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By C. R. Woodcock, J. S. Mason

In almost any situation where particulate or granular bulk solids have to be conveyed, whether for a distance of a few metres or for many hundreds of metres, a pneumatic conveying system may be considered. Conveying by pipeline is convenient and clean, but running costs may be substantial because of the heavy air consumption and the trend has therefore been towards dense-phase transport in which the ratio of conveyed solids to conveying air is kept high. This paper concentrates on air-float conveying, which can be regarded as an extreme form of dense-phase conveying where the bulk solid is fluidised in a channel and then caused to flow, either by inclining the channel or creating a pressure gradient along 'it. Various designs of air-float conveyor for upward, horizontal and down- ward transport of powders are discussed, with special emphasis on the latter case. In situations where a continuous downward slope can be provided, the combination of air-fluidisation and gravity flow results in a conveying system that, for many kinds of bulk particulate solid, would be hard to better in terms of convenience, reliability and economy. The paper is concluded with a discussion of design features and performance of practical air-gravity conveyors, involving the handling of various bulk particulate solids, both in research and in full-scale industria1 applications.

Jan 1, 1980

By C. M. Tucker, Kent R. Van Horn, W. P. Sykes

RECENT investigations of the molybdenum-carbon alloys have been reported by Becker and Ebert1‡, Westgren and Phragmén2, T. Takei3, and H. Tutiya4. Takei3 studied the Mo-C system by employing metallographic and X-ray methods, and the other publications described the determination of the crystal structure of the molybdenum carbides. In exploring this system by a technique previously applied to the tungsten-carbon series5, the results of Takei were confirmed with two definite exceptions; i.e., first the composition of the eutectic, and second the nature of the carbon-fish intermediate phase. Consequently, a more thorough examination of the molybdenum-carbon constitution was initiated in an effort to correlate the data supplied by the microstructures, diffraction patterns and chemical analyses. METALLOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION A briquette of molybdenum powder when heated in a carburizing atmosphere at 1500° to 1600° C. for several hours develops the carbon-rich layer shown in Fig. 1. The carburization was accomplished by placing the briquette in a carbon tube, which was heated in the hydrogen atmosphere of an alundum muffle wound with tungsten resistor. While the macrostructure indicates two distinct shells, and suggests the possibility of two carbon-rich phases, no evidence of this condition could be detected by the microscope, which revealed but one high-carbon constituent. This carbide forms next to the molybdenum as a relatively

