the applied stress is suddenly changed from one constant value to another. A transient consists of a discontinuous change in the strain rate followed by a gradual approach to a steady-state value. Such transient behavior apparently has not been recognized in previous experimental work. The preliminary experiments reported in the present paper were undertaken to confirm the existence of the predicted transients and thus to determine whether a more detailed treatment of the nucleation theory of slip might be theoretically and experimentally fruitful. Experimental Procedure A simple creep apparatus was assembled as shown in Fig I. Very little insulation was used on the furnace in order to facilitate rapid changes of temperature. Temperature was measured with a thermometer placed in the center of the furnace and was controlled by adjusting the Variac setting. The specimens were cold-headed in split-cylinder grips. The strain was measured as total elongation by a dial gauge sensitive to I/I0,000-in movement of the weight pan. Since the specimen gauge lengths were

Jan 1, 1949

By J. D. Lubahn, R. P. Carreker, J. G. Leschen

THE formation of slip bands in crystalline solids undergoing plastic deformation has recently been treated as a problem of nucleation and growth.1 A simplified theory was developed and shown to be qualitatively consistent with certain experimental observations reported in the literature, such as the frequent failure of slip bands to traverse the entire crystal, the effect of specimen diameter and temperature on the yield stress, and the occurrence of incubation periods in the deformation of suddenly loaded crystals. The theory further predicts the appearance of transients in the rate of strain of a crystal when the applied stress is suddenly changed from one constant value to another. A transient consists of a discontinuous change in the strain rate followed by a gradual approach to a steady-state value. Such transient behavior apparently has not been recognized in previous experimental work. The preliminary experiments reported in the present paper were undertaken to confirm the existence of the predicted transients and thus to determine whether a more detailed treatment of the nucleation theory of slip might be theoretically and experimentally fruitful. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A simple creep apparatus was assembled as shown in Fig 1. Very little insulation was used on the furnace in order to facilitate rapid changes of temperature. Temperature was measured with a thermometer placed in the center of the furnace and was [ ] controlled by adjusting the Variac setting. The specimens were cold-headed in split-cylinder grips. The strain was measured as total elongation by a dial gauge sensitive to 1/10,000-in. movement of the weight pan. Since the specimen gauge lengths were

Jan 1, 1948

By H. M. Chance

Stretching from New York southwestwardly to Georgia is a great range of hills and mountains consisting of pre-Palæozoic schists, slates, .and gneissic and granitoid rocks, known locally by many different names; in Pennsylvania as the South mountains, the Berkshire or Durham and Reading hills, and in Virginia and farther south as the Blue ridge. To the northwest of this range lies the " Great Valley," underlain by Lower Silurian limestones, and known as the Lehigh valley, Cumberland valley, Shenandoah valley, valley of Eastern Tennessee and Georgia and by other local names, but all these are parts of one valley, geologically and geographically continuous from New Jersey to Georgia. Lying upon and along the northern flank of this range of mountains, and dipping northwestwardly under the limestone of the valley, is the Potsdam formation (Primal or No. 1 of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey), which consists of sandstone or conglomerate overlain by slates. The latter are sometimes arenaceous and occasionally are replaced in part by sandstone. This formation varies from a few feet to several hundred feet in thickness. At the outcrop the slates are completely decomposed, oxidized or disintegrated, forming a belt of clay several hundred feet wide occupying the interval between the outcroppings of the sandstone and limestone. This clay-belt includes a more or less continuous series of iron-ore (brown hematite) deposite, which have been, and still are, extensively worked. The belt is more or less continuously milleralized with iron throughout its length, and hundreds of large deposits of ore have been developed and worked, producing many millions of tons of ore.

