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By G. H. Matheson, J. M. W. Mackenzie

The coal concentrates studied contained clay slimes which would not flocculate on the addition of a polymer flocculent alone. The mechanism of the flocculation process is interpreted on the basis of the flocculation of lyophobic colloids. The filtration rate characteristics are shown to deviate slightly from certain basic filtration equations. Cake moisture was shown to decrease with cake drying time and vacuum, and increase with cake thickness. Filtration is a commonly accepted method of dewa-tering the fine coal concentrates produced in coal cleaning operations. Dewatering of these concentrates, using drum or disc vacuum filters, usually presents few technical difficulties and will result in the production of a filter cake containing some 20 to 25 pct moisture. In many coal cleaning operations it is common practice to add flocculants to the coal concentrates prior to filtration to increase the filtration rate. The mechanism whereby flocculation increases filtration rate has been summarized by Gaudin,4 while Geer, et a15 have compared the effectiveness of starch and synthetic flocculants as filter aids for a variety of coal concentrates. Coal concentrates, containing appreciable quantities of expanding lattice clays of the montmorillonite-illite group, sometimes prove impossible to filter without flocculation of the pulp prior to filtration. The fine coal concentrates produced at the Newcastle washery of The Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd. fall into this group. Coals mined in this district contain appreciable quantities of expanding lattice clays which break down in the washery circuit waters and, by processes of mechanical inclusion, contaminate the coal concentrate thickener feed. Despite the classifying action of this thickener, the underflow which is pumped to the filters contains sufficient clay slimes to render filtration of the unflocculated pulp impossible. Filtration leaf and plant tests were carried out to develop effective and economic flocculant combinations and to determine the filtration characteristics of the flocculated coal concentrates. The determination, by leaf testing, of the filtration characteristics, and the analysis of these characteristics in the light of the equations of Brown2 resulted in the successful trial operation of the filters in the Newcastle washq. Although the filtration characteristics are not entirely in agreement with the theoretical treatment of Brown, the equations developed made it possible to predict, from leaf tests, the effect in the plant filters of pulp density, form vacuum, and form time on filtration rate and filtrate volume. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The sample used for leaf testing was the coal concentrate thickener underflow, which in plant operations would form the feed to the two 12-disk Dorr-Oliver filters. The feed to the coal concentrate thickener comprises the undersize produced by dewatering the Diester table concentrate on 5-mm dewatering screens and the overflow produced by cycloning of the froth flotation concentrate. At the time of testing these filters were inoperative because of the difficulties in filtration, arising from contamination of the

Jan 1, 1962

By Gloyd M. Wilkes

The eastern section of the Park City district is drained to an elevation of 6300 ft, by means of the Ontario drain tunnel owned and maintained by Park Utah Consolidated Mines Co. This elevation represents a depth of 920 ft, in Park City Consolidated Mines Company's property. When development below the 900-ft. level was commenced, sinking was attempted through an incline winze in the fissure. The intensely fractured quartzite forming the walls of the vein could not be held after water was encountered, so it was decided that further sinking should be done in a vertical winze far enough in the foot-wall to be in the more solid quartzite outside the fractured zone containing the vein. Progress was good until a depth of 200 ft. below water table was reached, where the flow of water became serious. Sinking progressed 300 ft., to the 1200-ft. level, and there approximately 750 gal. of water per minute was being pumped. The last 20 ft. of sinking cost more than $200 per foot direct charges, whereas the over-all cost for the 300 ft. was $100 per foot. This high last cost was caused by excessive lost time in pumping. Crosscutting to the vein disclosed the fact that the 1050-ft. level had been developed only after drainage had been effected from the 1200-ft. level, but that the 1200-ft. level could not be opened because of the great amount of water encountered when the fractured zone was intersected. The ground in the fractured zone is so finely crushed that it precludes any possibility of economic support when it is wet. Furthermore, mining costs were found to be prohibitive after caving of vein walls had taken place as a result of an attempt to drive drifts before complete drainage had been effected. More than 3000 gal. per minute was pumped from the 1200-ft. level and the water table remained 75 ft. above this plane even after five crosscuts were driven to the fractured zone at 50-ft. intervals along the strike of the fissure from a footwall drainage drift. It was evident, therefore, that complete drainage must be effected before the fractured zone could be opened in any future development. After extensive investigations in this connection, a well-drilling campaign was decided upon to effect drainage of the fissure in advance of sinking and level development, so that all mining operations would be carried on in dry ground. Drilling Procedure A crosscut was driven through the hanging wall of the fissure on the 1050-ft. level, which was the deepest dry level at the time, to a predetermined location from which a vertical hole should reach the fractured zone at about 400 ft. below this level. A drill station was made and a raise was driven over the location for the hole, to act in lieu of a derrick or drill tower. This raise

Jan 1, 1943

By H. R. Nelson, Martin S. Maier

The diffusion of metals plays an important role in many metallurgical processes,lJ as, for example, the formation of alloys by the annealing of mixed powders, the homogenization of segregated alloys, and the carburization of steel. Other equally important phenomena, such as recrystalli-zation and creep, are based on the movement of like atoms. Although much is known concerning the effects of diffusion in metals, very little is known concerning the details of the physical processes involved. 1,3-5 The data that should give most information concerning the processes involved in diffusion are those on the diffusion of like atoms—self-diffusion. Very little is known concerning the rates of self-diffusion of metals because before the discovery of artificial radioactivity in 1934 there was no means of detecting the movement of the diffusing atoms through the solvent metal except in the elements possessing natural radioactive isotopes—lead, thallium and bismuth. Using the induced radioactivity of the element as an indicator, atoms can now be "tagged" so that the rate of diffusion of the radioactive isotopes of an element (tagged atoms) into the stable isotopes of the same element can be measured. As the radioactive and stable isotopes of an element differ only in nuclear structure, it is quite certain that all isotopes of an element diffuse at the same rate. Two techniques have been used to measure self-diffusion. In one, a thin layer of radioactive metal is deposited on the face of the solvent metal, and the decrease in the surface activity as the radioactive atoms diffuse into the solvent metal is measured. This method has been used to determine the coefficients of self-diffusion of lead6-l0 and bismuth10 using natural radioactive isotopes, and of gold1' and copper12 using artificial radioactive isotopes. In the other technique a thin layer of the radioactive metal is deposited oil one face of the solvent metal, and after diffusion has occurred the specimen is cut in thin sections to obtain the concentration-penetration curve. This method has been used to determine the coefficients of self-diffusion of gold,13 zinc,14-l6 silver," and copper.17 The second method was used for the work described in this paper. Materials The coefficients of self-diffusion were determined in two grades of polycrystalline copper and in single crystals of copper. Commercial OFHC copper was used in the form of disks I in. in diameter by % in. thick. Samples of high-purity copper described by Phillips and Skinnerl9 were supplied through the courtesy of the American Smelting and Refining Co. The high-purity copper rod was used without remelting by cross-rolling to a thickness of 0.075 in., from which disks 7/8 in. in diameter were cut. A good grade of bus-bar copper was used to make the single crystals.

