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By Kendall E. Born

Production of crude oil in Tennessee during 1941 was slightly more than 15,000 bbl., about the same as in the preceding year. Two thirds of the total was from the Mississippi limestone pools in Scott and Morgan Counties. About a dozen small scattered wells in Clay, Pickett, and Fentress Counties, pumped irregularly, produced approximately 5000 bbl. Natural gas was marketed from wells in Morgan and Fentress Counties for consumption in the Sunbright and Jamestown areas, respectively. The production by counties is shown in Table I. Drilling activities in the state fell to the lowest stage since 1933. Twenty-seven wells were spudded in during 1941, of which six were drilling or only temporarily suspended on Dec. 37, 1941. Of the 22 completions, four were gas wells of undetermined quantity, but are classed as commercial, and 17 were dry or near-dry holes. One well encountered oil, but it has not been tested. The total footage drilled during the year was 29,916 ft.; the average depth of wells was 1359 ft. The more important wildcats are listed in Table 2; the distribution of tests according to physiographic divisions is given in Table 3. East Tennessee.—One well was drilled to 3480 ft. in northwestern Anderson County, in the highly disturbed Appalachian area, a region long considered the most unfavorable in the state for the accumulation of oil and gas. Another test is now drilling below 2000 ft. in this general area. Cumberland Plateau.—There were two completions in the Cumberland Plateau area. One test, drilled in northwestern Scott County in an area of former Mississippi limestone production,' encountered a considerable amount of free oil at 850 ft., about the same horizon as in the old abandoned wells. No pumping tests have been made to date. A well at Oneida, Scott County, found gas at 1579 ft. in a sandy limestone of lower Mississippian age. The volume was reported doubled by a shot, although no open-flow measurement is available. Eastern Highland Rim.—Six completions on the eastern Highland Rim resulted in two small gas wells in Fentress County, which will be used to augment the supply for Jamestown. The producing horizons are shaly limestones of Ordovician (Trenton) age. Two wells in this area tested the upper part of the Knox dolomite group, one of which encountered some free oil in a sandy dolomite at 1670 to 1681 ft. A test high on a well-defined structure in Clay County found a considerable amount

Jan 1, 1942

By Maxwell Adams

Considerable interest has recently been developed in sage-brush oil because of its possible utilization as a flotation agent in the mining industry. A list of some of its physical properties, together with the method used in its extraction, may prove of interest at this time. Something over a year ago, a study of the essential oils in desert plants was begun in the Chemical Laboratory of the University of Nevada. None of the oils so far studied possess properties of special interest to engineers, except the oil of sage, Artemisia tridentata, which has exceptional power as a flotation agent. This plant, known as common sage brush, also called black sage, is widely distributed over the semi-arid West, being found quite generally on most of the dry plains and mountains west of Missouri. The method of extracting the oil followed in these experiments is very simple. The leaves, twigs and small branches are placed in an airtight drum, having a capacity of about 27 cu. ft. Steam is admitted through a number of ,small openings at the bottom of the retort, and the pressure maintained at 20 to 25 lb. per sq. in. for 3 hr. The escape of the steam from the retort is regulated by allowing it to pass through a stop-cock into a condenser. The water in the receiver is drawn off from time to time and the oil, which is insoluble and floats upon the water, is thus collected. At the end of 2 hr. most of the oil has been driven out, though traces continue to come over for a much longer time. By raising the pressure, the time required could probably be shortened and the yield increased, but the lack of laboratory equipment has prevented the carrying out of this experiment. The stock wood, bark and branches contain no oil, the distribution of the oil being limited to the leaves and young shoots. There is a seasonal variation in the amount of oil contained. Samples collected on different dates gave the following amount of oil: May 1, 0.42 per cent.; May 27, 0.6 per cent.; June 30, 0.72 per cent.; Aug. 1, 0.9 per cent.; Sept. 10, 1.0 per cent. The increase appears fairly constant from early spring, when the leaves first appear, until light frosts occur in the autumn. When the plant is air-dried there is some loss of oil, as the following data will show: Two 100-lb. samples were collected at the same time. One was distilled when green; the other was air dried for