Jan 1, 1909

By C. P. Lawhon, J. P. Simpson, W. M. Evans

Data obtained under controlled test conditions using a microbit drilling machine showed that oil emulsified in water muds may either increase or decrease the drilling rate, depending upon drilling conditions. A low-viscosity oil such as diesel fuel can give drilling rates in limestone almost equal to that of water. Data obtained for water emulsified in oil muds showed little decrease in the drilling rate in water-saturated cores as the water percentage of the mud was increased above the 5- to 10-percent range. Changes in drilling rate were found to be dependent upon the oil or water concentration of the mud and upon the type of formation drilled. Changes in static filtration on paper (API filtrate) did not correlate with filtration while the mud was circulated across rock. INTRODUCTION Oil additions to water muds have been reported to increase drilling rates, provide hole stability and improve filtration control. Eckel' showed that water-base emulsion muds used in the West Texas area increased drilling rate with increasing oil concentration up to 15 percent oil by volume, but drilling rate decreased at a concentration of 20 percent by volume. Based on laboratory tests using water muds to drill shale, Cunningham and Goins' reported that drilling rates increased and tendency for the bit to ballup decreased with the addition of oil. Percentage increase in drilling rate varied with the particular formation. They showed oil additions to improve drilling rates ap proximately 75 percent in Vicksburg shale and as much as 150 percent in Miocene shale. Each investigation showed an optimum oil content for the particular formation. Most data that indicated improved filtration control due to oil additions were based on static API Eltrates through paper rather than dynamic filtration through permeable rocks. Some types of dynamic test give a better representation of filtration down-hole while drilling and might be more likely to show some correlation with drilling rate. Static filtration would be important, of course, in relation to hole stability and formation damage. This laboratory's drilling tests, conducted on water-raturated Berea sandstone, indicated that improvements in drilling rate were not evident with increasing oil concentration in water-base muds. Investigation also showed similarity between oil-emulsion (water-in-oil) muds and water-emulsion (oil-in-water) muds while drilling these formations. In Lueders limestone high concentration of water-in-oil muds and high concentration of oil-in-water muds provided the same relative drilling rates. In Berea sandstone there was a large reduction in relative drilling rate with both the oil and water muds that contained low percentages of emulsified fluid. Dynamic filtration rates of water muds on rock did not always decrease with increasing oil percentages even though the static API filtration rates on paper did decrease. Data observed in laboratory drilling of limestone and sandstone indicate that improvements in field drilling operations when water- or oil-emulsion muds are wed may not be the result of increased drilling rates but of improved hole conditions. In some cases, actual drilling rates might be slower but improved hole conditions will result in less total time on the hole. DEFINITIONS Mud pressure—Pressure of drilling fluid as measured after leaving the drilling chamber. This is considered as the approximate mud pressure just past the bit and at the face of the formation. Terrastatic pressure—Pressure representing weight of overburden. Formation pressure—Pressure of formation fluid as measured at outlet of drilling chamber. This is considered as approximate pressure of fluid in the pores of the formation. Differential pressure—Difference between the mud pressure and formation pressure. Relative drilling rate, percent—Drilling rate with experimental fluid divided by drilling rate with water times 100 equals percent. LABORATORY EQUiPMENT AND TESTING PROCEDURES The drilling equipment has been described in previous publications The microbit drill is a closed system (capacity, approximately 7 gal) that can be pressurized to 15.000 psi and heated to 500F. Main components are a drilling chamber, filter-heater, rotary-drive and variable-speed cir-