Jan 1, 1942

By Theron Wasson

The oil and gas fields of Michigan that have been under development since 1925 are in an area that extends across the middle of the lower peninsula from northeast to southwest, a distance of about 200 miles, and with a width of about 80 miles. In 19 years 70 fields have been discovered. Most of these are relatively small when compared with other oil-producing areas. This is borne out by the fact that since the first wells were drilled these fields have produced a total of only 204,000,000 bbl. However, Michigan is still maintaining its production, for during the past five years the annual production has remained fairly constant at approximately 20,000,000 bbl. Production for 1943, as reported by the Bureau of Mines, was 20,682,000 barrels. Roughly, one third oi Michigan's production in 1943 came from the Reed City field, which was discovered in 1941. During the year, 237 oil wells were completed in Michigan in 1943. The decrease of 56 from the 1942 total is probably due to the continuance of Government regulations requiring a 40-acre spacing pattern over most of the state. Fig. I shows the principal oil and gas fields of Michigan, and the columnar section, Fig. 2, shows the principal producing horizons in relation to the section drilled. The data of Table I and Table 2 have been carefully checked with previous reports to eliminate errors. Six new producing areas were discovered during 1943 and five areas discovered in 1942 were developed during the year. Both the new discoveries and the 1942 discoveries that were developed appear to be small and relatively unimportant. Goodwell Field.—The best discovery of the year is the Goodwell field, T. 14 N., R. 11 W., Goodwell township, Newaygo County. This small structure was located by core testing done by The Pure Oil Co. in 1942 and early 1943. The first producing well, C. R. Harris No. I, was completed on July 5, 1943, ill the Traverse limestone at a total depth of 2742 ft., with ail estimated potential of 1100 bbl. per day. By the end of the year, 18 wells had been completed in this field and approximately 281,000 bbl. of oil produced. The field operated under proration of 262 bbl. per day per well from Oct. I to Dec. I; 150 bbl. per day per well after that date. Woodville Field.—The small Woodville pool, T. 15 N., R. 11 W., 3 miles north of the Goodwell field, was discovered by core testing by the Ohio Oil Co. The discovery well was completed on May 5, 1943, flowing 650 bbl. of fluid, including 18 per cent salt water the first 18 hr., from the Traverse limestone at a depth of 2810 to 2815 ft. Seven wells had been completed by the end of the year and 67,000 bbl. of oil had been produced. Development is now practically at a standstill because further drilling does not aDDear economically iustified.

Jan 1, 1944

By Ferit Gurses

Extensive coal and lignite deposits exist in Turkey. Bituminous coal is the nation's principal mineral resource; important not only as fuel for the industrial development of the country, but also as a means of obtaining foreign exchange. Of the electrical power generated during 1939, 82.8 per cent was derived from coal.' It is anticipated that the lignite deposits will be one of the major sources of power for the electrification of the country. Bituminous Coal The locations of the four principal bituminous-coal2 basins are indicated on Fig. 1. The Eregli-Zonguldak basin lies on the Black Sea northwest of Ankara; the Canakkale basin lies near the junction of the Dardannelles; the Trakya basin is in European Turkey northwest of the Bosphorus and the Erzurum basin lies far to the east. The Eregli-Zonguldak basin is the most important of the four. This coal basin was discovered in 1829 but did not arouse interest until 1848; up to 1865, its annual production had not exceeded 50,000 metric tons. In 1865, during the Sultanate, working of coal mines was started by the Navy department, and the annual production was 61,145 metric tons. In 1908, the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture was authorized to develop the whole coal basin. Production reached 264,397 metric tons in 1910, and during 1915-1922, preceding the revolution, the total produc- tion of the basin was' 2,676,043, or an average of 334,000 metric tons annually. The period of national revolution that followed was marked by a steady increase in coal production in Turkey, although world production decreased, because of the crisis of 1929-1932, about 52 per cent. ARea and Geology of the Coal Basin The geology of the Eregli-Zonguldak area is not yet completely known. The basin begins -at Gungazi, to the west of Eregli, and extends to Sogutozu, a distance of about 106 miles. The coal beds, however, appear only in places and the overlying Cretaceous strata hide them elsewhere. This area includes the most important centers, such as Kandilli, Alacaagzi, Teflenli, Kozlu, Gelik (see Fig. 2). The geological sequence of the district is correlated with the Cretaceous of the Balkans; which is, in turn, a prolongation of the Alpine zone. Geological surveys made by G. Ralli, R. Zeiller and P. Arni3 show that the Eregli-Zonguldak formations fall into three natural divisions. Series a, The Alacaagzi in the district of that name (Fig. 2), is of the Culm stage. The strata strike generally east-west and dip about 30" south. This series appears also around Kandilli and Camli, with a steeper angle of dip, but the deposits there lack regularity. The Alacaagzi stage appears also farther east, to the south of Kozlu and Gelik. The Alacaagzi series contains 15 seams of an average thickness of 2 ft. of good coal. Series b, the Kozlu, best represented in Zonguldak, Kilimli, Catalagzi, and between