Jan 1, 1917

THE Rocky MountainClub brought into the East the spirit of the West; the impulse to build, to develop, to accept unquestion-ingly the comradeship and help of any straight shooter who had it in him to accom-plish things and a will to work. That this was the spirit of the Club was due to its leaders. It was their spirit and they attracted around them men of the same stamp. Among those who made the Club what it was no one had larger in-low fluence than William Boyce Thompson, the vice-president and chief of financial staff. It was characteristic of him that the same financial genius that was employed in building up Nevada Consolidated, In-spiration, Magma, Texas Gulf, and as director of the Metro-politan Life and the Federal Reserve Bank, was freely placed at the service of the Club. It was equally char- acteristic that the generosity that financed the Red Cross Mission to Russia inspired the use of the Club funds for Belgian and war relief. "W. B.," as he is known to his many friends, was born at Virginia City in Alder Gulch, Mont., on May 13, 1869. His father, William Thompson, born at Cobourg, Ont., had drifted into the old Northwest and, hearing at Yankton of the gold strike at Bannack, crossed the plains on the Oregon trail in the summer of 1863, arriv-ing in Alder Gulch at the inception of a mining boom that lasted several years, during which something like $60,000,000 in gold was yielded by the placer diggings. His mother was a daughter of Maj. James R. Boyce, Sr., from Logan County, Ky., who had served under General Sterling Price of the Confederate Army. Major Boyce's ancestors were early settlers of the Old Dominion, and his grandfather had seen military service in the war for American independence. Major Boyce's mother was a descendant of the Marshall and Smith families of Westmoreland County, Va. When Thompson was eleven years old, the family moved to Butte, then a silver camp. He attended the public schools of Butte, but desiring a better education, entered Phillips Exeter Academy and later the Colum-bia School of Mines. Returning West, for a year or two he ran the Boulder Chief mine near Basin, Mont., which earned him a sobriquet, "Boulder Thompson." While here, some old ore sacks, oil-soaked, introduced him to flotation. He was also the first to leach some of the ore dumps of Butte.

Jan 4, 1928

By Kendall E. Born

Production of crude oil in Tennessee during 1941 was slightly more than 15,000 bbl., about the same as in the preceding year. Two thirds of the total was from the Mississippi limestone pools in Scott and Morgan Counties. About a dozen small scattered wells in Clay, Pickett, and Fentress Counties, pumped irregularly, produced approximately 5000 bbl. Natural gas was marketed from wells in Morgan and Fentress Counties for consumption in the Sunbright and Jamestown areas, respectively. The production by counties is shown in Table I. Drilling activities in the state fell to the lowest stage since 1933. Twenty-seven wells were spudded in during 1941, of which six were drilling or only temporarily suspended on Dec. 37, 1941. Of the 22 completions, four were gas wells of undetermined quantity, but are classed as commercial, and 17 were dry or near-dry holes. One well encountered oil, but it has not been tested. The total footage drilled during the year was 29,916 ft.; the average depth of wells was 1359 ft. The more important wildcats are listed in Table 2; the distribution of tests according to physiographic divisions is given in Table 3. East Tennessee.—One well was drilled to 3480 ft. in northwestern Anderson County, in the highly disturbed Appalachian area, a region long considered the most unfavorable in the state for the accumulation of oil and gas. Another test is now drilling below 2000 ft. in this general area. Cumberland Plateau.—There were two completions in the Cumberland Plateau area. One test, drilled in northwestern Scott County in an area of former Mississippi limestone production,' encountered a considerable amount of free oil at 850 ft., about the same horizon as in the old abandoned wells. No pumping tests have been made to date. A well at Oneida, Scott County, found gas at 1579 ft. in a sandy limestone of lower Mississippian age. The volume was reported doubled by a shot, although no open-flow measurement is available. Eastern Highland Rim.—Six completions on the eastern Highland Rim resulted in two small gas wells in Fentress County, which will be used to augment the supply for Jamestown. The producing horizons are shaly limestones of Ordovician (Trenton) age. Two wells in this area tested the upper part of the Knox dolomite group, one of which encountered some free oil in a sandy dolomite at 1670 to 1681 ft. A test high on a well-defined structure in Clay County found a considerable amount

Jan 1, 1942

By L. C. Armstrong

A. E. ROSS*—Mr. Armstrong in his paper stated that they had experienced considerable difficulty in drilling the quartz-feldspar intergrowths. The dia-mor~d loss was excessive and the diamond bits polished quite rapidly. Mr. Davidson, who presented the paper, stated that bortx stones in the range of 20 to 30 per carat had been used in the bits on this job. I would like to suggest the use of bits employing stones in the range of 60 to 100 per carat, an average of possibly 80 per carat. If these stones had been used the bits might have lasted longer and not polished so quickly. As a basis for this suggestion I would like to point out that in northern New York State we had at least two examples where bits employing stones in the range of 80 per carat had solved a difficult problem. Bits set with stones in the range of 20 to 30 per carat had been used previously and had failed. With the finer stones, the cost per foot of drilling decreased material1y. It should also be noted from a technical standpoint that the smaller stones require higher drilling speeds than the larger stones. Greater pressures are not normally necessary, and it is the higher speed which seems to be the major factor of importance. It should also be noted that the finer stones afford a greater number or cutting surfaces for the same carat weight in a bit. Then too, the smaller stones, by virtue of their size, serve as sharper cutting edges than larger stones. There is no doubt that the diamond bit employing smaller stones costs more to set than the bit using larger stones. However, with the technique developed at the shops of Sprague and Henwood, Inc., we feel that the relatively slight additional cost required to set these bits is more than paid for by the resultant lower drilling cost. We feel that the highest quality stone available is the most economical to use when hard fine grained rock is encountered. In summary, I would suggest that it might be possible to solve the problem presented in this paper by using a diamond bit employing stones at least as small as 80 per carat of the highest grade possible and by using the diamond bit at the highest speed available with modern drilling equipment. L. C. ARMSTRONG (author's reply) —It is generally agreed that the use of smaller, high-grade diamonds and of higher drilling speeds, as suggested by Mr. Ross, may be the best approach to the solution of the problem.

