Search Documents

By Horace V. Winchell

The laws here referred to are those which define the status of the prospector for mineral deposits in the soil or beneath it, establish his methods of procedure, protect him in his possession while searching for the subterranean treasures, and give him assurance of title when all required conditions have been fulfilled and valuable minerals discovered. Regulations for the operation of mines and the safety and health of mine employees are likewise subjects of Federal and State legislation, but are not within the scope of the present program. Various features of our present laws will be discussed in detail by able students of the subject, and specific remedies will be proposed for the most glaring defects. It is my purpose to present in this paper a summary review of the reasons why revision is needed and demanded by the great majority of those in daily contact with the industry. Reason Number One The first objection to the continuance of the present law is that it was not planned by its framers and the Congress which passed it to apply to many of the kinds of mineral deposits, nor to the mining conditions, which are controlled by it to-day. In 1866, under the title, "An Act granting the right of way to ditch and canal owners over the public lands, and for other purposes," was surreptitiously smuggled into existence our first mining law (14 Stats. at Large, Chap. 262, p. 251). This law provided that "whenever any person or association of persons claim a vein or lode of quartz or other rock in place, bearing gold, silver, cinnabar or copper, having previously occupied and improved the same according to the local customs or rules of miners in the district where the same is situated," etc., a patent might be granted an certain conditions. This was evidently an Act intended to validate claims already initiated, and to accord Federal recognition to mining locations made in

Jan 1, 1915

By John M. Crowl, L. E. Sawyer

5.3-1. General Public Resistance to Strip Mining. Surface (strip) mining is the oldest recorded method of extracting coal and other minerals from the earth. This method of mining completely alters the topography of the earth's surface, leaving an area of more or less parallel ridges or of peaked mounds of the materials which overlay the mineral seam. It destroys all original vegetation and provides materials for new type soil. During the early years the acreage mined by this method was small, land was plentiful, and with a growing young nation no thought was given to the restoration of the disturbed areas to some form of productive use. Early in the present century the development of steam shovels and drag-lines made it possible to remove thicker overburden to recover the products. With the deeper digging, the size of the disturbed areas increased. With this increase in the size of equipment and the improvement of blasting techniques, mining was expanded into more prominent locations and to areas of more valuable land. The more progressive operators became aware of the need to reclaim those areas for some productive use. Electric shovels with capacities of up to 200 cu yd and draglines with capacities of 145 cu yd, capable of uncovering products over 100 ft below the surface, are now in use. Combined with the increase in the size of equipment, the expansion of contour mining or rim stripping in the mountainous areas has focused public attention on the need for a sound reclamation program for all disturbed areas. APPEARANCE. After mining, the areas consist of varying percentages of rock, shale, slate, and soil material devoid of all plant and animal life. Unless a definite reclamation plan is carried out, many of the mined areas will remain bare for a period of years. The topography of the area is completely altered. What may have been level to rolling land in cultivation, in grass, or in timber is thrown up into a series of ridges or mounds.

Jan 1, 1968

By C. Stansfield Hitchen

THE introduction of the logarithmic sector method of quantitative spectrography by Scheibe and Neuhäusser in 1928, and the subsequent .modification and improvement of the method by Twyman and Simeon, would seem to have marked yet a further advance in quantitative spec-trum analysis and its industrial application, inasmuch as it offers a simple means of eliminating some of the uncertainties inherent in the older methods based upon mere visual comparison of line intensities. In their recent admirable review of the position and capabilities of industrial spectroscopy, Brownsdon and van Someren1 say: Ways and means of facilitating the comparison of line-intensities so as to give them numerical values are helpful, and of these a logarithmic sector rotating in front of the slit appears to he one of the most promising; . . . the success recently experienced by the author in using this method for the examination of steels and solutions of metallic salts prompted him ,to investigate its possible use in estimating the impurities commonly present in crude and refined tin. The results of this investigation are submitted in the present paper. Details of a number of spectrographic analyses of tin for various impurities have already been published. Thus, Schweitzer2 describes the spectrographic examination of tin for lead, bismuth and cadmium, and was able to distinguish between such atomic percentages as 0.01, 0.05, 0.10, 0.30, 0.60, 1.20, 3.00 and 10.00. Negresco3 investigated the bismuth content of tin over a range of from 0.0005 to 35 per cent. Meggers, Kiess and Stimson4 compare spectrographic and chemical analyses of tin metal for copper, lead, iron, zinc, silver, nickel and bismuth. They stress also the value of spectrum analysis in the examination of tin used for boiler plugs, where the requirements that only minute quantities of impurities shall be present render the chemical analysis both tedious and difficult.