By P. F. Allen

WITH capacity of 51,000 tpd, the Morenci concentrator produces approximately 49,000 tons of tailing for final deposition. Disposal involves distribution of thickened tailing to dams in such a manner that solids can be used for dam construction and water can be impounded for reclamation. During early operation, although tonnage treated was lower, it was necessary to use orthodox disposal practices in the areas available for tailing. Trestles mounted on a series of dams, constructed of borrow material, carried the pipelines from which tailing were spigoted behind the dams. When adequate disposal areas were finally established, it became desirable to look for more efficient methods. The idea of placing the distribution pipe or manifold directly on the crest of the dam was advanced in 1945. After a period of testing, that procedure in modified form replaced the older trestle arrangement. Marked economies resulted, and time required to prepare dams for succeeding storage cycles was greatly reduced. The tailing disposal area for the Morenci concentrator lies south and southwest of the concentrator building. Ample storage space is available. A wide valley contains three sharply defined ravines lying on an average slope of 4 pct. The more central of these ravines, and the largest of the three, is known as Morenci canyon, which provides substantially more tailing storage area than the other two. Stargo canyon lies to the west; the other is appropriately named East canyon. Total area of the tailing disposal site is nearly 31/4 sq miles, or about 2000 acres. The storage area in use was somewhat more than 850 acres at the end of 1954, or 16 acres per 1000 tons of tailing to be stored daily. At the present time none of the east side dams are in regular use but they are available in emergency. There are five dams on the west side (in Morenci and Stargo canyons) as well as two auxiliary dams adjacent to No. 4 West and No. 5 West. This has made it possible to concentrate men and equipment in a smaller area with consequent savings in both manpower and machinery. Tailing Thickening: Tailing from the flotation process reaches the thickeners with a solid content of about 18 pct. The launder carrying this pulp is subdivided at a central point into seven launders carrying a proportional share to each of seven tailing thickeners, which are located in Morenci canyon close to the concentrator. Five of these thickeners are 300 ft diam and two are 325 ft diam. Thickeners are of the peripheral traction type and rakes travel at the rate of one revolution in 37 to 39 min. The entire installation provides 500,000 sq ft of settling area, or approximately 101/2 sq ft per ton of tailing to be thickened daily.

Jan 1, 1957

By J. L. Carne

ORE control is a matter of planning and supervision based on a foreknowledge of the content and distribution of ore. The Inspiration orebody is predominately a copper-sulphide blanket, overlain by an oxidized zone of copper silicates, copper carbonates, and barren capping. Most of the ore is treated by leaching, and the optimum requirement of this method is the goal toward which the mining schedule is aimed. Both open-pit operations and underground mining are used. The problems of ore control at Inspiration are: I—maintenance of metallurgical balance, 2—conservation of oxide ore, and 3—mining out of the orebody at an average grade which parallels that of the reserve figure. Prior to the fall of 1926 all of the Inspiration division ores were treated by flotation, but the mixed ores of the Live Oak—Keystone section carried too large a proportion of copper in the form of chrysocolla for satisfactory flotation. For this type of mixed ore the leaching process now in use had been worked out, and the plant was put into operation in the fall of 1926. The process is known as the ferric sulphate leach, and the leaching solvents contain both ferric sulphate and free sulphuric acid. Sulphide copper in the form of chalcocite is leached by the ferric sulphate, and the oxidized copper minerals are dissolved by the sulphuric acid. From the beginning of operations to the present time the plant has treated some 67 thousand tons of ore having an average copper content of 1.142 pct, of which 0.605 pct has been in the form of oxidized copper minerals. The plant is currently being operated at the rate of 11,500 tons per day, 7 days per week. However, this tonnage is produced in 6 days of mine operation. The average current grade is approximately 1 pct copper, of which about 50 pct is present as oxidized or acid-soluble copper. Close control of metallurgical procedures is a vital factor in operation of the plant and is in turn dependent upon careful regulation of feed. An excess of sulphide copper requires the presence of more ferric sulphate in the leaching solvents. On the other hand, an excess of ferric sulphate in the presence of a low sulphide feed seriously reduces the efficiency of electrolytic precipitation in tank house operations. This condition must be avoided at all costs. An additional factor must be considered. It is known that the sulphide content is predominant in the ore which remains in the reserve. To maintain the necessary sulphide-oxide proportion, so that the entire reserve will mine out at both a grade and a sulphide-oxide ratio that will be permissible throughout the remaining life of the property, it is obvious that the oxide reserve must be currently preserved to as great an extent as possible. Fortunately much of the oxide reserve is found in the open-pit operation. This happy circumstance adds flexibility to the procedure and makes it possible to maintain the close regulation necessary to insure best overall results, both mining and metallurgical. The two ore streams from the pit and underground operations join at the coarse-crushing plant, and proper control must be exercised before the ore reaches this point. The open pit is currently providing about 55 pct of the ore and underground operations the balance of production. Both operations are under a single superintendent so that the closely interrelated problems may be more readily controlled. The least flexible of the two producing units is the underground mine, where the mining method is block caving. Although a block of ground may be undercut and developed, characteristics of the material determine its caving action. The ore in the chutes must be drawn. The area currently mined from underground is in a zone predominately sulphide and is generally