Jan 1, 1950

By J. Laskowski

J. Laskowski (Associate Professor, Dept, of Mineral Processing and Coal Preparation, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland) -Referring to the papers by J. A. L. Campbell and S. C. Sun, I must say that I am very pleased to see that type of work, because it is the only way to progress towards an understanding of flotation mechanisms. All those interested in the science of the surface chemistry of coals would find these papers a valuable contribution to the literature. In their extensive research, the authors attempt to synthesize their findings into a theory of coal flotation. To do this, the zeta potential of bituminous coals and their lithotypes, as well as that of an anthracite coal, was measured and H+ and OH- ions were found to be potential determining ions. The measured ZPC of bituminous coals was at a pH range from 3.5 to 4.6 and for the anthracites between 2.0 and 4.5. The authors have pointed out that since the hydrophobicity is pH-controlled, the flotation mechanism should also be. The Campbell and Sun papers confirm a good many of the conclusions on surface properties of coals reported in recent years. It is noteworthy to point out that the ZPC found in the paper on bituminous coals was approximately pH 4, similar to the ZPC for the anthracite coal. In fact, we have been investigating different coals from low to high ranks. Thus, the plot of the pH for ZPC against rank could be derived and this curve-an electrocapillary one-indicates a pH near which the hydrophobicity of the coal surface should be at maximum. This can be proved by so-called salt flotation, which, in a sense, can be treated as method of surface charge measurement. It is obvious that the salt flotation experiment is possible when the native hydrophobicity of the mineral surface is high, e.g., when the solid surface does not have an orienting influence on an adjacent water layer and the hydration layers are controlled by the electrical double-layer potential. The addition of electrolyte or a change of pH which decreases the thickness of the stabilizing double-layer "opens up" the hydrophobic surface micro-area mosaic. Thereby the surface becomes hydrophobic and particles become floatable. The orienting influence of surface on hydration layer increases even after very slight oxidation and flotation is affected by it. It seems that such an explanation agrees reasonably well with those of Campbell and Sun.

Jan 1, 1972

The annual world production of minerals approximates 1,700,000,000 tons, over 90 per cent. of which consists of coal and iron. Of this amount about two-thirds is used within the countries where the minerals are produced and one-third is shipped to other countries. The movement of most of these minerals, though, shows a rather remarkable concentration. For instance, manganese moves from three principal sources and converges at four or five consuming centers; chromite and tungsten move from two principal sources. The United States is more nearly self-sustaining in regard to mineral commodities as a whole than any 'other country on the globe; but the interests of conservation - call for an international viewpoint in the handling of our mineral resources., There is perhaps as much need of specializing in mineral output as there is of specializing in manufacturing. The thought that every country on the globe should be self-sustaining in regard to mineral supplies is of somewhat the same order as the thought that every family should produce all its own raw materials rather than take advantage of the more favorable conditions existing elsewhere and so specialize in human effort. Extension of international control of minerals seems to offer possibilities of loss and gain-loss through a considerable sacrifice of national trade .and a narrowing of the field for private initiative in trade; gain through the possibility of attaining certain ends which are attainable only by international agreement, such as an allocation of supplies which will be to the advantage of the greater number of nations rather than to the advantage of the few that are strong enough to dominate the situation. The interests of conservation clearly require international control. Moreover, the lesson of the war points to the necessity of overhauling old international understandings and machinery, even though such a task would encounter great difficulties, not the least of which lie in the persistence of human habits and inertia. Whether the time has come to establish a league of nations with economic control can be determined only by our individual and collective answers to the question whether we are willing to make the necessary economic sacrifices, individually and nationally, in the interest of world harmony. The mineral industry should fully understand that, with international control, efforts to promote export will need to be modified and curtailed; that expansion of our trade in many lines will mean equivalent loss of trade to other nations; that the almost universal conception that expansion of foreign trade is a meritorious aim and end in itself, without regard to its effect on other countries, will need revision.