Jan 1, 1944

By Ernest N. Patty, Sherwin F. Kelly

The present case history deals with the examination of an almost forgotten nickel prospect, near Winesap, Chelan County, Washington. Although the final results yielded no ore body of commercial importance, the integration of surface and underground exploration, geophysical survey and diamond drilling endow the story with interest. The program is significant because it is illustrative of how the most disappointing expenditures in mining exploration, the "not-finding" costs, could have been reduced had geophysical methods been applied at an appropriate stage in the prospecting work. The Chelan nickel deposit was discovered about 1900, on a sage-brush-covered hillside with a southerly slope, adjacent to Winesap Canyon; the paved highway now extending from Wenatchee northward, up the Columbia River and into Okanogan Valley, is only a mile away. After the deposit was found, three short prospect tunnels were driven into it, and the prospect then remained dormant for 40 years. No. x tunnel was 80 ft. long, running north into the hillside. For the first 35 ft. this adit exposed a typical, iron-stained gossan with streaks and stains of malachite, and small seams of water-soluble nickel sulphate. Beyond this, it encountered a relatively fresh peridotite, well mineralized with blebs of pentlandite. Systematic sampling yielded an average assay of 1.5 per cent nickel and 0.3 per cent copper. Down the hillside to the south and 35 ft. lower in elevation, No. 2 tunnel was driven under No. I and in the same direction, traversing 50 ft. of gneiss before it reached the peridotite. At this point the latter formation showed only scattered blebs of sulphides, not of commercial grade. To the west, on the same contour line as No. I tunnel, and 800 ft. around the hillside from it, No. 3 tunnel was driven 50 ft. into the hill to explore a strong gossan outcrop that assayed 0.5 per cent nickel (Fig. I). From the geological exposures on the hillside and in the tunnels, it appears that the main mass of the hill is formed of an ancient and altered gneiss complex. Into this, a sill-like injection of amphibolite (altered peridotite) was intruded, which, at least in some places, contains commercial quantities of nickel sulphide. Its structure is obscure, but it appears to dip into the hill at an angle of about 15°. In the vicinity of No. 3 tunnel a large dike of quartz diorite cuts the peridotite or amphibolite; about 140 ft. north of the portal of the tunnel, a dike of andesite 00 ft. wide cuts boldly up the hillside to break the continuity of the peridotite in that direction. The geological evidence available was not adequate to decide whether the peridotite forms a continuous sill, or occurs as isolated bodies in the gneiss. Not all of this peridotite carries commercial amounts of pentlandite, but if the mineral-

Jan 1, 1946

By R. L. Slobod, B. H. Caudle, R. A. Erickson

In predicting the sweepout pattern efficiency to be expected in a .secondary recovery operation, the reservoir engineer is often confronted with a situation in which part of the producing formation lies between the last row of wells and the reservoir boundary. To date, there has been little or no reference in the literalure to sweepout pattern efficiencies in such areas. This paper presents the results, of a laboratory study in which the area contacted around the edge of a reservoir injected in a five-spot pattern was determined. The X-ray shadowgraph technique was used in this study. It was found that surprisingly large portions of the reservoir area lying outside the well network are conracted by the injected fluid before, abndonment conditions are reached. In fact, it can he said that at least 00 per cent of the circa lying outside the last row of wells and within a distance of one well spacing of these wells will ultimately be contacted by the injected fluid in the case of most water floods. Frorn the results given in this paper, it is possible to estitilate not only the extent to which encroachment into these areas will occur but also the injection volume necessary to produce the wells to abnndonment conditions. INTRODUCTION While considerable work has hern done in recent years1.?.'.''.' evaluating the fraction of the reservoir contacted as a function of the mobility ratio for several different well patterns, there has been practically no mention of what happens to the oil in that portion of the reservoir which lies between the last row of wells and the reservoir boundary. In fact, the assumption is generally made that little or no recovery can he expected From this area. This assumption is incorrect and in many cases will lead to seriouq errors in calculating reservoir performance. The fraction of the area outside the regular well pattern contacted in a five-spot injection system has been studied using the X-ray technique5 to follow the progress of actual floods in porous models of reservoir elemental areas. In this paper, the method for carrying out such a study and the results showing the fraction of the area in question swept as a function of mobility ratio and the produced fluids are presented. THE REPRESENTATION OF A RESERVOIR BY ITS ELEMENTAL AREAS She portion of the reservoir lying between the edge of a reservoir and a line connecting the outermost wells may be roughly designated as the part of the reservoir outside the regular well pattern. An example of such an area is shown as the shaded portion in Fig. 1. The case of a square reservoir utilizing a five-spot injection program and with one full well spacing between the outermost wells and the boundary (Fig. 1) was selected as the single example which would provide the most insight into