Jan 1, 1953

By J. L. Carne

ORE control is a matter of planning and supervision based on a foreknowledge of the content and distribution of ore. The Inspiration orebody is predominately a copper-sulphide blanket, overlain by an oxidized zone of copper silicates, copper carbonates, and barren capping. Most of the ore is treated by leaching, and the optimum requirement of this method is the goal toward which the mining schedule is aimed. Both open-pit operations and underground mining are used. The problems of ore control at Inspiration are: 1-maintenance of metallurgical balance, 2-conservation of oxide ore, and 3-mining out of the orebody at an average grade which parallels that of the reserve figure. Prior to the fall of 1926 all of the Inspiration division ores were treated by flotation, but the mixed ores of the Live Oak-Keystone section carried too large a proportion of copper in the form of chrysocolla for satisfactory flotation. For this type of mixed ore the leaching process now in use had been worked out, and the plant was put into operation in the fall of 1926. The process is known as the ferric sulphate leach, and the leaching solvents contain both ferric sulphate and free sulphuric acid. Sulphide copper in the form of chalcocite is leached by the ferric sulphate, and the oxidized copper minerals are dissolved by the sulphuric acid. From the beginning of operations to the present time the plant has treated some 67 thousand tons of ore having an average copper content of 1.142 pet, of which 0.605 pct has been in the form of oxidized copper minerals. The plant is currently being operated at the rate of 11,500 tons per day, 7 days per week. However, this tonnage is produced in 6 days of mine operation. The average current grade is approximately 1 pct copper, of which about 50 pct is present as oxidized or acid-soluble copper. Close control of metallurgical procedures is a vital factor in operation of the plant and is in turn dependent upon careful regulation of feed. An excess of sulphide copper requires the presence of more ferric sulphate in the leaching solvents. On the other hand, an excess of ferric sulphate in the presence of a low sulphide feed seriously reduces the efficiency of electrolytic precipitation in tank house operations. This condition must be avoided at all costs. An additional factor must be considered. It is known that the sulphide content is predominant in the ore which remains in the reserve. To maintain the necessary sulphide-oxide proportion, so that the entire reserve will mine out at both a grade and a sulphide-oxide ratio that will be permissible throughout the remaining life of the property, it is obvious that the oxide reserve must be currently preserved to as great an extent as possible. Fortunately much of the oxide reserve is found in the open-pit operation. This happy circumstance adds flexibility to the procedure and makes it possible to maintain the close regulation necessary to insure best overall results, both mining and metallurgical. The two ore streams from the pit and underground operations join at the coarse-crushing plant, and proper control must be exercised before the ore reaches this point. The open pit is currently providing about 55 pet of the ore and underground operations the balance of production. Both operations are under a single superintendent so that the closely interrelated problems may be more readily controlled. The least flexible of the two producing units is the underground mine, where the mining method is block caving. Although a block of ground may be undercut and developed, characteristics of the material determine its caving action. The ore in the chutes must be drawn. The area currently mined from underground is in a zone predominately sulphide and is generally