Jan 1, 1935

By J. Waldman, M. B. Bever, A. K. Jena

The heats of formation at 273°K of 6 silver-rich Ag-Cd solid solutions and the heat of formation at 78°K of one solid solution have been measured by tin solution calorimetry. The heats of formation are analyzed in terms of the quasichemical theory. If the enthalpy diffel-ence between a hypothetical fcc form and the hcp form of cadmium is taken into account, this analysis does not lead to the conclusion put forth in the literature that electronic effects make significant contributions to the heats of formation of silver-rich Ag-Cd solid solutions. The temperature dependence of the heats of formation is appreciable and negative near 78ºK, but decreases gradually to nearly zero abore 400°K. The relative partial enthalpies per grarn -atom of silver at 541°K and cadmium at 532" and 541°K in tin have also been determined. THE composition range of the silver-rich Ag-Cd solid solutions stable at room temperature extends to about 40 at. pct Cd. Heats of formation of these solid solutions at 308" and 723°K have been measured by solution calorimetry.1,2 Heats of formation for an average temperature of 800°K have also been calculated from vapor pressures.2,3 The heats of formation deviate from the values predicted by the quasichemical theory above about 30 at. pct Cd. This deviation has been attributed to electronic effects at the Brillouin zone boundaries.2 The heats of formation of Ag-Cd alloys are essentially the same at 308", 723", and 800°K; consequently the temperature dependence of the heat of formation d?H/dT = ?Cp is vanishingly small, although from the exothermic heats of formation a negative value would have been expected. In the investigation reported here the heats of formation at 273°K of 6 silver-rich Ag-Cd solid solutions and the heat of formation at 78°K of 1 solid solution have been measured by tin solution calorimetry. The results are analyzed in terms of the quasichemical theory and the dependence of the heats of formation on temperature is discussed. The relative partial enthalpies per gram-atom of silver in tin at 541" and cadmium in tin at 532" and 541°K were obtained in the course of this investigation. The values of the temperature dependence of the relative partial enthalpies per gram-atom of silver in tin derived from the data reported by various investigators2,4-9 are contradictory. The literature contains only a value for 517°K of the relative partial enthalpy per gram-atom of solid cadmium in tin.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Samples of Ag-Cd solid solutions were prepared by melting weighed amounts of silver (99.99 pct pure) and cadmium (99.95 pct pure) in graphite crucibles under a flux of molten potassium chloride.10 The solidified ingots were sealed in evacuated Vycor tubes and annealed at 775°K for 10 days. The ingots were swaged and drawn into wires. The wires, sealed in evacuated Pyrex tubes, were held at 725°K for 5 hr and cooled to 365°K at an average rate of 2.5ºK per hr, followed by furnace cooling to room temperature. Chemical analysis of samples taken from different parts of each ingot gave no indication of segregation. Metallographic examination showed the samples to be homogeneous. Samples of the solid solutions or of the component elements were added to tin-rich baths in a calorimeter." At the start of a run the bath consisted of pure tin. Silver was used in the form of wire of 0.01-in. diam as supplied and cadmium in the form of lumps. Gold (99.999 pct pure) was added with the samples in order to reduce the endothermic heat effect of additions of Ag-Cd solid solutions. Samples of only one composition were added in a run and the ratio of the weight of alloy to that of gold was the same in all additions of a given run. In each run several calibrating additions of tin were made from 273°K. The heat contents of tin were calculated from the following equation, which is based on published data:12 (HTºK- H279º) = 6.70 T - 72,300/T + 20 cal/gram-atom; 505°K < T < 650°K The heat effect of each addition was plotted against the average of the sum of the atom fractions of solutes in the solution before and after that addition. The total concentration of solutes at the end of a run was less than 2 at. pct. In this range the heat effect was a linear function of the atom fraction of the solutes. The heat effect at infinite dilution and the composition dependence of the heat effect were obtained from the plots. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Evaluation of Data. The linear dependence on composition of the heat effects of additions suggests that in the dilute range the enthalpy interaction coefficients other than the first-order coefficients of silver, cadmium, and gold are negligible, as shown in a concurrent publication.13 The heat effects at infinite dilution and the values of the composition dependence of the heat effects are listed in Table I.

Jan 1, 1970

By Orson Cutler Shepard

RECENT research work in the flotation concentration of minerals has been concerned mainly with flotation reagents and the mechanism by which collecting reagents are held to the surface of certain mineral particles. The fundamental question of why air bubbles cling to properly prepared mineral surfaces is usually dismissed with the statement that the surface is air-avid or water-repellent. In my article in MINING AND METALLURGY for June, 1932, I showed theoretically that surface tension relationships govern bubble attachment in Rotation. This explanation has not been accepted by many; probably be¬cause the difficulty of measuring solid-solution surface tensions prevented obtaining experimental evidence. If the surface tensions involved in the system [solution, mineral, air bubble] are responsible for attachment of the air bubble to the mineral, any change in the surface tensions should cause a corresponding change in the attachment of the air bubble. An example in which the mineral-solution surface tension could be varied was found with mercury. When mercury is in contact with solutions of certain electrolytes the surface tension at the contact of mercury and solution can be altered by electrical polarization of the mercury. The surface tension rises to a maximum as the mercury is given an increasing negative potential and then decreases with further increase in potential. The theoretical relation between the surface tensions and the attachment of an air bubble is given by the following equation:

