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By Bernard K. Asdell

Georgia, a state seldom considered to be an important mineral producer, has one surprising feature-it is the nation's largest producer of kaolin. Kaolin is a highly important raw material in the paper, rubber, ceramic whiteware, paint and chemical industries. In 1965, more than 2.7 million tons of kaolin were produced in this state, a 150,000-ton increase over the preceding year, and production continues to climb. Strictly defined, the term "kaolin" applies to a group of hydrous aluminum silicates in which kaolinite is the predominant mineral. Kaolinite is inherently white, non-abrasive, chemically inert, and of a very fine particle size, ranging from sub-micron to 40-microns equivalent spherical diameter. An electron-micrograph of kaolinite is shown in Fig. 1. The particles finer than about 2 microns are thin, elongated plates, hexagonal in outline. The larger particles, coarser than 2 microns, are predominantly vermicular in outline with a foliated structure. Table I shows a typical chemical analysis of commercial, wet-processed kaolin compared to pure kaolinite.

Jan 11, 1967

By C. S. Herzig

Some time ago, in Mexico, our signal-bells in a 700-foot shaft caused us considerable annoyance by continually getting out of order, each time so delaying our hoisting operations that we naturally desired to remedy this evil. There were two mays open: either to patch up the old bell, which was of the ordinary pattern, every time it failed to work, or else to devise some new arrangement.. On consultation with our foreman we designed a signal-device which, during the number of months I watched its operation, worked satisfactorily, without once getting out of order. We sought to produce a simple device, in which no greater pull on the lever would be necessary from one level than from another; to counterbalance independently the weight of the pendant bell-rope, so that there would be no direct weight on the working-parts of the bell itself, and likewise to arrange it so as to necessitate only a light pull on the lever in signaling; and, finally, to make some sort of trip-arrangement, so that whenever the signaling-lever underground passed through a certain arc the signal would be given in the engine-room. By this means we wished to obviate the ill effects of sudden heavy pulls and rough usage in general, such as all signaling

Jan 1, 1901

By J. E. Forciea, O. E. Palasvirta, L. G. Hendrickson

All pilot and commercial plants working with Mesabi Range taconite employ wet magnetic separation. Progress is being made with a dry magnetic process,9-11 but this has not yet been applied to taconite except in the laboratory and pilot plants. Flowsheets in all five plants are similar, including multiple stages of grinding, each followed by magnetic separation, which rejects a finished tailing. The flowsheet in Fig. 1 is used in the preliminary and commercial plants of the Erie and Reserve mining companies and in Unit C of Oliver's Pilotac plant. At Erie the desliming operation is omitted. In the Reserve plants two ball mills are used with each rod mill. Pilotac uses flowsheet 2 in Unit A-B and has also tested flowsheet 3. Principal differences in the three flowsheets are the number of grinding stages and the type of roughing. The terms open- circuit roughing and closed-circuit roughing are best defined by the diagrams.

Jan 12, 1958

By J. W. Snavely

WITH all the advantages of handling bulk materials by means of belt conveyor also go some problems, one of the most persistent being that of cleaning. When sticky materials are being carried; the build-up of material on the return idler rolls results in difficulty of belt training. Much attention has been given to the problem of cleaning conveyor belts, and a great variety of cleaning devices have been developed. Even the best involve troublesome maintenance, and none can completely remove the fine particles imbedded in the belt cover, which cause rapid wear of the return idler rolls, and at the same time, of the belt cover as well.

Jan 12, 1951

By R. H. Thorpe

Longwall working in Britain developed to overcome problems arising from depth of seams causing roof and ventilation difficulties. This system became very widespread particularly in the thicker seams, where faces of up to one mile in length were not uncommon. In the thinner sections, in order to remain competitive, the longwall undercutting machine was developed. Following the development of the coal cutter, every other aspect of the face operation was examined and mechanized as it became a bottleneck to output and efficiency. The face system itself was modified and workings concentrated with the same objectives.