Jan 1, 1952

By J. L. Carne

ORE control is a matter of planning and supervision based on a foreknowledge of the content and distribution of ore. The Inspiration orebody is predominately a copper-sulphide blanket, overlain by an oxidized zone of copper silicates, copper carbonates, and barren capping. Most of the ore is treated by leaching, and the optimum requirement of this method is the goal toward which the mining schedule is aimed. Both open-pit operations and underground mining are used. The problems of ore control at Inspiration are: I—maintenance of metallurgical balance, 2—conservation of oxide ore, and 3—mining out of the orebody at an average grade which parallels that of the reserve figure. Prior to the fall of 1926 all of the Inspiration division ores were treated by flotation, but the mixed ores of the Live Oak—Keystone section carried too large a proportion of copper in the form of chrysocolla for satisfactory flotation. For this type of mixed ore the leaching process now in use had been worked out, and the plant was put into operation in the fall of 1926. The process is known as the ferric sulphate leach, and the leaching solvents contain both ferric sulphate and free sulphuric acid. Sulphide copper in the form of chalcocite is leached by the ferric sulphate, and the oxidized copper minerals are dissolved by the sulphuric acid. From the beginning of operations to the present time the plant has treated some 67 thousand tons of ore having an average copper content of 1.142 pct, of which 0.605 pct has been in the form of oxidized copper minerals. The plant is currently being operated at the rate of 11,500 tons per day, 7 days per week. However, this tonnage is produced in 6 days of mine operation. The average current grade is approximately 1 pct copper, of which about 50 pct is present as oxidized or acid-soluble copper. Close control of metallurgical procedures is a vital factor in operation of the plant and is in turn dependent upon careful regulation of feed. An excess of sulphide copper requires the presence of more ferric sulphate in the leaching solvents. On the other hand, an excess of ferric sulphate in the presence of a low sulphide feed seriously reduces the efficiency of electrolytic precipitation in tank house operations. This condition must be avoided at all costs. An additional factor must be considered. It is known that the sulphide content is predominant in the ore which remains in the reserve. To maintain the necessary sulphide-oxide proportion, so that the entire reserve will mine out at both a grade and a sulphide-oxide ratio that will be permissible throughout the remaining life of the property, it is obvious that the oxide reserve must be currently preserved to as great an extent as possible. Fortunately much of the oxide reserve is found in the open-pit operation. This happy circumstance adds flexibility to the procedure and makes it possible to maintain the close regulation necessary to insure best overall results, both mining and metallurgical. The two ore streams from the pit and underground operations join at the coarse-crushing plant, and proper control must be exercised before the ore reaches this point. The open pit is currently providing about 55 pct of the ore and underground operations the balance of production. Both operations are under a single superintendent so that the closely interrelated problems may be more readily controlled. The least flexible of the two producing units is the underground mine, where the mining method is block caving. Although a block of ground may be undercut and developed, characteristics of the material determine its caving action. The ore in the chutes must be drawn. The area currently mined from underground is in a zone predominately sulphide and is generally

Jan 1, 1953

By Donald B. Hunter

The Ti-Be system up lo 10 wt pct Be with cortlmercialll' pure titanium has been determined using metal-lographic techniques. Beryllium forms the p eutec-toid type of dinqarz with titanium; the eutectoid occurs at 0.5 xt pct Be azd 1500 F, while an eutectic is foritled at 1887°F containing between 5 and 7.5 rt pct Be. The solubility of beryllium in a titanium does not exceed 0.05 zvt pct and the maximum solubility of Beryllim in 0 titanium is 1 wt pet. PREVIOUS work on the Ti-Be phase diagram indicated that additions of beryllium to titanium resulted in a marked lowering of the melting point,''' and it was also observed that the solubility of beryllium in both a and p titanium was retricted.- With the limited data available, McQuillan and McQuillan constructed a partial hypothetical diagram of the Ti-Be system,= assuming that beryllium formed the 0 eutectoid type of system with titanium. Subsequently Bedford published a tentative diagram of the entire Ti-Be system: although he did not investigate alloys containing less than 10 wt pct Be. This diagram included several compounds described by other authorities.'-l3 The following account describes work directed toward determining the form of the titanium-rich portion of the phase diagram up to 10 wt pct Be. MATERIALS AND METHODS Titanium sponge and a master alloy containing 25 wt pct Be were used in the formulation of the alloys; the chemistry of these materials is detailed in Table I. The alloys were prepared as 250-g compacts which were melted into buttons by arc melting under purified argon on a water-cooled copper hearth. Results of analyses for beryllium are shown in Table I but no determination of other elements was made at this stage. The alloys were hot-rolled at 1650°F to produce 0.1-in.-thick sheet. Alloys containing up to 1.5 pct Be were fabricated without trouble; samples containing 2 pct cracked initially upon hot rolling, but thereafter rolled satisfactorily to sheet. The 5, 7.5, and 10 pct were hot short and could not be rolled. Surface contamination was removed from samples by sandblasting and pickling in a 5 pct HF-35 pct HNOs solution. For metal log raphic examination, heat-treated specimens were mounted transverse to the rolling direction, ground on silicon carbide papers of increasing fineness to 600 grit, and electropolished at 20 v using a solution containing 600 ml of methanol, 60 ml of perchloric acid, 360 ml of butyl cellosolve, and 2 ml of Solvent "X". Difficulty was experienced in obtaining good electropolished surfaces with samples containing more than 1 pct Be, the degree of difficulty in-