Jan 1, 1933

By R. A. Pallanch

IN his recent paper, "The Controversial Art of Flotation," (Mining Technology, March, 1944) E. H. Rose states that "flotation is a science in so many variables that only art can blend them." This statement is apt. It contains meat. In other words, a valid scientific reason is behind every flotative effect. Some of these reasons we understand, but much the greater number of them still escape us. This does not prevent us from "going places," as familiarity and experience with the problems result in an increasingly intelligent and artful handling of these effects. Hypotheses are built up by the individuals concerned to explain certain happenings. Many of these hypotheses have to be abandoned when placed under the glaring scrutiny of actual trial. A few survive the severest of tests, come through unscathed, and are elevated to the rank of theories, something susceptible of certain chemical and physical explanation, under the conditions of the particular plant concerned. If these theories continue to hold water under all the variations existing in most milling plants, they gradually become accepted as facts in the minds of the plant operators. But-and here is a big BUT-these so-called facts may fall down completely in another plant working under an entirely different set of conditions. In other words, each plant tends gradually to build up its own facts, which may or may not be facts at another operation.

Jan 1, 1945

By Burnham E. Field

TAE chemical industry is constantly looking for new materials which either are more resistant to corrosion than those now available or have improved physical properties to meet the requirements of higher temperatures and greater pressures. Attack by acids is-one of the more important forms of corrosion-and in the last few years the development of acid-resistant alloys has been quite rapid. Perhaps the most notable example is that of nitric acid, 'the problem of which has largely been solved by the chromium-iron and chromium-iron-nickel alloys. Sulfuric acid may be handled in lead, iron, or the iron-silicon alloys, depending on conditions. As to hydrochloric acid, no metal or alloy can be called entirely satisfactory for handling. this acid under plant conditions.1 The results of our investigations on the resistance of the nickel-molybdenum alloys to hydrochloric acid have been confirmed by those of Guertler, Rohn, Schulz, Jenge, and others,' but thus far only one such alloy has approached commercial production in Germany; this contains approximately 15 per cent. chromium and 7 per cent. molybdenum with the remainder chiefly nickel. Dr. S. W. Parr, as far back as 1914, developed a complex alloy known as "illium," with a nickel base and containing some molybdenum.3 Dr. Parr was primarily interested in an alloy for lining bomb calorimeters, and while illium does show good resistance to acid it is too expensive for general use. Two United States

Jan 1, 1929

By Edward Keller

Jan 1, 1906

By R. G. Weavind, R. S. Young, I. Wolf

ONE of the most important fields of investigation at the Diamond Research Laboratory in Johannesburg is concerned with improvements in metallurgical practices for the diamond mining companies, with particular reference to increased recoveries of the smaller industrial stones. Considerable work has been done on the possible application of flotation processes to the diamond industry. From the viewpoint of recovery processes, diamonds in their natural state may be grouped into two classes, the water-repellent diamonds, which adhere to a grease surface, and the water-avid diamonds, which, because of their wettability, will not adhere to a grease surface and must be recovered by means other than the grease tables used for water-repellent diamonds. Experiments in the flotation of small diamonds from both kimberlite and alluvial deposits indicate the following conclusions: Water-repellent diamonds: Satisfactory flotation of —16 mesh diamonds, which are naturally water-repellent, may be accomplished using either Aero-float 25 together with cresylic acid, or Du Pont B23 as frother together with kerosine as auxiliary oily conditioner or froth stiffener. The quantities of reagents required are of the order of 0.15 lb per ton Aerofloat and 0.18 lb per ton cresylic acid. The use of acid circuits is detrimental, and for best results a pH between 7 and 9 should be maintained. R. G. WEAVIND and I. WOLF are with the Diamond Research Laboratory, Johannesburg, South Africa, and R. S. YOUNG, Member AIME, is Director of Research, Diamond Research Laboratory. TN 76B. Manuscript, March 23, 1951. A flotation period of 5 to 10 min is necessary to insure that all floatable diamonds are removed. Diamonds larger than 16 mesh cannot be recovered satisfactorily by flotation. Xanthates do not act as collectors for diamonds, and this is probably associated with their inability to impart a water-repellent surface to this mineral. Water-repellent diamonds smaller than 28 mesh can be floated quite well by the addition of a frother alone, such as pine oil or Du Pont B23. Water-avid diamonds: Partial flotation of the smaller sizes of wettable diamonds can be achieved by preconditioning with fatty acid soaps, cationic amines, and similar reagents, which will impart a water-repellent film to diamonds. Washing to remove excess reagent, followed by flotation, will result in a fair recovery, but the latter is much lower than for water-repellent diamonds. Crushed boart: Recovery of crushed boart from the waste products of industrial uses is best accomplished by first conditioning the diamonds present in the mixture with fatty acids, cationic amines, etc., removing the conditioning agent by washing, and floating in a cell of the pneumatic type. Flotation reagents found to be most suitable are Du Pont B23, and Aerofloat 25 together with cresylic acid. The optimum quantities are 1.2 g Du Pont B23, and 0.55 g Aerofloat plus 1.4 g cresylic acid, per liter of pulp in the cell. A solids-to-water ratio of 1 to 4 is found to be the most suitable, and alkaline circuits are necessary for best results. Diamonds larger than 28 mesh are not recovered satisfactorily by this procedure, but for finer sizes flotation offers an excellent procedure for the reclamation of this strategic industrial material.