Jan 1, 1956

By A. D. Dorenfeld

Factorial design is a mathematical method of drawing valid conclusions from a series of tests made in a predetermined pattern. It is applied to flotation ore testing using, in this case, five variables, each varied twice, requiring a total of 32 tests. Representative conclusions are checked by repeat testing. THE factorial design method of testing is particu-J- larly applicable to mill-scale plant tests because 1—the conclusions take into consideration all variabilities of the plant, 2—there are no subjective guesses as to the conclusions, 3—the number of tests necessary to check large numbers of variables are at a minimum, and 4—interactions between variables can be discerned. It is equally applicable to laboratory testing because once the variables to be investigated have been decided upon, as well as the number of levels for each variable, a well-trained assistant can run the tests, since the test work follows a predetermined mathematical pattern, leaving the conclusions to be found by the person in charge. The conclusion takes into consideration all errors of the tests. To illustrate the use of factorial design, a sample of copper porphyry ore was tested, the copper content of the batches not being uniform. Five variables were investigated, each at two levels, requiring only 32 tests. After suitable arithmetical analysis, conclusions for copper recovery and concentrate grade are arrived at. Four cases of these conclusions are checked by repeat testing. Testing Methods Reproducibility of flotation tests varies widely, depending on the experimenter, the process, the equipment, and probably a host of unknown and perhaps interacting variables. If the reproducibility of tests is good, let us say to 0.2 pct recovery of a certain metal, and the minimum difference between tests upon the variation of the interested variables is, say 1 pct, then simple averaging and inspection is ample in interpreting results. However, often such a happy situation is not the case. This is particularly true in mill-scale operations where the ores are variable, and a host of minor operating fluctuations common to most milling, and familiar to all mill operators, is the normal state of affairs. Yet, mill scale tests are run, the results averaged, and conclusions drawn therefrom. The trustworthiness of such results should be measured by comparison to the experimental error—the measure of the degree of reproducibility of the results. This comparison is a test of significance. Thus, if daily results of recoveries average 80.0 pct, and a spread of 78.0 pct to 82.0 pct, is recorded, then, clearly, on changing mill operations, an 81 pct recovery cannot be construed as significant by using averages, since it is well within the previous test limits. By using rigorous statistical tests of significance, conclusions arrived at by inspection or simple averaging may be shown to be based on inadequate evidence or even wrong. In any event, a plant super-

Jan 1, 1952

By R. A. Nadler and

Specimens of Ti-155A (Ti-5Al-1.3Fe-1.3Cr-1.2Mo), Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-4Al-3Mo-1V were hydrogenated, aged to high strength levels, and subjected to notched stress-rupture tests and tensile tests at two strain rates. Both Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-155A were relatively unaffected by hydrogen in amounts exceeding those found in commercially -produced material. Inconsistencies in the data and a relatively low initial level of ductility prevented an accurate determination of the hydrogen tolerance for aged Ti-4Al-3Mo-1V, but there was no evidence that this alloy was any more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than Ti-155A and Ti-6A1-4V. THE metallurgical literature has been considerably enriched in the past five years by the publication of the results of many investigations which were concerned with the effects of hydrogen on titanium and its alloys. Although it is not the authors' intention to provide a complete literature survey of this vast field, it is worthwhile to summarize briefly some of the important factors which influence the embrittling phenomenon in a - B alloys. Some of the influencing factors are those of strain rate, temperature, and composition. Hydrogen embrittlement in a - B titanium alloys is now believed to be a strain-induced phenomenon, and whether or not embrittlement occurs at high hydrogen levels depends largely upon whether sufficient time is available for hydride precipitation. This condition is fulfilled by tensile testing at very slow strain rates or by rupture testing smooth or, preferably, notched specimens over relatively long periods. Conveniently, maximum embrittlement occurs at or near room temperature. The presence B - stabilizing elements, in amounts sufficiently small to prevent an all -B or nearly all -P condition, promotes hydrogen embrittlement and this tendency is believed to be related to the amount of a - B interfacial area present. Aluminum, by increasing the solubility of hydrogen in A titanium, greatly reduces the danger of hydrogen embrittlement, while oxygen has been shown to have detrimental effects.' The preceding discussion is based on experimental work performed on annealed a - P alloys. This early work has shown that annealed Ti-6A1-4V and Ti-155A are relatively insensitive to the embrittling effects of hydrogen.' Although no work has been reported on annealed Ti-4A1-3Mo-lV, the alloy would be expected to exhibit somewhat the same insensitiv-ity as Ti-155A. In sharp contrast to the voluminous literature on annealed titanium alloys is the paucity of reported investigations on materials receiving commercial heat-treatment cycles. To date, the most notable contributions in this field have arisen from two separate investigations on Ti-3Mn-1Fe-1Cr-1V-lMo, the so-called 3Mn comple~. These investigations

Jan 1, 1961

By M. S. Burton, H. H. Kranzlein, G. V. Smith

The influence of up to 2 at. pct of Ni and Pt on the yield strength of mono- and polycrystalline high-purity iron has been evaluated at temperatures from + 25° to -196°C. Current theories of solid -solution strengthening fail to explain the experimental observations. The temperature dependence of yield stress was found to be less in the alloys than that in high-purity iron. The room-temperature yield stress increased with alloy content, but at —78°C the yield strength first decreased with increasing a1loy content. AS a result of many studies, a number of theories have been proposed for solid-solution strengthening. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate these theories, as applied to the solid-solution strengthening observed in Fe-Ni and Fe-Pt alloys. Of various theories of solid-solution strengthening, those of Cottrell,1,2 Fisher,3 Suzuki,4 and Mott and Nabarro5 are most prominent, and have been discussed widely in the literature.'-' Of the recent concepts of solid-solution hardening the work of Fleischer9 is notable. Each of these models has been applied to particular alloy systems with some success, but in general none has proved generally applicable. In many of the previous studies to assess the effects of alloy additions in ferrous systems, lack of adequate control of the purity and grain size of the materials has obscured strengthening effects, so that few comprehensive data relating composition, temperature, and change of lattice parameter have been determined. In the present investigation an attempt was made to obtain data which would be meaningful in evaluating the theories of strengthening. Materials of high purity were used to minimize extraneous impurity effects, and both single crystals and polycrystalline materials were studied to evaluate the effect of grain boundaries. Nickel and platinum were chosen as alloy additions, because both belong to the same chemical group and have the same crystal structure and valence, with markedly different atomic diameters. It appeared that some conclusions regarding atomic size effect on strengthening might be made. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES Fe-Ni and Fe-Pt alloys containing 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 at. pct alloy additions were prepared from high-purity materials. The iron was supplied by the American Iron and Steel Institute from a stock of 99.98 pct zone-refined iron prepared by Battelle Memorial Institute. The minimum purity of the nickel and platinum used for alloying was 99.98 and 99.999 pct, respectively. Alloys were prepared by levitation melting, cast into cylindrical copper molds, and cooled, all under a partial pressure (0.3 atm) of purified helium. Samples were 0.375 in. in diameter and weighed 20 to 25 g. Chemical analyses of the alloys are given in Table I. A sample of unalloyed iron also was cast as a control specimen.