Jan 1, 1936

Joseph Hartshorne was born in Philadelphia in 1852. He died Aug. 23, 1918. After graduating from Haverford College, he took a special course in chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and later at the University of Pennsylvania. He started with The Pennsy!vania Steel Co. as an apprentice in 1873, working in the laboratory and mills for two years, and then one year as foreman in the Bessemer Department. Next, he was assistant chemist in the second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. In 1878, he went to Prance to investigate the Pernot open-hearth furnace for the Cambria Iron Co. Upon his return, he assisted in designing and erecting the plant in Johnstown and was foreman of a turn for one year, and superintendent for the next. In 1881, he became superintendent of the Bessemer and rolling-mill departments. In 1884, he went to Pottstown and also made a trip to Europe to investigate the Bessemer basic process. Upon his return he dcsigned and erected the basic Bessemer plant for the Pottstown Iron Co., and was superintendent there until 1893, when the company failed. Since then he has been a consulting metallurgical engineer, and expert in patent cases. The !most important of the latter was that of Krupp versus Midvsle on the armor-plate patent case, in which he was leading cxpert for Midvale. He was a good linguist, having command of French and German, and a fair knowledge of Italian and Spanish. In all, he made eight professional trips to Europe.

Jan 1, 1920

C. H. BIERBAUM,* Buffalo, N. Y.--I agree with Dr. Merica that the eutectoid has a distinct effect upon the alloy and also that, as yet, it is difficult to say at just what point this eutectoid occurs or the conditions under which it appears; that is, the percentages of copper, tin, zinc, lead, and the other elements together with the temperature of pouring and the rate of cooling that is necessary; all seem to have a contributing effect. Some authorities, Law for instance, gives it as 9 per cent. of tin, yet under certain conditions I have found it with a lower percentage of tin to copper contents than that. The hard delta and the soft alpha crystals are both necessary for a bearing alloy; the one supplements the other. I am not inclined to think that phosphorus has any effect upon the eutectoid forming. The phosphide, PCu3, forms in and around the delta but is and remains distinct and separated from it. Etching with ferric chloride and then with nitric acid shows this very distinctly; it darkens the eutectoid and the other parts and leaves the phosphide bright. The rate of cooling determines the size of the crystals and the eutectoid together with their distribution and orientation. It is possible to chill the alloy to such an extent Where no eutectoid appears. I think it has been positively demonstrated that only an alpha and a beta appear. when this copper-tin alloy has been poured between two polished ingots

Jan 1, 1919

By G. S. Hume

Production of petroleum and natural .gas increased in Canada in 1940 over the previous year. Alberta produced more than 97 per cent of the total Canadian production of 8,718,053 bbl. of oil, an increase for this province of nearly 12 per cent, whereas in Ontario and New Brunswick, where the production is relatively small, there was a slight decline. In Alberta the main producing field is Turner Valley, on the eastern edge of the foothills southwest of Calgary, and development continued in this field in 1940 with the completion of 36 wells, all of which obtained production. In the Red Coulce field, close to the International Boundary, near Coutts, no new wells were drilled and the seven producing wells showed a decline of 900 bbl. below the previous year. Also, in the Wainwright field of east central Alberta, four wells, yielding heavy crude oil, produced 4000 bbl. less oil than in 1939, owing possibly rather to discontinuous operation than to actual decline in potential yield. This decline was more than offset by production from a new field 40 miles northeast of Wainwright, at Borradaile, producing oil of 14" to I 5° A.P.1. There was a small increase in production during 1940 from the Del Bonita field, in southern Alberta, where the production is from two wells. The outstanding development of the year was the completion of Standard Oil Princess No. 2 well in the Steveville area, on the Plains 100 miles east of Calgary. This well was completed late in December with an initial flow1 of 520 bbl. of 26.3" A.P,I. oil, and 12,750 M cu. ft. of gas from the upper part of the Mississippian limestone. It has opened up a new field and given a further proof of the potentialities of the Southern Plains. The production of petroleum in Canada is shown in Table I. Since most of the yield comes from Alberta, the production is shown from the various fields in Table 2. The sale value of the petroleum produced in Canada in 1940 exceeded 11.1 million dollars, which is still somewhat less than the value of the natural gas production, shown in Table 3. Table i.—Production of Petroleum in Canada" Barrels Province 1939 1940 New Brunswick........ 20,101 21,161 Ontario............... 206,196 186,471 Alberta............... 7,595,000 8,493,237 Northwest Territories. . 17,013 8,493,23717.184 Total............... 7,838,310 8,718,053 Value............... $10,353,351 $11.113,000 0 Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa. Turner Valley, Alberta Turner Valley continues to be by far the largest producing field in Canada (details are given in Table 4), The limits of the Pr in- field are now Known. On the east the oil area is bounded by the gas cap, which in turn is cut off on its east side by a major overthrust fault; on the west, ii is defined by edge water at a level of 4roc