Jan 3, 1919

By Jean Howard, E. V. Walker

ManY papers have been published during the last few years on the formation of cube texture in 3 1/4 pct Si-Fe, e.g., those of Assmus, Detert, Dunn, and Walter.1,5 All are concerned with the formation of the texture by a process involving secondary re-crystallization and the relative surface energies of (100) and other planes under certain conditions of annealing. The authors have found that cube texture can also be produced by heavily cold rolling strip in which the cube-on-edge texture has first been formed. Cube texture develops on annealing, but in this case it is not accompanied by secondary recrystallization. The starting material is a sintered compact, the preparation of which has been described elsewhere. Using a conventional processing schedule employed for producing commercial silicon-iron with the cube-on-edge texture, the sintered compact is cold rolled to such a thickness that, after annealing in pure hydrogen for 24 hr at 1350'~ to produce the cube-on-edge texture, the final thickness required can be obtained by giving a further cold reduction of 85 pct. Cube texture is developed by annealing at -900~~ in pure hydrogen: it has been produced in strip up to 0.024 in. thick. The microstructure of the strip consists of a mass of small primary grains within the boundaries of the much larger secondary grains which ex- hibited cube-on-edge texture before the final cold roll. If the strip is annealed at -1000 after the 85pct reduction, secondary recrystallization begins to take place, provided a strong cube texture is present. On raising the temperature more secondaries grow, complete secondary recrystallization being obtained on annealing at -1150'. From this it is concluded that the secondary crystals are produced by the texture inhibition mechanism: they show (110) and (111) planes in the surface of the strip, the former being the more numerous. It has been observed that the more perfect is the (110) [001] texture prior to cold rolling by 85 pct, the further from the ideal is the (100) [oo].] texture. A similar treatment applied to high quality commercial grain-oriented silicon-iron strip failed to produce cube texture. The tilt and rotation of the [loo] from the rolling direction was less than 10deg, but (to within a few degrees) the planes (130), (450) and (210) lay in the surface of the strip. Acknowledgment is made to the Engineer-in-Chief of the British Post Office for permission to use the information contained in this note.

Jan 1, 1962

Human engineering was the keynote of the thirty-ninth annual meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, which was held in New York, December 3-6. This note was sounded by President Charles T. Main in his address at the opening session and was carried through by all the speakers. In his survey of the year's work, he said that more than 6000 names of engineers were furnished the Government for filling a wide variety of positions. In addition to the 1400 members in service, two members of the council of the society are in uniform in France and one, as a distinct war service, is in charge of one of the largest shipyards. After giving other ways in which the Society has helped the Government, President Main called attention to the necessity for thoroughgoing efforts to increase production and the settlement of questions involving industrial relationships. At the following meeting, President Adams of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers called attention to the necessity of meeting labor in a progressive way, facing labor questions fairly and squarely, as the real interests of labor cannot be separated from those of the engineer. Charles E. Knoeppel, discussing "Industrial Organization as It Affects Executives and Workers," said the problem of the cost of living might be settled in two ways: 1, there must be more producers, and 2, there must be a greater amount supplied by those now producing. The first solution is practicable, he said, if labor is allowed shorter hours, better conditions, and a remuneration that will attract workers. The second can be employed by eliminating waste, standardizing conditions, setting fair tasks, and allowing men to earn an amount that will compensate them for' their skill and cooperation. Dudley R. Kennedy of Philadelphia, employment manager of the American International Shipbuilding Corporation, said the human-engineering phase of the country's industrial development had generally been overlooked. "We hardly yet know what competition means; we will learn it within a few years. Permit me to prophesy that the executive of the next decade will be the man who best knows men. He will be an originator, a handler of men as individuals, a handler of men in the mass, a leader not a driver, a very human man. The science of human engineering is here to stay. The study of human characteristics is the most enduring, as well as the most fascinating in the world, and still the most complex."

Jan 1, 1919

By H. K. Shearer

There were no important developments in the oil and gas industry in South Arkansas during 1935. Oil production, totaling 11,138,340 bbl., continued the decline that has been normal since 1925, but the decline from 1934 was only 278,600 bbl., or 2.5 per cent. The principal decline was in the Smackover field, while only the Champagnolle and Garland City fields showed notable increases. More wells were drilled than in any recent year, with a total of 123 completions. There were 44 oil wells, with a total reported initial daily production of 10,013 bbl., or an average of 227 bbl. per well. Two small gas wells were completed in Union County, where the gas is used locally for pumping and field operations. There were 77 dry holes, of which 28 were in or near oil fields and 49 were wildcats. Active drilling oper-at'ions declined from 65 at the beginning of 1935 to 41 at the end. Most of the drilling was done during the first part of the year, espr-chially (luring the flurry caused by the discovery late in 1934 of the "Taylor" sand production in the Champagnolle field, but the producing area was soon outlined. In November, 1935, the J. E. Crosbie, Inc., NO. 1 Sullivant in sec. 12, 17s. 14W., producing 560 bbl. per day at 3175 ft., opened a new sand lens in the eastern part of the field. The Camden "oil field," discovered in the last week of 1934, remained a one-well field, although four offset tests were drilled, besides a number of others in the immediate vicinity. Several interesting deep tests were drilled during the year, which added a great deal to the general knowledge of the subsurface formations and the structure of south Arkansas, but were not particularly encouraging as to prospects for the very deep production. First, the H. L. Hunt, No. 15 E. F. Gregory well in sec. 10, 17S., 14\W., in the Champagnolle field, was drilled to a depth of 6911 ft. It pene-trated red beds for 2982 ft., from 2943 to 5925 ft., mostly if riot entirely of Lower Cretaceous age. There was some anhydrite in the last 135 ft. of red beds. This was followed by 890 ft. of limestone, probahly Permian, and the rock salt was struck at 6815 ft. The salt is now generally conceded to be of Permian age. Finding salt in this well strongly indicates