Jan 1, 1977

By B. K. Miller, George E. Moore

THE Missouri fire clays are here divided into plastic and semiplastic clays occurring as widespread bedded deposits in east central Missouri and flint and diaspore clays occurring as isolated "sink-hole" deposits in the north central Ozark region. Visual inspection was the first method used in clay prospecting. Thin overburden, hard sandstone "rimrocks," and the occurrence of diaspore float made this method particularly applicable in the flint and diaspore fields. The first drilling tool used was a hand auger. One man can drill 25 to 50 ft. per day at a cost of about 35 cents per foot. Holes can be drilled to a depth of 150 feet. Spud drills are often used where the over burden is hard. This drill uses a slotted earth socket bit. A two-man crew can drill about 100 ft. per day at a cost of about 35 cents per foot. Mechanically powered auger drills have been used extensively in wildcat drilling in the past few years. This type of drill furnishes a continuous set of cuttings. The practical depth limit with this drill is 50 to 60 ft. Two men can drill 300 ft. per day at a cost of about 20 cents per foot. Core drilling is used mainly to prove a known clay deposit. A two-man crew with a No. 22 Sullivan drill can drill about 30 to 40 ft. per day in soft clay, at a cost of about $1.25 per foot.

Jan 1, 1947

By M. D. Curran

AS applied to coal, the term processing is subject to many interpretations. To some it means preparation of coal for the market by mechanical means such as crushing, sizing, washing, or treating with oil or chemicals to eliminate dust or improve combustion quality. To others it means conversion of the coal to other commodities as in carbonization to produce coke and by- products, or to liquids by application of the hydrogenation process. I prefer to classify the various forms of mechanical treatment under the heading of beneficiation and apply the term processing to those methods of treatment that destroy the coal sub- stance through distillation or hydrogenation.

Jan 1, 1939

By AIME AIME

A REQUEST for information as to the details of activities of the Engineering Council was made by the Joint Conference Committee for the benefit of the new American Engineering Council. , This request was complied with, and the scheduled reply so succinctly sets forth the activities of the old Council as well as the scope of possible activities of ,the new Council, about whose efforts there has been much discussion, .that it' is given herewith in full, except the 'budget which is summarized.

Jan 1, 1920

By John L. Schroder

The demands for increased productivity on the 1967 coal industry have generated new operating trends and fresh approaches to old methods, which have enabled the industry to keep pace with the expanding economy. Changes, while not radical in concept or design, have been plentiful and are marked by the refinement of the already tried, tested and proven. Perhaps not since World War II have there been demands on equipment manufacturers to design and deliver such diversified types of machines as those required by the industry in the past year. Equipment developments-following a plan which calls for higher productivity, lower maintenance costs and greater machine availability- have tended more toward increased horsepower and heavier, more rugged equipment. Electrical and mechanical components, designed in many instances with maximum reliability rather than initial costs as the main criterion, have contributed to the improvements in over-all performance. High-strength, specialty steels are finding use in a wide range of equipment applications. The horsepower capacity of electric motors being installed is more frequently being rated on a continuous basis rather than the former one hr or less and, as a result, fewer failures now occur because of overloading. These developments reflect the pyramiding cost of equipment down-time and represent definitive progress in reducing the magnitude of the problem.

Jan 2, 1968

By W. M. Weigel

LESS advances in the technology of non-metallic minerals than for several years past mark 1931, and the cause is easily found. The universal depression and decreased markets for non-metallic as well as other mineral commodities has forced the producers to cut out all unnecessary expense and reduce operating costs to a minimum in order to keep going, even on a reduced output, and to prevent insolvency. The result. has been that but 'little research has been carried on, and such as has been completed has in but few cases been put into commercial practice on account of the expense involved in new equipment and plant changes. The trend in the industry has been more economic than technologic, and the greatest effort put on market studies and sales attempts to expand markets and scrutiny of present operating 'practice leading to reduction of cost of production. This tendency has been increased by highly competitive conditions and the buyer's market which has prevailed and to the fact that price has been a greater factor than quality in placing orders. Only in cases where improvements in technology would immediately and effectively reduce costs or where in special cases there was but little competition with almost a monopoly control has actual technical development taken place.

Jan 1, 1932

By F. N. Kissell, W. E. Schroeder, N. I. Jayaraman

This article discusses methods of improving airborne capture by conventional dust suppression systems. The work was performed in a full-scale plywood model of a mine entry with a wooden mockup of a Joy 12 CM continuous miner. Dust was introduced at the front of the entry, and water sprays knocked down part of the dust cloud. Sampling in the return air determined the percentage dust reduction. Based on the results, guidelines are offered for continuous miner spray systems to control dust. Empirical relations have been developed to determine the effect of changes in water spray pressure on air movement, dust knockdown, and pollutant concentrations in the face return. Nozzle selection and arrangement are discussed for high dust knockdown efficiencies.