Jan 1, 1952

By AIME AIME

THE Petroleum Division opened its proceedings on Wednesday morning, with two simultaneous sessions on engineering and economics. The first paper at the engineering session, over which A. W. Ambrose presided, was "Underground Surveys of Oil Wells," by Alexander Anderson of Los Angeles, Calif., was presented by John Suman of the Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, Texas. Following this, the paper of E.'H. Griswold of the Mailand Oil Co., Houston, Texas, was presented by C. V. Millikan of the Amerada Petroleum Corp., Tulsa, Oklahoma. Following the presentation of these two interesting papers a general discussion followed on the subject of "Crooked Holes." The discussion was entered into by F. H. Lahee, Sun Oil Co., Dallas, Texas;'Messrs. Bigelow of Tulsa, H. W. Hixon of New York City, Van Court Warren of Los Anyeles, Calif; H. L. Wheeler of St. Louis, Mo.; R. R. Brandenthaler, United States Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Okla.; H. H. Riggs, Indiana Territory Illuminating Oil Co., Bartlesville, Okla.; C. V. Millikan and John R. Suman

Jan 1, 1929

By AIME AIME

TRADITIONALLY, the Annual New York Meetings of the A.I.M.E. cover four days, but the program is growing on each end as well as in the middle, and this year it lasted from 3 p. m., Sunday, Feb. 16, when the Education Division got under way, to 8:40 p. m., Friday the 21st, when a trainload of electrical inspectors, pro tern, got back fro111 the General Electric plant at Schenectady. The meeting has ceased to be a mere three- ring circus: on Wednesday afternoon eight sessions were being held simultaneously in the Engineering Societies Building, if one includes the Woman's Auxiliary, and according to frequent testimony one should include the W. A. as one of the most important units in Institute affairs.

Jan 1, 1936

By John F. Allan

This paper does not pretend to advance any facts or improvements not known to many members of the Institute, but is intended merely to give a few practical hints on preliminary tests, and to call attention to a possible enlarged field for the cyanide process in the treatment of some silver-ores, which merits investigation. Broadly considered, the choice of a process for the treatment of silver-ores in Mexico is confined to the following alternatives: (1) Concentration for treatment by smelting; (2) milling and pan-amalgamation; (3) the patio and Ortega process; [4) chloridizing roast and lixiviation; (5) chloridizing roast and cyaniding; and (6) cyaniding of the crude ore. These methods of treatment may also be combined, and cyaniding or concentration, or both, may be introduced, at what-ever stage it is found to be most advantageous. The characteristics of the ore (especially its gold-content) and local conditions, such as distance from railway, cost of fuel, amount of water available, vary so much that it is impossible to make general comparisons between the different processes, either as to extraction or cost. Concentration and subsequent smelting may be made very expensive by long-distance transportation of concentrates; pan-amalgamation is undoubtedly expensive; and the patio process is barred when the ore contains appreciable amounts of gold, by reason of its poor extraction of that metal; yet there are many ores for which each of these processes is especially adapted, and the expense of treatment is compensated by the results obtained.