Jan 1, 1936

By George P. Hulst

Prior to 1914, there was little demand for antimony in this country; its use was limited almost entirely to the manufacture of type and bearing metals. Practically no antimony ore was mined here, the market being supplied principally from China, and the alloy was produced by a direct mixing of lead and antimony. The great world war, with its demand for shrapnel in hitherto undreamed of quantities, precipitated a great boom in the price of antimony. Nominally quoted at 6 c. to 7 c. in 1914, the price increased by leaps and bounds to 45 c. in March, 1916. Under the stimulus of high prices many small mines were opened, for it became profitable to work ores containing as low as 20 per cent. antimony. High-grade sulfide ores (stibnite), containing 55 per cent. to 60 per cent. antimony, were received from Bolivia, China, and Alaska. Low-grade sulfide ores, running from 20 per cent. to 45 per cent., were produced in Nevada, California, Idaho, Utah, and Mexico; much of this ore was fairly rich in silver. The principal oxide ores came from Mexico and Oregon. The following analyses are representative of various types of antimony ore: Sb Pb Cu AG AU SIO2 Be S CaO Zn As Oxide ore.......... 25.09 46.02 0.95 0.40 10.98 0.30 0.22 Sulfide ore......... 55.20 15.12 1.05 19.87 0.40 0.25 Sulfide ore......... 37.16 11.30 0.10 34.0 7.60 0.50 17.05 7.40 0.36 0.10 Sulfide ore......... 41.55 18.00 0.20 76.0 0.04 5.60 0.25 18.17 0.85 0.25 0.10 The International Lead Refining Co. fortunately was equipped to handle these ores through residue and blast furnaces. The charge consisted of a variety of sulfide ores containing Sb 20 to 60 per cent. and SiO2 6 to 45 per cent., oxide ores containing Sb 20 to 40 per cent. and SiO2 10 to 45 per cent. Secondary materials, such as battery plates, battery mud, lead oxide, paint, etc., together with refinery skims, softener skims, and other refinery byproducts, were treated along with the antimony ore to furnish the lead required. All silver-bearing antimony ores were treated in the residue furnace, the sulfur, iron, and copper forming matte that carried part of the silver, the balance going into lead bullion. The antimony slag produced was sufficiently low in silver to warrant being smelted in the blast furnace to antimonial lead.

Jan 1, 1921

Without having asked for it, the writer has apparently been drawn into the discussion regarding relative hoisting capacities which was started by Woodward Iron, egged on by Joe Haller of Cleveland-Cliffs [Mining Engineering, August p. 642] and Axel Kjelgaard [November p. 919], who took exception to Mr. Haller's remarks of tonnage hoisted and avers that they do better in Sweden. It does not appear to the writer that Mr. Haller was inclined to refer to the tonnage hoisted at Cleveland-Cliffs in a manner to imply that they claimed any hoisting record, but rather as a statement that they had hoisted a certain amount of ore during the year 1950. Mr. Haller has been in the mining game long enough to appreciate what Mr. Kjelgaard did not apparently take into consideration, that length of haul, shifts hoisted, nature of ore, method of loading and the many other factors which influence the hoisting cycle make a comparison of tonnages hoisted of two given mines almost an impossibility. Mr. Cheyette sent you .a copy of his letter to Bob Manegold relative to the capacities of the Orient #2 mine. There are several mines around the Country which constantly set up records about which little or nothing at all is ever heard. We cite the Snow Hill Coal Co. mine at Terre Haute, Ind., which has an automatic Nordberg hoist and which hoists 12 tons per trip or 700 tons per hr from 700 ft. This is a counter-weighted installation and a complete cycle is made every 62 seconds or 58 trips per hr. Another mine, The Potash Company of America mine at Carlsbad, N. Mex., has a Nordberg automatic hoist, hoisting eight tons per trip from 1150 ft on a one minute cycle. The materials hoisted in these two mines are ideal for automatic hoisting-they are free flowing so that no hang up is anticipated and hoisting is continuous. Multiplying out the above figures you will find that it is possible to hoist 11,000 tons in two shifts at Snow Hill or over 3 million tons in 300 days per year and over 2 million tons at Potash. Other mines have records which can be pointed to with pride. When a record for one year is established, it doesn't stand too long as here in America the ambition of all the men connected with the operation forces them on to larger tonnages. T. C. WIEDENHOEFER MANAGER MINE HOIST DEPARTMENT NORDBERG MANUFACTNRING CO. MILWAUKEE, WIS.