Jan 1, 1965

By C. E. McCarthy, A. George Stern, Stanley J. Green

The national interest prompts consideration of any new source of mineral wealth even though the immediate need may be of minor importance. A critical shortage of potash in the United States during the World War of 1914-18 stimulated broad development, which established an American potash industry on a basis so sound that this commodity is not even listed as urgent in the present war program. However, this should not minimize its importance, and the need remains, not only for adequate supplies of the usual potash salts (the chloride and the sulphate) but of all potash chemicals. Potassium carbonate (known commercially as pearl ash) has been a high-cost commodity; in consequence, the quantity used by industry has been relatively small. By a combination of fortuitous geographical circumstances, there is opportunity to produce a low-cost potassium carbonate with the possibility that this might become an important source of chemical potash. The following paper considers a recently developed process1 taking advantage of these conditions. Wyomingite Deposit For many years it has been known that a deposit of potash-bearing igneous rock known as wyomingite occurs in the south- western part of Wyoming at Zirkel Mesa, which is 44 miles northeast of the town of Green River (Fig. I). The western escarpment of this deposit is about 3 miles east of the Superior Branch of the Union Pacific Railroad. This mesa alone covers approximately 3300 acres, and the average thickness of the wyomingite flow is 75 ft. It has been estimated2 that about one billion tons of wyomingite occur in this one deposit, all of which can be mined by open quarrying without overburden. In addition, there are several smaller deposits within 10 miles, so that the aggregate wyomingite in the area approaches two billion tons. This is one of the world's largest sources of leucite, and the only known deposit of its kind in the United States. The wyomingite (which is in the form of a lava flow and numerous small craters), with the mineral leucite as its most important component, has a mineral composition3 of: leucite, 50 per cent; phlogopite, 15; diopside, 12; kataphorite, 15; glass and apatite, 8. The phlogopite is present in visible phenocrysts 1/8 to 1/2 in. in diameter, but the leucite usually is almost microcrystalline and not capable of liberation by grinding. Chemically, the Wyomingite has a potash Content averaging slightly higher than eleven per cent K2O. The potash is mainly in the leucite, but part of it is in the phlogopite and a small amount is in the feldspars that are occasionally seen as undigested occlusions of the granite country rock, through which the leucite-bearing lava intruded, and as sanidine feldspar both in the crystalline and glassy phases of the rock. A typical analysis of the wyomingite from Zirkel Mesa is as follows:

Jan 1, 1948

By B. L. Averbach, E. E. Underwood

The vapor pressure of zinc in equilibrium with solid ß AgZn alloys has been measured by the dew-point method. The thermodynamic activities of silver, and the molar heats of formation have been calculated. Similar measurements have been made for the ternary alloys formed by adding gold to AgZn. An apparent particle size effect has been observed for AgZn filings. The vapor pressure of zinc over filings is 15 to 20 pct higher than over the solid alloys. STATISTICAL methods have been used to inter pret the thermodynamic activities of the components of a solid solution in terms of average equilibrium atomic configurations. In some cases, the atomic arrangements can be measured by X-ray methods, and the results are usually expressed in terms of short range order parameters. Only in the cases of Cu³Au and AgAu have there been sufficient X-ray and thermodynamic data to verify the assumed correlation between the X-ray and the thermodynamic measurements. In Cu³Au the agreement is good; negative deviations from Raoult's law are observed and the number of Cu-Au nearest neighbor pairs predicted on the basis of the thermodynamic treatments agrees quite well with the number of such pairs observed by the X-ray methods. The ß brass alloys present a different set of conditions. The ordering is so rapid in these alloys that the disordered state cannot be retained on quenching. In contrast, the disordered state in CuAu is easily retained on quenching. On heating, the ordered ß brass loses its long range order continuously as the critical temperature is approached; in Cuau the order decreases slightly on heating and then drops discontinuously to zero at the critical temperature. These differences indicate that the short range order configurations in ß brass systems may be of a different character than in Cudu systems. However, X-ray measurements of local order cannot be made in the Cu-Zn alloys because of the similarity in scattering factors. The alloy AgZn is isomorphous with CuZn, however, and recent experiments have indicated that there is a good possibility of observing short range order in this system. Another complication arises in the case of ß AgZn. The disordered body-centered cubic structure exists above 280°C. On quenching from above this temperature an ordered structure of the cesium-chloride type is formed. On slow cooling, however, a complex hexagonal structure, the 3 phase, is produced; and if an ordered quenched alloy is reheated the phase begins to form above 80°C. It is thus difficult to study local order by X-ray methods in single crystals of AgZn since the C phase formed on heating does not necessarily return to a single crystal of the original orientation. This problem has been met, however, by adding a few percent of gold to the AgZn. The gold suppresses the formation of the c