Jan 1, 1967

By E. Hornbogen

Discontinuous precipitation in a iron can occur by at least two different mechanisms. These mechanisms are compared, using observations made on an Fe-22 at. pct Zn alloy and an Fe-19.5 at. pct Mo alloy. In the Fe-Zn alloy, precipitation began on grain boundaries. These boundaries moved into the supersaturated solid solution, providing nucleation sites and an easy path for diffusion. The precipitated phase pew as lamellae, perpendicular to the PRECIPITATION reactions are called discontinuous if the nucleation of particles does not occur on individual sites in the supersaturated matrix.' In discontinuous precipitation, nucleation and growth occur on a reaction front that moves into the supersaturated solution and leaves a two-phase aggregate behind. The term cellular precipitation2 has also been used, but the term autocatalytic precipi- moving reaction front. The orientation of the depleted iron differed from that of the supersaturated iron. In the Fe-Mo alloy the growing precipitate particles apparently created dislocations in the growth front which served as nucleation sites. The precipitate grew on (110) planes of the iron, and growth occurred through volume diffision. The depleted iron retained the orientation of the supersaturated solid solution. tation seems to describe the nature of such reactions best. The basic effect of such a precipitation mechanism in a solid is that it is able to move or create sites that can catalyze nucleation. Such sites can be grain boundaries and dislocations. A mechanism of autocatalytic precipitation must, therefore, include some rational process by which a grain boundary may move into the supersaturated matrix or by which dislocations may be generated in front of the reaction. Discontinuous precipitation is always in competition with individual nucleation and growth of par-

Jan 1, 1963

By J. Kent Smith

VANADIUM is generally spoken of as a rare element; but, even in the light of our resources as known a couple of years ago, this description could be accepted in a qualified sense only. In fact, vanadium is very widely distributed, being a constituent of most clays, while even caustic soda has been shown to contain almost regularly a minute proportion of it, although the quantity in each case is so small as to render impracticable the extraction of the metal there from with profit. The opening-up of a large deposit of vanadium sulphide ore in South America has put a new phase on the commercial outlook of vanadium, the technical value of which for the improvement of steel has been proved by rigorous scientific investigation.

Sep 1, 1907

By A. E. Anderson, H. J. Hilll

Laboratory data for 155 field muds and 77 .shales have been used to develop correlations to estimate the net streaming potential component of the SP. Analysis of these data and comparison with field tests show that streaming potential corrections must be made to obtain an accurate estimate of the electrochemical potential for use in the determinntion of formation water resi-iiviy. The self-potential curve is related to formation water resistivity, and considerable effort within the oil industry has been directed toward clarifying this relationship. The Schlumbergers and Leonardon1,2 recognized that two types of potentials, electrochemical and electro-kinetic, resulted in the net potential variation in the borehole. Most of the later papers have dealt with the electrochemical component and its controlling parameters. The investigations of Wyllie,2" Salisch' and Moore5 provide the most extensive sources of data on streaming potentials across mud cakes. These authors observed streaming potentials of sufficient magnitude to be of critical importance in SP interpretation, if it is assumed that streaming potentials develop only opposite permeable beds. Streaming potentials across shales have been reported by Schenck and by Gondouin, et al.7 Since SP magnitude is the difference in potential opposite shale and sand beds, these authors suggested that the net streaming potential component may be negligible. The present investigation was initiated to evaluate empirically some of the parameters controlling the magnitude of the net borehole streaming potential and to determine whether useful relations between mud properties and net streaming potential could be established. Field muds were used in this investigation. These muds were characterized by the amount and type of chemical treatment utilized for five days before Sampling. Filter loss, mud resistivity, mud density and filtrate resistivity were determined for each mud with conventional methods and apparatus. Mud filtrate pH was estimated with Hydrion pH paper for the appropriate range. Streaming PotentIals Across MuD Cakes Commercial calomel-saturated KC1 electrodes are subject to potential changes attributed to contamination of the very small fiber-tip bridge by particles of clay from the drilling mud.3 To minimize this difficulty, a large diameter bridge (Fig. 1) was constructed with saturated KC1-agar gel and a filter disc of microporous porcelain. Experiments showed that streaming potentials across this bridge are less than 0.2 mv at pressure dif-