Jan 1, 1905

By Joseph Jensen

MANY fields have been zoned by nature with shales and intermediate waters between oil zones. Limitations thus imposed have been the basis on which the field was developed. In contrast thereto, in the Ventura Avenue Field, nature proved more generous. Always expecting to find such similar limitations, operators drilled deeper and deeper into the oil zone without finding any distinctive shale bodies other that the Gosnell shale and only one intermediate water, which became the point below which the final water shut-off of each well was made. Thus, on top of the structure, about 3300 ft. of oil-bearing zone has been penetrated below this intermediate w9ter-a distance of 4000 ft. below the Gosnell shale. At first it seemed that the greater the penetration in the zone, the better the well. The error of this assumption became evident

Jan 1, 1930

By C. G. Albert

The clay particles of 2 microns or less required for modern paper coating are predominantly flat plates, lying smoothly on the sheet and producing a high gloss. Operating speeds of today's coating machines necessitate a clay composition of 60 and sometimes 70 pct solids as against the 35 to 40 pct required in the past. Since clays in suspension may solidify in flow, only those of intrinsically low viscosity can be used as high coating solids. THE literature of paper technology contains a number of articles having reference to developments in the field of coating and filler clays for use in paper manufacture. Much of this information has not been included in mining publications and has therefore not been readily available to all in the mineral industry. Recent developments in this field, including spray drying of clays, are presented here. U. S. Bureau of Mines figures for 1952 indicate that the paper industry consumes more than 50 pct of all kaolin produced and sold in the U. S. As most of the kaolin used by the industry comes from Georgia producers, the fraction of their output destined for paper use is thus appreciably higher than 50 pct. Small wonder that the kaolin industry, especially in Georgia, is highly sensitive to the quality requirements of paper mills and must respond promptly to technological developments in paper manufacturing. The paper industry itself is not the ultimate consumer. For the greater portion of the clay the end product is the printed page, and the demands of printing and publishing have sparked some of the technological advances in paper making which have, in turn, brought about methods employed in the kaolin industry. As compared with the product of 20 or 25 years ago, one of the most striking characteristics of the graphic arts today is the mass production of quality printing of fine pictorial work, much of it in full color. During this time periodicals with printing standards close to those of yesterday's slick-paper publications that were printed on a slow schedule and for a limited circulation have grown to the point where they go out to many millions of readers, often at weekly intervals. The complexity of technological improvements brought about by this increased circulation is probably not appreciated even by technical people, unless they have had reasonably close contact with the industry. The advance has come about through developments not only in the art of printing, but also in the field of paper making and even at the level of clay mining and processing. The smoothness required for faithful reproduction of the kind of printed matter under consideration is attained with a clay-coated paper. Since the distribution expense of the publication will depend to a great extent on its weight, the paper used must not be too heavy. This means a lower basis weight than was normal for conventional clay-coated papers some 25 years ago. And for this mass production market it becomes necessary to provide a paper having these and all the other required characteristics at a very moderate price—not the premium price conventional clay-coated papers formerly demanded. This challenge has been met by a new method of producing coated paper. In the past, application of clay coating to paper was a conversion operation, performed separately from the making of the base sheet. The newer development is called machine coating. Here application of the coating is an integral step in a continuous process by which wood pulp, clay, and other ingredients are manufactured into a sheet of coated paper. Many more problems are involved in this procedural change than are apparent at a casual glance. The coating operation, for example, must function at much higher linear speed than could be obtained with coating mechanisms previously employed. The application machinery developed to meet this requirement necessitated changes in composition of the coating color.* This created new requirements, summarized below, for the clay employed as coating pigment. In addition to smoothness, a relatively glossy printing surface is needed, and to a large measure it is the function of the coating clay to make possible the development of both these surface characteristics. Traditionally, pigments such as satin-white, prepared by reacting lime with paper-makers' alum, were used to assist in producing a high finish. However, economic considerations and others preclude large-scale use of such material in the new processes. In the 1930's Maloney' discovered that a certain particle size fraction of kaolin, consisting