Jan 1, 1952

By A. George Stern, Stanley J. Green, C. E. McCarthy

The national interest prompts consideration of any new source of mineral wealth even though the immediate need may be of minor importance. A critical shortage of potash in the United States during the World War of 1914-18 stimulated broad development, which established an American potash industry on a basis so sound that this commodity is not even listed as urgent in the present war program. However, this should not minimize its importance, and the need remains, not only for adequate supplies of the usual potash salts (the chloride and the sulphate) but of all potash chemicals. Potassium carbonate (known commercially as pearl ash) has been a high-cost commodity; in consequence, the quantity used by industry has been relatively small. By a combination of fortuitous geographical circumstances, there is opportunity to produce a low-cost potassium carbonate with the possibility that this might become an important source of chemical potash. The following paper considers a recently developed process1 taking advantage of these conditions. Wyomingite Deposit For many years it has been known that a deposit of potash-bearing igneous rock known as wyomingite occurs in the south- western part of Wyoming at Zirkel Mesa, which is 44 miles northeast of the town of Green River (Fig. I). The western escarpment of this deposit is about 3 miles east of the Superior Branch of the Union Pacific Railroad. This mesa alone covers approximately 3300 acres, and the average thickness of the wyomingite flow is 75 ft. It has been estimated2 that about one billion tons of wyomingite occur in this one deposit, all of which can be mined by open quarrying without overburden. In addition, there are several smaller deposits within 10 miles, so that the aggregate wyomingite in the area approaches two billion tons. This is one of the world's largest sources of leucite, and the only known deposit of its kind in the United States. The wyomingite (which is in the form of a lava flow and numerous small craters), with the mineral leucite as its most important component, has a mineral composition3 of: leucite, 50 per cent; phlogopite, 15; diopside, 12; kataphorite, 15; glass and apatite, 8. The phlogopite is present in visible phenocrysts 1/8 to 1/2 in. in diameter, but the leucite usually is almost microcrystalline and not capable of liberation by grinding. Chemically, the Wyomingite has a potash Content averaging slightly higher than eleven per cent K2O. The potash is mainly in the leucite, but part of it is in the phlogopite and a small amount is in the feldspars that are occasionally seen as undigested occlusions of the granite country rock, through which the leucite-bearing lava intruded, and as sanidine feldspar both in the crystalline and glassy phases of the rock. A typical analysis of the wyomingite from Zirkel Mesa is as follows:

Jan 1, 1948

By Richard M. Foose

Most of the roofing granules produced in Pennsylvania are made by two companies at three plants. The Advance Industrial Supply Co. has three quarries and a mill at Gladhill Station, in southern Adams County. The Funkhouser Company is actively engaged in mining, quarrying and milling at Charmian, about one mile west of Gladhill Station, and at Delta, in southern York County. These three plants produced approximately 100,000 short tons of granules in 1943. The production of rooling granules in 1937 for the whole country was only about 500,000 tons, generally indicating the large growth of the industry since that time. The fundamentals of producing roofing granules were discussed comprehensively by G. W. Josephson in a paper before the Industrial Minerals Division in October 1943 (TP 1725, this volume page 460). The purpose of this paper is to describe the actual methods of mining the rock and milling it to make roofing granules, as practiced by the three Pennsylvania plants. Mining and Milling Funkhouser Company (Delta) The Funkhouser Company, near Delta, in southern York County, Pennsylvania, operates three joined quarries and a mine in the Peach Bottom slate. The joined quarries extend 1200 ft. in a northeast-southwest direction along the strike of the slate cleavage and are about 200 ft. .wide. The working face is about 45 ft. high. The quarrying operation is rather simple: Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers, I-in. and 1 1/4-in., with hollow drill steel, are used to undercut the quarry face with 10-ft. holes. The face is "blown" and allowed to slump on the quarry floor. Loaded by a Marion electric shovel into trucks, the shattered rock is taken to the primary crusher 2500 ft. away. In addition to the normal quarrying operations, a drift into the northeast wall of the middle quarry was begun about 1935, and has advanced about 2000 ft. since then. Rooms have been driven at angles to the drift along choice beds of slate. The drifts and rooms have a roof more than 35 ft. high and the main drift and rooms are all more than 40 ft. wide. There is no cribbing at any place in the mine. Several of the rooms were driven upward on a 5' slope and in some of them there was stop-ing. Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers are used, and only wet drilling is practiced. When visited in January 1940, an electric shovel was operating at the head of the drift, scooping up the slate blasted out of the working face. This, too, is trucked to the primary crusher. Some of the better quality slate is saved for making slate shingles. The primary crusher, which is a No. 30 McCulley gyratory, receives the slate from the trucks and crushes it to about a-in. size (Fig. I). This product travels by a 30-in. belt conveyor to Niagara vibrating screens with 2-in. holes. The minus a-in. product moves to a storage silo by bucket

Jan 1, 1948

By L. A. Shipman

The combustion of coal in fuel beds has been practiced as an art for many years; during the last 2 7 years a scientific approach to this subject has contributed a small amount of fundamental data. The subject is a very controversial one. Opinions regarding the performance of the same coal used in the same equipment in different plants may vary from "the best coal ever used in the plant" to "the worst coal ever tired." These opinions can all be true, owing to the various conditions under which the coal was used. Because of these differences, an attempt will be made in this paper to discuss coal facts and coal characteristics as related to the use phenomena observed during the art of firing coal in fuel beds for many years. The work of Kreisinger1 and his associates in the 1,'. S. Bureau of Mines, reported in 1916, was the first scientific attempt I know of to obtain factual data explaining the mechanism of combustion of fuel beds. They gave a chart showing an ignited fuel bed. The air passing up through the fuel bed first combined with the fuel by a reaction resulting in the complete combustion of carbon to CO2, which combined with the carbon in higher levels of the fuel bed to form CO with the absorption of heat. The fundamental facts produced in those experiments proved of much value and checked with practical experiences with hand-fired fuel beds. Hand firing was the prevailing method of stoking coal at that time. The order in which these reactions occur, as shown by Kreisinger and his associates, has been amply confirmed by repetition of this work with different fuels both her? and abroad. These experiments also showed that under their conditions the rate of burning was proportional to the air flow. These data were of practical value to a fireman and were accepted as generally true in all fuel beds. In later years many observations by myself in fuel beds of underfeed stokers and other thick fuel beds such as gas producers, where channeling. increase of particle size, or both, occur. indicated that, instead of the horizontal layers we had thought were present, perhaps the layers were vertical or irregular. Later investigations in fuel beds made by Mayers2 and Barnes3 indicated that the burning takes place in some instances along the surfaces of vertical or irregular channels or cracks in the fuel bed and that under these conditions a reaction occurs that differs from that in the old horizontal-layered handfired fuel beds. Examining the data in Kreisinger'sl experiments, and the information in different charts with different fuels, different retort positions and air admissions of Barnes3 and the gas analysis arid isotherms of Mayers,2 one can check experience observation and come to a conclusion that as particle size of the fuel increases with other conditions the same, the maximum CO2 and temperature