Jan 1, 1952

AS I have told you before, "alloy" here signifies nothing but the mixture of one metal with another in friendly companionship. Whenever you wish to do this, you should consider the purpose that moves you, whether it is to increase the quantities, or for corruption. Then you should choose whatever has by its nature more affinity with what you wish to alloy, or whatever is best for your purpose. Give it in the melt the proportion that you wish or as much as it can support without being entirely removed from its first nature, as [73v] water is in wine or white in black if too much is added. However, you must make the proportion with a definite ratio by weight and not by chance in order that you may bring your work to the degree of perfection that you desire. For he who, proceeds with his eyes closed not only stumbles many times but frequently falls. Therefore you must know first that gold does not join in an alloy with any metal other than silver and copper. Thus if you wish to make a work of gold or to have it made, and begrudge the expense of having it fine, or if you find that you do not have enough, or if you do not care about such fineness, you must decide exactly how many carats less than perfectly fine you wish it to be, or by what weight you wish it to be increased. In order to do this accurately weigh the fine gold that you have and accompany it with silver or fine copper in the quantity that you wish to give it, and melt both these things together very well. So that you may understand the procedure better, let us suppose that you wish your gold to be 23 carats. You are to imagine that the whole quantity is twenty-four parts because this is the final limit at which the gold can be perfect. Now if this were the case, you would put in one part, which corresponds to one twenty-fourth of the whole quantity. You will have taken away one carat of the value of its fineness and increased it another in quantity. In the same way it will happen if you put in two or three or four or six. Up to the limit of one-half, you will always have gold according to the denomination of the lesser virtue and the greater quantity. Surpassing one-half, so that there are eleven parts of silver and thir-

Jan 1, 1942

William B. Cogswell, member of the Institute since 1872, died on June 7, 1921, at his home in New York City, after an illness of about six weeks occasioned by an infection of the middle car. Mr. Cogswell is survived by his wife, Mrs. Cora Brownell Cogswell; a son-in-law, and three grandchildren. His first wife died in 1877. William Cogswell was born at Oswego, Sept. 22, 1834, and was taken to Syracuse by his parents when he was four years old. He attended Hamilton Academy and private schools in Syracuse and Seneca Falls. In 1843, he visited England with his parents and brought back a set of drawing instruments, which led to a series of lessons in architecture under Luther Gifford, the only architect in Syracuse at the time. The boy drew many building plans and one set was used for the old Globe Hotel in Syracuse, erected in 1846 and 1847. In 1848, when only 14, he spent a year with a party that was surveying the route of the Syracuse & Oswego R. R. and relaying the tracks of the Utica & Syracuse R. R. He studied civil engineering at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, for three years, but left that institution in 1852 without receiving his degree. Many years later, in 1884, the degree of C. E. was conferred upon him. During the three years following 1852, Mr. Cogswell served as an apprentice in machine shops at Lawrence, Mass., under the superintendence of John S. Hoadley. About 1856, he was made manager of the machinery department of the Marietta & Cincinnati R. R., at Chili-cothe, Ohio, and three years later became superintendent of the Broadway foundry at St. Louis, Mo. In 1860, in Syracuse, Mr. Cogswell was associated with William A. and A. Avery Sweet in the formation of Sweet Bros. & Co., which later became the Whitman & Barnes Mfg. Co. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Mr. Cogswell received a civilian appointment as mechanical engineer in the United States Navy. During 1860 he was located at Port Royal, S. C., having general supervision over the work of fitting up repair shops at five widely separated stations on the Atlantic seaboard and Gulf of Mexico. In this year his genius and resourcefulness were notably shown. He literally launched a naval machine shop, so that warships could be repaired without leaving, and thereby weakening, blockades against Southern ports. The machine shop was assembled by Mr. Cogswell and shipped by boat to Port Royal. There an old whaler was made over for machine shop purposes and Mr.

Jan 1, 1922

By Luther B. Eames

J. V. N. DORR, New York, N. Y.-I have read Mr. Eames' excellent paper on this' subject with great interest, for besides being connected with the design and installation of the first modern countercurrent decantation plant, he was associated with me in the development of the thickener in the Black Hills some years earlier, and has now been operating the largest plant that has used this method of treatment. His, discussion, of the influence of different factors on the results obtained is quite thorough, but several features I think may not be apparent to the reader who has not studied the subject carefully. 1. Grade of Ore That Can Be Treated.-Mr. Eames has shown graphically that' the assay of all solutions increases directly as the grade of the ore treated. He has not emphasized, however, the fact that, as most operators prefer to keep the assay of pregnant solutions down below a certain figure in order to insure complete precipitation, an increase in ore value beyond a certain point means a proportional increase in solution precipitated and therefore not only an increase in the percentage of dissolved gold recovered, but an actual descrease in tailing loss. The importance of the influence of the percentage of moisture in the underflow on loss is made clear, and I. may add that unless it is quite evident that pulp can be safely settled to 50 per cent. solids, or more, it is usually advisable to use a continuous filter at the end of. a decantation plant to reduce losses in cyanide and gold. Dissolution in Thickeners.-The influence of a change of solution on silver dissolution has long been emphasized and most gold operators have. recognized the annoying way in which a gold ore after being agitated until nothing more can be dissolved will loosen up again when almost ready for the dump after the dissolved metal has been removed by decantation or filtration. Continuous decantation gives favorable conditions for this additional dissolution and a chance to recover most of what is thus dissolved. This is especially true if an extra tank is used in the series and barren solution added at the second tank from the end instead, of the first, as shown in Mr. Eames' Fig. 1. It can be calculated that the use of this tank will reduce the mechanical loss of cyanide by one-third and cut the gold loss as well; but the saving in gold or silver that may dissolve when the pulp is first diluted with weak solution may be as important.