Jan 1, 1986

By W. L. Zeigler

THE gravity concentrator of the Hecla Mining Co. was originally constructed in 1888 by the Milwaukee Mining Co., which was operating the Gem of the Mountains mine. It was purchased by the Hecla Mining Co. in 1900, and placed in operation 2 years later. At that time FIG. 1.-HECLA MINING CO. GEM CONCENTRATOR, GEM, IDAHO. the capacity was only about 200 tons a day, but many additions and changes in equipment have been made so that the present capacity is about 800 tons. One of the outstanding improvements made was the substitution of Callow flotation cells for vanners, which occurred in 1915. The recent building of a flotation plant for treating jig tailings, and the construction of a modern surface plant at the mine, following the

Jan 1, 1927

By J. Laskowski, Z. Sadowski

The properties of quartz, calcite, magnezite and dolomite suspensions prepared from -30 µm size fractions of these minerals have been investigated. Selective coagulation of the quartz-calcite, quartz-magnezite and quartz-dolomite binary suspensions was possible at the pH values slightly above those for the i.e.p. of the carbonate minerals. The tests revealed that quartz suspensions were not flocculated by the anionic flocculants, whereas the same polymers were flocculants for calcite, magnezite and dolomite. Selectivity in the flocculation of the quartz-calcite, quartz-magnezite and quartz-dolomite binary suspensions was not, however, satisfactory because of the activation of quartz by ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. Dispersing reagents can be used to improve the selectivity of flocculation.

Jan 1, 1980

By J. Parke Channing

THE growth of and profession depends on meeting and solving new problems. It is a continuous process. 'A period free from new, or hitherto unknown, questions will be a period of arrested development in the profession it affects. The present generation has witnessed a' mechanical development that has been truly marvelous: Almost every day marks the advent of a new, or the improvement of an old; process, method or machine. Wonders are now commonplace. The impossible is regularly accomplished. Yet, with all our progress in every realm of science and with our development in the engineering field, advances which have made possible the marvelous growth in industry, we have not made commensurate gains in methods affecting the human factor. Without the cooperation of the worker, we shall always fall short of our goal in a mechanical or statistical sense. If we do not make the individual members of the human family strong, healthy, happy, and ambitious for better things for themselves and their children, we will have failed utterly, for that is the real reason for our existence as men and the purpose of our organized effort as an engineering group. Thomas A. Edison

Jan 1, 1921

By J. T. Shimmin

THE past twenty-five years has been a period of unparalleled improvement in all lines of mining and metallurgical equipment, but probably none has undergone greater refinement and development than the vacuum filter. Beginning a quarter of a century ago, there has been steady advancement in the art of vacu-um filtration until today its use has become virtually standard practice for dewatering throughout the entire metallurgical industry as well as in important parts of the chemical and industrial processing fields. The credit for the first successful application of vacuum filtration 'at the Consolidated Mercury mines in Utah in 1902 undoubtedly belongs to George Moore. There, it is said, his filter reduced the loss of gold in the slime and sand from $1.25 to 40c. per ton. Successful applications were subsequently made by Mr. Moore at the Liberty Bell mines, Telluride, Colo., the Lundberg, Dorr &Wilson mill at Terry, S. D., and elsewhere. E. L. Oliver is generally credited with, having done the most to work out the necessary continuity of op-eration exemplified in the well-known continuous vacu-um filter which bears his name. Others made improve-ments also, but in my opinion all the new ideas advanced in recent years are modifications of the fundamental principles originated by the two pioneers, Moore and Oliver. Considerable interest has been shown recently in the new type of continuous internal-type vacuum filter which is associated with my own name1. In response to frequent inquiries regarding it and the steps which led up to its invention, I am giving herewith a brief account of the early history of this development and some of the more important installations which have been made during the last year or so. A. M. Nicholas (now deceased), an Australian engi-neer, conceived the idea, several years ago, of manu-facturing a continuous vacuum filter with the filter medium applied upon the inside of the drum, as con-trasted with existing drum filters in which the medium is applied externally. Nicholas recognized that a ma-chine of this type would be simpler than one with a tank and would overcome some of the difficulties en-countered with tank filters on certain classes of pulps, and he appreciated the value of having filtration take place in the same direction as the gravitational settle-ment of the solid particles in the pulp, the pulp being retained within the drum instead of being held against the outside surface. The ease of starting up after a shut down was likewise realized by Nicholas. It was tried in the United States, but was not entirely success-ful primarily due to mechanical defects.