Jan 1, 1947

By R. P. Fischer

A large production of vanadium during the war helped Germany to meet her critical requirements for the ferroalloy metals. Vanadium was needed not only in the ordinary high-speed too1 steels, but in other as a substitute for chromium, nickel, and molybdenum, which were scarce. Lacking a source of vanadium ore, however, the vanadium was obtained as a by-product of the steel industry—va-nadium-bearing pig iron smelted from iron ores containing about o. I per cellt V was blown in converters to yield vanadium-rich slag, from which vanadium was recovered by chemical treatment. The production capacity obtained was said to be about 6,500,000 lb. of vanadium a Year. Although the general Processes of Preparing vanadium-rich slags as well as the recovery methods described herein are known, some of the details presented may be of interest to both the American steel industry and the vanadium producers. No adequate data on the cost of the vanadium produced in Germany are known, but it seems likely that the cost exceeds the commonly quoted domestic price of about $1.10 per pound of contained VzOa. Information on the German vanadium production was obtained by a team of geologists from the Geological Survey* United States Department of the Interior, during investigations in May and June 1945 of the German utilization of low-grade raw materials. These investigations were sponsored by the Chief of Engineers, War Department. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the aid obtained from Messrs. H. C. Smith and J. D. Dickerson, investigators assigned to the Army Ordnance section of C.I.O.S., and Mr. C. F. Park, Jr., of the Geological Survey team. The data on vanadium recovery from iron ores were obtained from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fiir Eisenforschung, the Hermann Goring steel plant at Watenstedt, and from notes made by other investigators at other German steel plants. Preparation of Vanadium-rich Slags Most German iron ores contain only about 0.1 per cent vanadium, or even less, but some of the scandinavian iron ores available to the German iron industry in the past contain a little more than 0.1 per cent. In general German practice of vanadium recovery, nearly all of the vanadium in the ore goes into the pig iron, which is blown in the Thomas converter, yielding a slag containing about I per cent V. This slag is remelted, the vanadium again going with the iron, which is again blown in a converter, yielding a slag that averages about 10 per cent V. This slag is treated at special chemical plants, by the process of a sodadizing roast, water leach, and acid precipitation of vanadium oxide. The Herman Goring steel plant at Watenstedt used the low-grade Salzgitter iron ores, the average composition of which is shown in Table I, column I. The acid and basic iron produced in the blast furnaces contained about 0.3 per cent V. A Thomas

Jan 1, 1948

By W. D. Steele, S. D. Brady

THE Pittsburgh coal seam in West Virginia contains the largest coal reserves of any coal seam in that State and is, therefore, one of the most important seams, and attains mineable thickness and purity throughout that part of the seam extending from the Northern Panhandle to Monon¬galia Co. thence south and southwest across the state to Wayne Co. near Huntington. The Pittsburgh coal is also mineable in the Upper Potomac region but is now practically exhausted there. The total mineable areas of this coal amount to 2,165 sq miles and are estimated, by the West Virginia Geological Survey, to contain 13% billion net tons. The largest body of Pittsburgh coal outcrops on the western edge of West Virginia, along the Ohio river as far south as Moundsville, West Va., going under the river at that point and extending at various depths down the river as far as Wetzel Co. line where it thins out to such an extent that it has little practical value, and on the eastern edge this large body outcrops along the Monongahela River. The territory to be covered by this paper is the area known as the Northern. West Virginia District comprising Wetzel, Monongalia, Marion, Preston, Harrison, Doddridge, Taylor, Barbour, Upshur, Lewis, Gilmer, Braxton and Calhoun Counties, and is also known as Dist. 3 under the Bituminous Coal Act. This region was originally opened for commercial mining along and adjacent to the Monongahela River around 1852 when the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was constructed to Fairmont. It has been extensively developed, first, in 188o (when the Monongahela River Railroad, now B. & O. R. R., was constructed) between Fairmont and Clarksburg, and later, in 1916, between Morgantown and Fairmont when the Monongahela Railway was constructed and placed in operation, this area furnishing the major portion of the production over the past years. With the mining out of a great deal of this territory adjacent to the Monongahela River considerable interest has been developed in the back acreage; and within the past few years a number of diamond core drill holes have been made in the back areas of Monongalia and Marion Counties. In this back area the oil and gas well drilling showed that the Pittsburgh coal seam was of mineable thickness and ranged in depth from 350 to 1,000 ft below the surface of the stream valleys but this drilling did not furnish any definite data as to its thickness and quality. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The Pittsburgh seam in Northern West Virginia is of primary importance as a coal resource not only because of its large reserves but because of its contributing a very large part of the coal used in this country for general steam uses. The Pittsburgh seam is a consistently thick seam, averaging 8 ft in thickness, with very easy grades underground, so it has always been