Jan 1, 1956

By R. C. Hall

The magnetic anisotropy and magnetostriction of single crystals of alloys between 25 and 59 wt pct Co in Fe have been determined in the disordered and ordered states. The magrzetostriction is large and positive for all alloys in both states of order (up to 150 x 10-6 for A,, and 40 x 10-6 for 111). The magnetic anisotropy becomes zero rzear 41 pct Co for the disordered state. Ordering shifts the zero-anisotropy composition to about 50 pct Co. COBALT-iron alloys have for many years been of interest as magnetic materials because they have unusually high magnetic saturation values.' This interest was increased recently by the development of Supermendur.' Supermendur is an alloy of 49 pct Co-49 pct Fe-2 pct V* which was found by suitable purification and heat treatments, including a magnetic anneal, to possess excellent magnetic properties. These included a square hysteresis loop with a low coercive force and a high magnetization, and a low total loss. Two factors which are important in determining the magnetic hysteresis properties are the basic magnetic properties of magnetostriction and anisotropy. Alloys having zero anisotropy and zero magnetostriction show improved hysteresis properties.3 Since very meager data4-' are available in the literature on the single-crystal anisotropy and magnetostriction of the cobalt-iron alloys, the present program was undertaken to determine these two properties in the disordered and ordered states. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Ingots of the cobalt-iron alloys containing from 25 pct to 59 pct Co in iron were vacuum melted from electrolytic iron and cobalt of 99.9 pct purity. The ingots were cooled at a rate of about 1°C per hr through the transformation temperature (950" to 980°C dependent on the alloy content) for the growth of large grains. From these grains, single-crystal disks were fabricated with either the (110) or (100) plane parallel to the faces of the disk. The crystals were given two heat treatments to produce either the ordered state (cooling rate of 20°C per hr from 850 "C) or the disordered state (water quench from 850 °C). Since the iron-cobalt alloys order very rapidly, the water quench may not have produced complete disorder in all cases. Due to the method of growth, the crystals were not perfect. Most of the samples had low-angle boundaries and a few had some small included grains. These imperfections could and probably did affect the accuracy of both the magnetic anisotropy and magnetostriction measurements. Much of the scatter in the data may be attributed to the crystal imperfections. The methods of determining the spontaneous saturation magnetostriction and the anisotropy have been previously described.419110 MAGNETOSTRICTION The magnetostriction in the [loo] and [Ill] directions (hO0 and ?111 respectively) is illustrated in Fig. 1 for the disordered state. Both ?100 and ?111i became large positive values as cobalt was added to iron. The state of order did not have a large effect on the magnetostriction. The effect of order did not appear too consistent in these data. Tentative curves are shown in Fig. 1 for the ordered magnetostriction near the FeCo composition; here ?100 appeared to be lowered and ?111 raised as the degree of order was increased. These results agree qualitatively with the

Jan 1, 1961

By C. V. Millikan

THE year 1930 in the petroleum industry has been characterized by the establishment of large potential production of crude oil. This has resulted in closer cooperation between companies by proration and unit operation agreements in order to afford an equitable outlet to all, and to prevent a flood of oil being forced on the market with attendant tremendous material and economic waste. Drilling wells in proved areas and wildcat wells are fewer than in the past several years. Restricted production and low prices have caused greater effort to increase producing and recovery efficiencies. Increased refinery efficiencies have amplified the effect of overproduction. Pipe line departments have been especially busy. New oil lines have reached more refineries by new and shorter routes. Establishing greater gas reserves by new fields has justified new gas lines to industrial centers, and has brought this fuel to thousands of new domestic consumers. Two long gasoline lines, a new venture in pipe lines, are being built to obtain a lower cost of transportation and less loss between the refineries and their distribution centers. The chairmen of the various divisions have discussed the developments of their respective branches more fully in the following reviews.

Jan 1, 1931

By AIME AIME

APROXIMATELY one third of the world's iron ore is mined in the United States; and about 80 per cent of this third is mined in the Lake Superior ore region, and about 60 per cent in Minnesota. The Lake Superior iron ore region covers a vast area in the vicinity of Lake Superior that contained in early geological times large areas of iron-bearing sediments, which today form metamorphosed iron-bearing rocks, such as jasper, chert, taconite, and slates. Concentration of the iron content chiefly through solution and resultant removal of silica produced the ore bodies we find today in rock folds as on the Menominee range, at dike or impervious wall intersections such as on the Gogebic range, and blanket-type enriched ore bodies ly¬ing on or within the ore formation, such as occur on the Mesabi and in steeply pitching ore lenses elsewhere. In many places, folding and subsequent erosion of the tops of the folded areas has resulted in steep dips in the ore formation and contained ore bodies. The upper eroded edges are mostly buried under glacial over-burden. The slightly dipping Mesabi formation is the principal exception as to steeply dipping ore bodies.