Jan 5, 1928

By R. W. Hunt

The old plan was to increase every part of a rail much in the same proportion. But each part should be in proportion to what it ha.; to do. The head should be deep in proportion to tile amount. of traffic and the lowness of the rate of interest on its cost. The body need only he strong enough to carry the head after it is well worn down, and that deperlds on the weight of the machinery, and in the case of steel has little to do with the volume of traffic, except SO far as that affects weight of machinery. Ad on most railroad systems, the same niacliinery is used on main lines with heavy traffic, and bra11ct:es with light, I suggested in 1874 that each systern adopt the same body of rail for both, and make the head deeper on the main lines, shallower on the branches. This plan was adopted on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Bandberg seems to recognize this in his patterns of 1878. E. W. HUNT, TRoy, N. Y.: Again Dr. Dudley preaents to our cousideration a series of most carefully conductetl experiments, and ~llile I fully appreciate the labor and thought this work has cost him, I must still hesitate to accept his deductiono. This paper dilliirs from the previous one in that it denls esclrieively with the wearing qualitiei. of steel rails. Dr. Dudley gives his reason for this change in the following statement: " With the improvement in maintenance of way which has characterized the Pennsylvania Railroad during the last five or six yearn, the remova1 of rails from the track from the first two of these causes (i. e., broken and crushel), has, if I am right, quite notably diminished. This certainly is true with regard to broken rails. And if, as time advances, the number of crushed rails shall diminish, both because of the continued improvement in maintenance of way before referred to, and because, owing to improved and better methods at the steel works, there are fewer crushed rails caused by physical defects in the steel, the question of the wearing capacity of steel rails obviously becomes the allimportant one." Certainly the condition of the roadhd has much to do with mils brealring, crushing, and wearing. If the Pennsylvania and other railroads have done and are doing their part, Dr. Dudley oourteously admits that the steel works have performed part of theirs. But as far as I am informed, the formulas which they have used have been and are still quite wide of the one he continues to recommend. The rails which are not breaking or crushing to so great an extent as formerly, contain higher percentages of both carbon and manganese.

Jan 1, 1881

By K. E. Merklin, F. D. DeVaney

In the past most of the research in pelletizing has as its aim the production of a physically strong pellet. Now that this problem is solved, more attention is being paid to uniformity in grade and chemical composition. Consideration has been given in recent years to a study of additives which will make pellets partially or fully fluxed. Blast furnace tests show fluxed pellets to have advantages over both fluxed sinter and acid pellets. Lower slag volumes are used more frequently in the blast furnace and the uniformity of the charge, both physically and chemically, is becoming increasingly important. A considerable improvement can be secured by having all of the flux uniformly distributed through the pellets in a calcined state. A fluxed pellet, therefore, should be a superior product. The use of an ore burden that contains an appropriate quantity of fluxing materials is not new to the blast furnace industry. For years the Minette ores of France and Germany, the Clinton ores of the Birmingham, Ala., areas, as well as others, which are low in iron but contain calcium carbonate in sufficient quantities to give them self-fluxing properties, have proven economical. The adaption of the sintering process to the preparation of ore burdens provided a means for artifically associating the fluxstone with the iron ore prior to charging to the blast furnace. In 1944 Torpl discussed the effects of using lime in sinter made in Sweden on the sinter's metallurgical performance in a blast furnace. Hessle2 reported in 1945 on the advantages of using lime in sinter to increase the sintering plants' capacity and reduce fuel requirements. Robinson3 discussed the use of lime in Swedish sintering practice at the 1950 Blast Furnace, Coke Oven, and Raw Materials meeting. One of the suggested advantages was the combining of lime with silica to prevent the formation of a fayalite slag, which is difficult to reduce in the blast furnace. Nilson4 at the same meeting commented briefly on experimental work that had just started in the U. S. on the use of lime in sinter. The literature tends to indicate that most of this early work was directed towards improvement in sinter physical quality, and the fact that the feed to the blast furnace was partially fluxed was incidental. It was not long, however, before blast furnace advantages were being claimed. The matter was forcibly called to the attention of North American operators by reports of remarkable production records established by the Russians using fluxed sinter. The leading step was taken on this continent by the Steel Company of Canada in 1957; McMahon5 reported on the marked improvement in performance of an 18-ft blast furnace using fluxed sinter at its Hamilton works. Other North American operators quickly followed theStelco lead.