Jan 4, 1917

By J. B. Cohen

In an investigation of the microstructure of shock-loaded metal specimens1 C. S. Smith found that there was little distortion of grain boundaries or change in external dimensions, although the hardness corresponded to that produced by severe rolling. Furthermore, the hardness of individual grains was independent of the deformation structures present; grains with no markings were as hard as those heavily populated with markings. These markings which resemble twins do not appear in copper until high shock-loads of the order of 200 kb are applied. It appears that due to the high velocity of a shock wave and its sharp front, heavy deformation takes place on a submicroscopic scale. In this work an attempt was made to examine this deformation, particularly at a load below which macroecopic markings appear. The broadening of 200 and 400 diffraction peaks was examined from the face of a poly crystalline sample normal to the direction of the shock wave. These peaks were chosen because the elastic constants in copper are such that residual strains would be greatest in the <100> directions; hence, the strain-broadening contribution to these peaks would be large in comparison to other sets. Also the broadening due to stacking faults and microtwins would be greatest with this set.2 A complete Fourier analysis of these peaks was made, as described by warren,&apos; using the Stokes correction with peaks from an annealed sample.3 With the aid of the U. S. Army Ordnance Corps EDVAC computer and a curve matching program, sixty sine and sixty cosine coefficients were obtained for each peak. The last of these was about 1.5 pct or less of the largest coefficient, indicating good representation. Transverse sections from a 1.5 in. rod of as-drawn electrolytic tough-pitch copper were reduced in cross-sectional area about 50 pct by cross rolling. Disks 1.5 in. in diam were recrystallized at 275 °C for 30 min and then at 300°C for the same time. The faces were polished and deeply etched in nitric acid to remove 25 mils. The grain size was 0.02 mm. Laue back-reflection patterns indicated the sample was well recrystallized. The two diffraction peaks from this sample were recorded on a Norelco diffractometer using filtered copper radiation. Peak intensities were kept less than 600 cps to assure linearity of the counter and circuitry. This sample was then placed between two rods of the same material and diameter. The top rod was 2.25 in. long and the bottom rod 1 in. long. (In

Jan 1, 1961

By R. A. Kinzie

THE major operating costs in a cement plant are labor, power, and fuel. The opportunities and methods of savings in labor and power parallel other industries. Because our industry&apos;s use of fuel is large and its method of use is unique, the devices adapted for saving fuel are of interest. In normal practice the raw material in the form of a dry powder or a mud is fed to a rotating inclined cylinder where it is dried, calcined, and clinkered. In a Lepol kiln the raw material is rolled up into little balls with water in the nodulizer, fed to a traveling grate on which it is dried and partially calcined and tben to a short kiln where the process is finished. The more usual methods of saving heat have been the use of long kilns with chains in wet process plants and the use of waste heat boilers in dry plants (fig. 1). At the Santa Cruz plant we have used a Lepol system kiln and achieved a fuel &apos;economy of 4.7 gal per bbl of clinker or about 704,-000 Btu per bbl. This can be compared with our old kilns using the same fuel and raw material which consume 7.8 gal per bbl or 1,130,000 Btu per bbl. These are gross Btu and not the net figures usually used in reports of foreign companies. Our average consumption for 1948 was 708,000 Btu per bbl of Lepol clinker, based on cement sold, and oil purchased. The overall fuel consumption for 1948 was 6.61 gal per bbl. The Lepol system consists of a nodulizer, a grate, and a kiln. There is the usual accessory equipment which is similar to that used in other cement plants. The following description covers the equipment in operation at our plant. The nodulizer is a cylinder 8 ft 10 in. in diam by 18 ft long set on a slope of 1/2 in. per ft, and rotated at about 10 rpm. It is driven by a 50 hp wound rotor motor drawing about 9 kw. The inside of the shell is cleaned by a continuously operating scraper which draws 0.1 kw. The dry raw material is fed to the nodulizer where, being sprayed with water, it rolls into small spheres about 90 pct being between 1/2 and 1 in. in diam and containing about 15 pct water. The nodules fall on the traveling grate where the hot gas from the kiln is pulled down through the