By Oren C. Baptist, Eliot J. White

Samples of four reservoir sands having different degrees of water sensitivity were subjected to several laboratory tests to determine differences in capillary behavior attributable to clay-mineral effects. The degree of water sensitivity was estimated by the difference between gas and water permeability. Unsaturated pore volumes determined with mercury injection were comparable to irreducible water saturations determined with the semipermeable bar-rier method only for the non-sensitive sands that contained small amounts of non-swelling clay minerals. Irreducible saturations were independent of salinity of the water, which suggests that most residual water is adsorbed 0.7 a film over solid surfaces and that internal retention by clay minerals is relatively insignificant. The water-sensitive sands imbibed water to higher saturations than did non-sensitive sands, and this result is believed to be a combination of the effects of clay minerals and preferential wettability; however, the relative importance of each of these effects is riot determinable. Thus it is concluded that the semipermeable barrier method is the best of the laborafory methods used for estimating formntion water .saturations in the sands studied. INTRODUCTION This investigation is a continuation of studies of the role of clay minerals in petroleum production in the Rocky Mountain area. Previous work has shown large differences in gas and water permeability in numerous reservoir sands; these water-sensitivity effects observed in the laboratory have been correlated with well behavior in the field, and the degree of water sensitivity imparted to reservoirs by the various clay minerals has been determined.'.' The effect of interstitial clay minerals on formation water3 saturations is not so well known. It has been reported that formation water saturations probably are higher in clayey than clean sands,' but this effect has not been evaluated in the laboratory, and the relative effect of the various types of clay minerals on formation water saturation has not been determined. The clay-mineral groups of most importance to this study and to petroleum production in general are kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite. The minute layers of montmorillonite are loosely bound to one another so that water enters between them, causing great expansion of the particles. Kaolinite and illite do not exhibit interlayer hydration, but they do immobilize considerable amounts of water owing to their large surface areas, which are of the order of 15 to 97 m2/gm of clay.5 The four Wyoming sands used in this study were selected to represent a wide range of water sensitivities. These sands, with the number of wells and fields from which the samples were obtained, are: Second Frontier, five wells in two fields; Newcastle, six wells in one field; Tensleep, two wells in two fields; and Lower Muddy, five wells in one field. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND PROCEDURES Water-displacement data were obtained by the semipermeable barrier method," using both fresh water and brines having either 16,500 ppm sodium chloride or calcium chloride. A displacement pressure of 35 psi was found to be sufficient to obtain the practical irreducible water or brine saturation (IWS, IBS) in most samples. Mercury-injection data were ob-tained with equipment and pro-cedures similar to those described by Purcell.7 Exceedingly high pressures are required to attain complete mercury saturation by this method; however, since saturations in most samples change very little with large pressure increases above 1,000 psia, the maximum pressure used was 1,400 psia. To facilitate comparison of mercury-injection and water-displacement results, it is convenient to express mercury-injection data in terms of unsaturated pore volume. The abbreviation, (100 - SHg)min, is used to denote the pore volume unsaturated by mercury at 1,400 psia injection pressure. Gas permeabilities, ki, were deter-mined by the method proposed by Klinkenberg.8 Methods of determining types and amounts of clay minerals by X-ray diffraction analyses, as well as methods of determining water permeability, have been described previously.' The imbibition characteristics of