Jan 1, 1963

By John W. Roberts

The Federal income tax law permits as a deduction in determining net income "in the case of mines,... a reasonable allowance for depletion and for depreciation of improvements, according to the peculiar conditions in each case, based upon cost, including cost of development not otherwise deducted: Provided, that in the case of such properties acquired prior to Mar. 1, 1913, the fair market value of the property (or the taxpayer's interest therein) on that date shall be taken in lieu of cost up to that date." The law provides for a reasonable allowance but the regulations provide for a definite method of computation that possesses more the virtue of simplicity than that of reasonableness. Article 210 of Regulations 45 reads: "When the cost or value as of Mar. 1, 1913, or within 30 days after the date of discovery of the property shall have been determined, and the number of mineral units in the property as of the date of acquisition or valuation shall have been estimated, the division of the former amount by the latter figure will give the unit value for purposes of depletion, and the depletion allowance for the taxable year may be computed by multiplying such unit value by the number of units of mineral extracted during the year." This is simple, but is it reasonable? The intent of the law is clearly that the cost of the ore in the ground shall be considered as part of the cost of the same ore when removed and sold. The regulations fail to carry out that intent, because of the unwarranted assumption that all the ore in the mine cost the same amount per ton. This is what gives the Treasury Department's method its simplicity, but at the same time robs it of its reasonableness because the assumption is contrary to fact. It is self-evident that a ton of ore near the surface or exposed by present workings is worth much more than a ton buried so far down in the earth that it cannot be removed for many years. If no improvements in mining methods were expected, the value of deeply buried ore would be further reduced by the greater expense that would be required to

Jan 1, 1922

By J. M. Larkin

GOOD will is becoming recognized more and more as a necessary business asset, and a successful concern must have the good will not only of its customers and the public, but of its employees. Management -enlightened management-recognizes this and will go the limit to get it. Progress depends on cooperation, and in industry cooperation must be based on the acceptance by employ-ers and employees of some practical application of the principle that capital and labor are interdependent. Capital cannot exist without labor, and labor without capital is helpless. The development of each is depen-dent on the cooperation of the other. Confidence and good will are the foundation of every successful enter-prise, and these can be created only by securing a point of contact between employer and employee. We feel that one of the most effective agencies for promoting good will between employers and employees is through some well organized method of conference and have consequently adopted, to accomplish this, a plan of employee representation. The plan inaugurated by the Bethlehem Steel Co. about four years ago, which provides for the election by secret ballot of representatives by and from among the employees, has for its purpose three fundamentals; namely, to give the employees a voice in the determina-tion of the conditions under which they work, to furnish machinery for the prevention and adjustment of differ-ences between employees and management, and, so far as possible, to provide and foster continuous employment. The constitution and by-laws adopted take care of the detail in setting up machinery for the functioning of the representatives of both management and men, but the spirit with which the plan has been carried out and the results which have been accomplished are of far greater importance than the plan itself. The Bethlehem plan, which has been in operation since October, 1918, can no longer be classed as an experiment. The original by-laws provided for amend-ments and, as was anticipated, changes and improve-ments have been made from time to time by mutual agreement. The operation of the plan for over four years shows it to be fundamentally sound and that it must therefore be conceded a success.

Jan 2, 1923

By R. G. Knickerbocker, W. H. Yarroll, P. E. Churchward, J. W. Hunter, J. H. Jacobs

THE present paper records a chapter in the history of the development of an electrolytic manganese industry in the United States.1 A relatively large pilot plant at Boulder City, Nev., for the production of electrolytic manganese was conceived as part of the national defense program to make this country independent of foreign importation of manganese ore. The first authorization, in November 1940, however, was for a plant of only several hundred pounds capacity. Improvements in process and subsequent additions to some sections authorized by subsequent appropriations have enabled the plant to produce as much as 2000 lb. of manganese a day for substantial periods of time. Since in pilot-plant operation frequent changes are made in the flowsheet, the electrolytic manganese plant was constructed so that equipment could be rearranged with a minimum of expense and time. Several different kinds of the various types of equipment were installed for many of the operations, so that the one most suitable for the process might be chosen. Pilot-plant operations were begun in November 1941 and have been continuous except for brief shutdowns for installation of new equipment. More than one-half million pounds of manganese have been produced. The improvements in process, selection of equipment, and operational procedure developed are recorded here. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCESS The work of early investigators on the electrolysis of manganese solutions has been reviewed by Shelton.2 Until the method of continuous production of manganese by electrolysis was perfected by Shelton2-4 and coworkers, no practical procedure had been devised. The method as originally developed by the Bureau of Mines will be described here only briefly. The manganese dioxide ore was reduced in a rotating kiln-type furnace at 650°C. in an atmosphere of "city" gas. The calcine was leached with spent electrolyte and enough sulphuric acid to produce a neutral leach solution containing 25 grams manganese per liter as manganese sulphate and 200 grams per liter of ammonium sulphate. Arsenic was removed from the solution by the addition of 0.05 gram iron per liter as ferrous sulphate followed by oxidation

Jan 1, 1944