Jan 1, 1951

By Benjamin C. Craft, Frank Perkins

The wall-building properties of salt-water muds can be maintained at high temperatures by additions of gum karaya, gum ghatti, gelatinized starch, or commercially prepared starch. A germicide should be used to prevent fermentation. Introduction The behavior of drilling mud has received special attention from the petroleum industry within the past few years in numerous research projects dealing with such subjects as chemical treatment, gelation, and filtration characteristics. The importance and control of filtration, or water loss, is readily apparent* It affects the analysis of side-wall cores and interpretation of electric logs; it controls to a large extent the work of primary cementing, reduces the amount of expensive fishing, and permits the running of long strings of casing. It has been found that among the many factors that have an adverse effect on filtration, the presence of electrolytes, in general, and of salt, in particular, is outstanding. The effect is one of flocculation of the colloids due to neutralization of the negative charges on the clay particles. This reaction is further increased on the Gulf Coast because high temperatures reduce dispersion, to a minimum, causing increased flocculation in both fresh-water and saltwater muds. The problem of reducing water loss in salt-water muds by the addition of gums and starch at atmospheric temperature has been investigated,&apos; and many successful field tests in West Texas indicate its solution. From the work of Byck2 it is concluded that no existing method will permit an approximate determination of the filtration rate at high temperatures from data taken at room temperatures. Filtration should be measured at the ternperature actually anticipated in the well, or at least at a number of lower temperatures and extrapolated over a small range. A laboratory study has been made of the chemicals available for the filtration characteristics of salt-water muds at high temperatures, and the use of germicides to prevent fermentation. Laboratory Investigations Procedure Since the purpose of this investigation was to compare several different gums and starches at elevated temperatures, mud from the same source was used for all the tests. Viscosity was measured in a Stormer viscosimeter at 600 r.p.m. and water loss was determined with a Baroid High-pressure and High-temperature Wall-building Tester3 at temperatures from 80&apos; to 250°F. and at a pressure of 500 lb. per sq. in. for 30 minutes. The samples tested consisted of 150 grams of commercial Louisiana mud, 50

Jan 1, 1943

By R. P. Rothwell

AT this our first meeting I beg to call the attention of the members of our Institute to what is certainly a question of the greatest possible importance to the industries we represent; and more particularly to the welfare of the coal and iron trades : I refer to the enormous waste of coal in mining and in its preparation for market, as now practised in our anthracite coal-fields. It is a fact which many of you can certify to, that we are wasting fully one-ha f of all the coal in the veins we are now working, and there are cases, which might be mentioned where this proportion, immense as it is, has been greatly exceeded. The popular belief that our deposits of anthracite coal are "practically inexhaustible," is very far from being founded on facts. On the contrary, supposing the present rate of increase in the production to be maintained, it is probable that a maximum yield for our coal-fields would be attained in about fifteen years ; there are in fact some of our smaller basins where the principal veins are nearly exhausted and the production has already attained its maximum. There are others, again, where the depth attained-and it must be borne in mind that we commenced working at the surface outcrop-moderate though it is (scarcely ever reaching eight hundred feet), has so increased the cost of mining as to imperil the capital invested, and though it requires but little foresight to predict the time when the difficulties of mining will be very considerably increased by reason of the greater depth, greater quantity of water, fire-damp, and other fruitful sources of cost, yet, ignoring these recognized facts, we continue to waste more than one-half of the coal where it is obtained with the least danger, expense, and trouble, that is, near the surface-either above water-level or at a moderate depth below it. The inspection of almost any accurate mine map will satisfy you that, on an average, we leave fully one-third. of the coal in the ground as pillars to support the roof; in some places more than one-third thus remains, while it is very rare that less than one-quarter is left. In almost every case this coal is absolutely lost, for it will very rarely pay to reopen gangways and lay roads to it after that portion of the mine has been abandoned. Is it necessary in all cases to support the roof, and where it is, may not some artificial

Jan 1, 1873

By E. P. Mathewson

DURING the past 35 years it has been my privilege to deal with hundreds of recent graduates from engineering schools all over the world. In consequence, I, feel that I have learned something about the training of, engineering students. In the first place, I believe that too great specializa-tion is a mistake. A student should receive general training in engineering for at least three out of the four years of the course, and any specializing that may be required should come in the fourth year. Too great emphasis can not be laid upon the fact that the four years&apos; training does not make an engineer; on the contrary, the graduate is only fitted to enter the pro-fession. He becomes an engineer in the true sense of the word only after years of practice; the college train-ing merely shows him where to look for information and develops his intellectual powers. Some of our engineering schools have lengthened the term of study to five years and talk of increasing it still further. This, in my opinion, is a mistake. A young man who spends more than four years in college is apt to become too academic and theoretical. It is better to stiffen the matriculation examinations than to prolong the years of study in college. No matter how good the faculty may be and how carefully selected the course of study, the graduate can never become an engineer unless he has some natural qualifications for the vocation. There are one or two subjects in which most recent graduates seem to be weak; these are accounting, the command of English, and training in the writing of reports. A short course in general accounting should always be included in the curriculum. To this should be added instruction in the preparation of estimates and cost statements. In making reports it should be borne in mind that these reports are to be submitted to busy men,-and not to technical men. The busy man wants the gist of the report summarized on the front page of the report. He wants to know that if he expends a certain sum of money in a certain way, he will get certain results and make so much profit. This should be put clearly before him in short statements, free from technical terms. The details of the report can follow .at greater length; it should be remembered that the employer is not going to read these details, but will confine his attention to the summary.

Jan 1, 1923