Jan 1, 1958

This paper "On Coal" was published in three issues of The Western Gleaner in 1814. Name of author is not given. This magazine was started by Cramer, Spear & Eichbaum, in Pittsburgh, Pa., in December 1813, and ran for about two years. Copies are very rare, and this one is made from an original in the Darlington Library, University of Pittsburgh. This is almost certainly the first general article on coal published west of the Allegheny Mountains, and one of the earliest in this country. ON COAL Its Natural History-Mining of Coal-Phenomena occasioned by Fire-damp-Method of Coking-Distillation of Tar from Pit-coal-Gas-light-Coal, a Manure I. NATURAL HISTORY OF COAL There are few productions of nature which present to the philosopher a wider field of investigation than pit-coal. A substance highly inflammable is found in the deep recesses of the earth, sometimes loaded with numerous superincumbent strata of hard rock, and extending frequently along with these strata through a vast expanse of territory. Though metals may be said to be inflammable substances, as they combine more or less rapidly with oxygen when placed under particular circumstances, yet the character of rapid combustion with disengagement of light and heat, seems to belong. principally to such substances as are derived either from the animal or vegetable kingdom. That this is probably the case with regard to coal we are further induced to believe, by the remarkable circumstance, that the chemical analysis of this natural production yields especially, though in various proportions, those materials which constitute essentially the vegetable. And if any thing was wanting to confirm, us in that opinion we might trace in a number of fossile substances the gradual transition of the vegetable into the state of mineral coal. This fact is so intimately connected with the natural history of coal, that we cannot think it superfluous to give it some farther development. Among the great number of principles which the chemist is capable of tracing in the vegetable kingdom, the presence of extract, resin and fibre seem to form the characteristical marks of plants.-If vegetable matter be boiled in water, and the water, after having been strained and filtered, be exposed for some time to the open air, a flocculent precipitate takes `place from every part of the liquor; which soon subsides to the bottom of the vessel containing it. This is the extract; altered, indeed, by exposure, and now no longer soluble in water, a change which is supposed to depend on the absorption of oxygen; and if, by any means the proportion of oxygen be increased, the extract gradually becomes of a darker color, blackens, and approaches to the state of charred wood.

Jan 1, 1942

By William L. Batt

FROM the time the Japs overran the Far East, the United Nations faced a serious military problem in the critical shortage of many raw materials desperately needed to prose¬cute the war on two fronts. For many months this critical shortage threatened substantially to limit the gigantic effort to get shooting equipment into the hands of the fighting men on the far-flung battle lines. Now this crisis has been met. Solvency in raw materials has been achieved. Simply stated, this job of producing solvency has been done by "cutting cloth to fit the garment." This does not mean that we have all the raw materials we need. Unfortunately, a few raw materials are still short, thereby limiting the total production of certain war goods, or making these goods less effective. Where the supply of raw materials is known to be limited, however, substitutions have been made or production schedules have been geared to the amounts available, and an over-all balance has been achieved between various parts of the war-production program.

Jan 1, 1943

By Russell C., Fleming

FOK, many years the officials of the Magma Copper Co. mine at Superior, Ariz., have had to contend with adverse conditions underground in the form of high rock temperatures, hot water, and high relative humidity. These conditions in the mine have been such that working the mine would have been impossible were it not for the constantly expanding and improved sys- tem of ventilation to produce bearable conditions in the working places. Results that have already been achieved make an interesting study of what can be done along those lines. From the time the mine was first opened in 1910 it has been hot. An idea of the conditions that have persistently been encountered can be obtained from parts of the mine that are not being worked at present or that do not yet have sufficient ventilation. Virgin rock temperatures as determined in drill holes at the faces range from 104° to 116°*. An observation made at the face of No. 5 West footwall drift on the 2800-ft. level.

Jan 1, 1930