Jan 1, 1941

Page Laboratory Methods...........................127 Special Analytical Methods.......................127 Improvements in the Accuracy of the Vacuum-fusion Method for the Determination of Oxygen in Steel....................127 Quantitative Spectrochemical Analysis of Mixtures of Gases.......131 Oxygen Samples from Open-hearth Bath...............133 Rapid Analysis of Sample for Alumina.................139 Accurate Carbon Analyses in Low-carbon Steel.............139 Laboratory Technique for Study of Reactions Involving Liquid Metal. . . . 142 Rotating Liquid Crucibles......................143 Stationary Crucibles.........................145 Jones and Laughlin Experimental Furnace...............148 Vacuum Melting..........................149 Measurement of Temperature of Liquid Iron and Steel;..........149 Pouring and Teeming Temperatures..................149 Bath Temperatures.........................151 Plant Methods.............................154 Methods of Studying Slags.......................154 Sampling Slag in the Open Hearth..................155 Viscosity of Open-hearth Slags....................155 Petrographic Examination of Slag...................156 Statistical Methods Applied to Study and Control of Chemical Relations in Bath...............................166 Rapid Method of -Correlation Applicable to Study of Steelmaking Reactions............................166 INTRODUCTION On Thursday morning, Feb. 16, 1939, a round table discussion was held on the subject of Experimental Methods in the Study of Steelmaking. Dr. John Chipman, Professor of Metallurgy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and chairman of the A.I.M.E. Committee on Physical Chemistry of Steelmaking, presided. In opening the meeting, the chairman said: "The purpose of this round table is to discuss methods of study by which more and better information on the fundamentals of steelmaking can be obtained. It was thought that a round table discussion rather than a symposium would furnish the best opportunity for those actually using various methods of study to get together and discuss their common problems. For this reason attention will be focused upon methods of study rather than upon their results. We want new and current and up-to-date discussion.

Jan 1, 1940

Page Laboratory Methods...........................127 Special Analytical Methods.......................127 Improvements in the Accuracy of the Vacuum-fusion Method for the Determination of Oxygen in Steel....................127 Quantitative Spectrochemical Analysis of Mixtures of Gases.......131 Oxygen Samples from Open-hearth Bath...............133 Rapid Analysis of Sample for Alumina.................139 Accurate Carbon Analyses in Low-carbon Steel.............139 Laboratory Technique for Study of Reactions Involving Liquid Metal. . . . 142 Rotating Liquid Crucibles......................143 Stationary Crucibles.........................145 Jones and Laughlin Experimental Furnace...............148 Vacuum Melting..........................149 Measurement of Temperature of Liquid Iron and Steel;..........149 Pouring and Teeming Temperatures..................149 Bath Temperatures.........................151 Plant Methods.............................154 Methods of Studying Slags.......................154 Sampling Slag in the Open Hearth..................155 Viscosity of Open-hearth Slags....................155 Petrographic Examination of Slag...................156 Statistical Methods Applied to Study and Control of Chemical Relations in Bath...............................166 Rapid Method of -Correlation Applicable to Study of Steelmaking Reactions............................166 INTRODUCTION On Thursday morning, Feb. 16, 1939, a round table discussion was held on the subject of Experimental Methods in the Study of Steelmaking. Dr. John Chipman, Professor of Metallurgy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and chairman of the A.I.M.E. Committee on Physical Chemistry of Steelmaking, presided. In opening the meeting, the chairman said: "The purpose of this round table is to discuss methods of study by which more and better information on the fundamentals of steelmaking can be obtained. It was thought that a round table discussion rather than a symposium would furnish the best opportunity for those actually using various methods of study to get together and discuss their common problems. For this reason attention will be focused upon methods of study rather than upon their results. We want new and current and up-to-date discussion.