Jan 1, 1948

By Frank Marotta, Louis B. Lesem, Frank Greytok, John J. McKetta

Although one of the primary variables in the calculation of the flowing bottom-hole pressure in gas wells from surface measurements is the temperature at any point and its distribution in the flow-string, only few experimental data are available in the literature and little attention has been given to analysis of the problem. Virtually all of the recently published methods of calculating flowing bottom-hole pressures depend on the assumption that either the temperature is constant at some average value or that the variation is linear with depth. The purposes of this work are to analyze the problem theoretically and to verify the analysis by comparison with experimental data so that practical problems in the analysis of the behavior of gas wells can be solved with greater accuracy, reliability, and ease. MATHEMATICAL OUTLINE OF PROBLEM Assuming that: 1. The mass velocity and chemical composition of the gas stream are constant and in normal gas well operations, the change in linear velocity in the entire flow-string is trivial, 2. The product of the density and heat capacity of the gas is constant, 3. No horizontal temperature gradient exists in the gas stream, 4. Net flow of heat by conduction within the formation and in the gas stream in the vertical direction is trivial in magnitude and can be neglected, 5. The regional vertical geothermal gradient is constant, and 6. The temperature of the gas entering the borehole is constant, and equal to that of the reservoir, a set of two simultaneous, linear partial differential equations with appropriate boundary conditions was derived to describe the temperature distribution in the gas stream and the surrounding formation. These equations were solved by operational techniques for the distribution of temperature in the gas stream. The resulting integrals were evaluated numerically on an IBM 604 at the Machine Accounting Div. of the Railroad Commission of Texas. DERIVATION OF FUNCTIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE The physical system is a circular hole of radius a in an infinite medium with thermal conductivity K, density p8, and heat capacity c,. Under shut-in conditions the well is in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings and the increment in temperature is given by - ?T3/L x. Gas of density pg and heat capacity c.. flows upwardly through this hole in the direction of increasing x with a linear velocity W. Writing a heat balance on an element of gas ?x in thickness, convective heat transfer + conductive heat transfer + energy required to lift a unit mass of fluid = change in energy content. pa2W po Co To - pa2Wpo Co To x+xx - 2apK?x ?T8/?r r=a - Wpa2 po?x/778 = CoPopa2?x?To/?t... Dividing by (copopa2?x) and taking the limit as ?x tends to zero, -W (?To/?x + 1/778Co) + 2 K/a Po Co ?T3/?r r=u = ?To/?t

Jan 1, 1958

By E. V. Potter, H. C. Lukens

In general, during all electrowinning processes, large volumes of gas are liberated at the cathodes of the electrolytic cells. Most of this gas escapes from the electrolyte, but much of it may be absorbed or entrapped in the metal being plated. In many cases, this is not objectionable, but since it is liberated when the metal is heated, it is a potential source of trouble where the metal has to be heated or melted. Since this gas is principally hydrogen, in escaping from a melt it may cause minor explosions and scattering of the molten metal, while in other cases it has been reported to make the metal rise in the molds when cast. Therefore such metals would be more generally useful if all or most of the gas were removed before they were used. In an earlier investigation1 the gas content of electrolytic manganese was determined and methods found for removing most of it without detrimentally affecting the properties of the metal. In this paper results of a similar investigation on electrolytic chromium are presented. Apparatus The apparatus used in these investigations is essentially the same as that used in the manganese work1 and is shown in Fig I. It consists of sample chamber A, vacuum or pressure gauge B, volume gauge C, vacuum pump D, hydrogen container E, auxiliary gas chamber F, and furnace G. The pressure in the system is measured by the mercury manometer B. Changes in gas volume are measured by volume gauge C which is essentially another mercury manometer in which the volume of the mercury column is large and can be varied by raising or lowering the well H. In this apparatus the tube had a volume of 100 cc for a 60 cm length. Larger changes in gas volume can be accommodated by auxiliary containers attached to the system at F. The sample is heated by furnace G, the temperature of which is regulated within 5°C by an automatic controller. The only change in the apparatus was the sample container which was made smaller because of the chromium metal's containing more gas than the manganese metal and a smaller sample was used. Method The measurements were made as follows: The complete system when cold was evacuated and refilled with H2 until all the air was removed. It was then refilled with H2 to the desired pressure, as indicated on manometer B. The temperature was then raised to the desired value and as gas was either liberated from or absorbed by the sample, the height of well H was changed to alter the volume of the system so as to keep the pressure constant. In determining rates of liberation of gas, volume readings were taken at convenient tirne intervals depending on the rapidity with which the gas was liberated. In determining total volumes, the specimen was held at constant temperature and pressure until

Jan 1, 1949

By Richard M. Foose

Most of the roofing granules produced in Pennsylvania are made by two companies at three plants. The Advance Industrial Supply Co. has three quarries and a mill at Gladhill Station, in southern Adams County. The Funkhouser Company is actively engaged in mining, quarrying and milling at Charmian, about one mile west of Gladhill Station, and at Delta, in southern York County. These three plants produced approximately 100,000 short tons of granules in 1943. The production of rooling granules in 1937 for the whole country was only about 500,000 tons, generally indicating the large growth of the industry since that time. The fundamentals of producing roofing granules were discussed comprehensively by G. W. Josephson in a paper before the Industrial Minerals Division in October 1943 (TP 1725, this volume page 460). The purpose of this paper is to describe the actual methods of mining the rock and milling it to make roofing granules, as practiced by the three Pennsylvania plants. Mining and Milling Funkhouser Company (Delta) The Funkhouser Company, near Delta, in southern York County, Pennsylvania, operates three joined quarries and a mine in the Peach Bottom slate. The joined quarries extend 1200 ft. in a northeast-southwest direction along the strike of the slate cleavage and are about 200 ft. .wide. The working face is about 45 ft. high. The quarrying operation is rather simple: Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers, I-in. and 1 1/4-in., with hollow drill steel, are used to undercut the quarry face with 10-ft. holes. The face is "blown" and allowed to slump on the quarry floor. Loaded by a Marion electric shovel into trucks, the shattered rock is taken to the primary crusher 2500 ft. away. In addition to the normal quarrying operations, a drift into the northeast wall of the middle quarry was begun about 1935, and has advanced about 2000 ft. since then. Rooms have been driven at angles to the drift along choice beds of slate. The drifts and rooms have a roof more than 35 ft. high and the main drift and rooms are all more than 40 ft. wide. There is no cribbing at any place in the mine. Several of the rooms were driven upward on a 5' slope and in some of them there was stop-ing. Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers are used, and only wet drilling is practiced. When visited in January 1940, an electric shovel was operating at the head of the drift, scooping up the slate blasted out of the working face. This, too, is trucked to the primary crusher. Some of the better quality slate is saved for making slate shingles. The primary crusher, which is a No. 30 McCulley gyratory, receives the slate from the trucks and crushes it to about a-in. size (Fig. I). This product travels by a 30-in. belt conveyor to Niagara vibrating screens with 2-in. holes. The minus a-in. product moves to a storage silo by bucket

Jan 1, 1948