Jan 1, 1940

By H. R. Ogden, A. G. Imgram, D. N. Williams

The effects of composition on the mechanical properties and aging characteristics of several alloys in the Ti-V-Cr system, with and without aluminum modifications, were evaluated. Increasing the chromium, vandium, or aluminum content increased the strength of quenched structures with chromium being the most effective strengthener. Appreciable aging response was obtained with low chromium alloys, but high chromium alloys age softened rather than. hardened. High vanadium contents had a similar effect. Aluminum additions shifted the aging behavior toward that observed in lower chromium alloys, enabling high chromium alloys to be age hardened. DURING the course of titanium alloy development many a and a-ß alloys have been evolved to commercial status. However, only one all-ß alloy has achieved this same stature. This is the Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al alloy. It is characterized by a very sluggish ß-phase decomposition reaction such that very slow cooling rates can retain the 0 phase at room temperature. In addition, very high strength levels can be obtained by long-time aging treatments. Combinations of cold or warm working followed by aging produce even further improvements in strength. This paper describes the results of a research program in which the effects of composition on the mechanical properties and aging characteristics of several alloys in the Ti-V-Cr system, with and without aluminum modifications, were evaluated. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Electrolytically refined, high-purity titanium was used as the alloy base for these studies. Iodide chromium, electrolytically refined vanadium granules, and high-purity aluminum sheet were used as alloying additions. The compositions of interest were melted as 250-g ingots in a direct current arc melting furnace under a flowing atmosphere of argon. The ingots were hot forged to 3/4-in.-diam bars, vacuum annealed for 6 hr at 1800°F to reduce residual hydrogen content, and then hot swaged to 1/4-in.-diam rods. Fabrication history, and interstitial analyses after fabrication are given in Table I. All specimens to be heat treated were sealed in Vycor capsules under a partial pressure of argon. Samples used to define the ß transus were quenched from temperatures ranging from 1350° to 1100°F after holding at temperature for 15 min. Samples for aging studies were quenched from above the ß transus temperature and then aged for up to 64 hr at 750°F and for 100 hr at 850°, 900°, and 950°F. The effects of straining prior to aging were also investigated. The results of these studies were used to select the heat treatments for the tensile specimen blanks. Heat treatments of the tensile specimens are described in Table 11. Alloys were aged after solution heat treatment or after solution heat treatment and cold swaging to 50 pct reduction in area. Standard 0.125-in.-diam tensile specimens were machined from the heat-treated blanks. All tensile tests were performed in a Baldwin-Southwark uni-

Jan 1, 1963

By M. P. Tixier, A. Poupon, M. E. Loy

Simple qualitative methods are explained for identifying those shaly sands in a well that are most likely to contain oil. A need for more precise measurement of the variables that enter shaly sand analysis is indicated. Field examples are given to illustrate the methods. A theoretical discussion of the quantitative interpretation of shaly sands is given as a basis for discussion and as a guide for the future. While not generally capable of practical application at the present time because of the lack of sufficient accuracy of the electric log data, these methods may become more feasible in the future as the result of the improved logging methods now being introduced. INTRODUCTION Experience has shown that for porous formations containing only a negligible amount of clayey material, reliable information on the fluid saturation and porosity of the reservoir rocks can usually be derived from the electrical logs. The interpretation is based on empirical formulae relating the true resistivity of a porous formation to its lithologic character, to the resistivity of the interstitial water, and to the proportions of water and hydrocarbons in the pores.' If the resistivity of the interstitial water is not known, its approximate value can be derived from the SP curve.2,3 The porosity can usually be determined to a good approximation from a MicroLog, or a MicroLaterolog.4,5 When the reservoir rocks contain an appreciable percentage of clayey material, an additional factor is introduced into the analysis. In a clean formation, the matrix is an electrical insulator, so that the ability of the formation to conduct current is due only to the conductivity of the electrolytes in the pores; in a shaly formation, the shale constitutes a part of the rock matrix able to conduct current, and influences the resistivity of the formation. On the other hand, the spontaneous emf's and the circulation of the SP currents are also responsive to the presence of the shaly material. All other factors being the same, the deflection of the SP curve opposite a shaly permeable formation is smaller than the deflection which would be observed if the formation were clean. The effects of the presence of shale on the resistivity and on the SP curves in a shaly formation are functions of the amount, of the specific resistivity, and of the geometrical distribution of the shaly material within the formation. The presence of shale therefore constitutes an important complication in electrical log interpretation. It is easy to realize, for example, that the presence of a large amount of clayey material in a sand may have such a predominant effect that the resistivity of the sand will not change very much, whether the pores are entirely filled with connate water, or contain a high saturation of hydrocarbons. Important research projects have been undertaken to investigate the influence of shales and to find a way to allow for this influence in the interpretation of a log. The problem of the SP in shaly sands was analyzed mathematically by H. G. Doll"' for the case of sands with shale laminations. Formulae expressing the resistivity of shaly formations were proposed by Patnode and Wyllie8 and de Witte.9 Other quite interesting theoretical and experimental results have been published by various authors.l0,ll,12,l3,14 The purpose of the present paper is to discuss an approach to electrical log interpretation in shaly sands. This approach is based partly on some of the theoretical and experimental data available in the literature and partly on observations made on actual field logs. Comparatively simple methods for qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis are described. These methods depend principally upon information provided by the electrical logs.

Jan 1, 1955

By G. W. Form, W. A. Spitzig

The effects of hydrogen and vacuum shtering treatments on the physical and mechanical properties of arc plasma-sprayed tungsten were inuestigated. Temperatures examined ranged from 3000" to 4000°F in vacuum and 2000" to 3000°F in hydrogen for both single and duplex sintering cycles. Densities of 92 pct of theoretical density were obtained when a long-time hydrogen treatment at 2000°Fpreceded sintering in vacuum at 4000°F for 4 hr. This cycle also produced the highest ualues for modulus of rupture and bend angle. The results of this investigation point out the desirability of using a low-temperature long-time hydrogen treatment prior to a high-temperature vacuum sinter for arc plasma-sprayed tungsten. ADVANCES in the development of arc plasma-generating equipment have provided a high-temperature heat source that makes the fabrication of tungsten shapes possible by a metallizing process. Tungsten in the as-sprayed condition is very brittle. It has a density between 80 and 85 pct of theoretical density, a lamellar structure with elongated pores, and a high interstitial impurity content. To improve these properties, sintering treatments can be applied to the as-sprayed material, similar to those used for the densification of compacted tungsten powder. However, in view of the differences in the density and microstructure of as-sprayed tungsten as compared with compacted tungsten, responses to sintering were expected to be different. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The tungsten powder used in this investigation had a particle size varying from 3 to 13 p with an average diameter of 8p. The impurity level was less than 0.1 pct. The arc plasma spraying was done with an F-40 Thermal Dynamics Corp. plasma jet. Spraying was performed in air and thus required cooling of the substrate by an air blast in order to minimize oxidation. The spraying parameters employed in the fabrication of all specimens are listed below: Power input, kw 12 Arc-gas flow, cfh 95N2 + 5H2 Powder feed rate, g per min 33 Powder carrier gas flow, cfh ION, Spray distance, in. 3 Traverse rate, in. per min 30 Mandrel speed, rpm 100 Nozzle orifice, in. 7/32 These values of the spraying parameters correspond to optimum conditions ascertained in a previous study. Sintering was conducted at 3000°, 3500, and 4000°F in vacuum (< 0.1 Hg), and at 2000 and 3000°F in hydrogen. Duplex sintering treatments investigated are listed in Table I together with the designations that will be used for reference throughout this paper. The samples were fabricated by spraying onto a copper mandrel which was removed prior to sintering. The specimens used for the sintering analyses had the shape of small hollow truncated cones 1 in. high with an inside diameter varying from 0.500 to 0.125 in. and a wall thickness of 1/8 in. Specimens for bend testing were taken from hollow hexagonal prisms 1-1/2 in. high with a 1-in. diam across the flats and a wall thickness of 1/8 in. The bend-test specimens were ground to the dimensions 0.085 by 0.350 by 1-1/2 in. Prior to bend testing 0.0025 in. of stock was removed from each surface by electro-polishing. Density measurements were made by the water-displacement method. In addition, a porosimeter was used to determine the amount of interconnected porosity for representative samples. Strength and ductility were determined from recorded values in transverse bending using a cross head speed of 0.020 in. per min. The load was applied at the midpoint of a 1-in. span. The deflection data reported herein refer only to the plastic portion of the total deflection. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The as-sprayed samples had a density corresponding to 83 pct (l pct) of the theoretical density of tungsten. Fig. 1 shows a representative as-sprayed tungsten structure.

Jan 1, 1964