Jan 1, 1941

By G. S. Hume

Production of petroleum and natural .gas increased in Canada in 1940 over the previous year. Alberta produced more than 97 per cent of the total Canadian production of 8,718,053 bbl. of oil, an increase for this province of nearly 12 per cent, whereas in Ontario and New Brunswick, where the production is relatively small, there was a slight decline. In Alberta the main producing field is Turner Valley, on the eastern edge of the foothills southwest of Calgary, and development continued in this field in 1940 with the completion of 36 wells, all of which obtained production. In the Red Coulce field, close to the International Boundary, near Coutts, no new wells were drilled and the seven producing wells showed a decline of 900 bbl. below the previous year. Also, in the Wainwright field of east central Alberta, four wells, yielding heavy crude oil, produced 4000 bbl. less oil than in 1939, owing possibly rather to discontinuous operation than to actual decline in potential yield. This decline was more than offset by production from a new field 40 miles northeast of Wainwright, at Borradaile, producing oil of 14" to I 5° A.P.1. There was a small increase in production during 1940 from the Del Bonita field, in southern Alberta, where the production is from two wells. The outstanding development of the year was the completion of Standard Oil Princess No. 2 well in the Steveville area, on the Plains 100 miles east of Calgary. This well was completed late in December with an initial flow1 of 520 bbl. of 26.3" A.P,I. oil, and 12,750 M cu. ft. of gas from the upper part of the Mississippian limestone. It has opened up a new field and given a further proof of the potentialities of the Southern Plains. The production of petroleum in Canada is shown in Table I. Since most of the yield comes from Alberta, the production is shown from the various fields in Table 2. The sale value of the petroleum produced in Canada in 1940 exceeded 11.1 million dollars, which is still somewhat less than the value of the natural gas production, shown in Table 3. Table i.—Production of Petroleum in Canada" Barrels Province 1939 1940 New Brunswick........ 20,101 21,161 Ontario............... 206,196 186,471 Alberta............... 7,595,000 8,493,237 Northwest Territories. . 17,013 8,493,23717.184 Total............... 7,838,310 8,718,053 Value............... $10,353,351 $11.113,000 0 Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa. Turner Valley, Alberta Turner Valley continues to be by far the largest producing field in Canada (details are given in Table 4), The limits of the Pr in- field are now Known. On the east the oil area is bounded by the gas cap, which in turn is cut off on its east side by a major overthrust fault; on the west, ii is defined by edge water at a level of 4roc

Jan 1, 1941

By Richard H. Rein, John Chipman

The activity of SiO2, in the entire liquid system SiO2-CaO-Mg0-A12O3 at 1600°C is calculated from the distribution of silicon between these slags and Fe-Si-C alloys saturated with either graphite or silicon carbide, the activity coefficient of silicon in these alloys, and the requisite thermodynamic data. The activities of the other components in the ternary systems SiO2-CaO-A12O3, SiO2-MgO-CaO, SiO2-MgO -A12O3 are computed from these data by the IrON blast-furnace slags can be regarded as consisting of the four major oxide components, SO2, CaO, MgO, and A12O3 along with minor proportions of other oxides and of sulfur. The purpose of this study is to measure the activity of silica in the liquid solutions of these four oxides at iron-making Gibbs-Duhem equation with the aid of the known free energies of several of the interoxide compounds and the accepted phase diagrams. Based on these activities, new data are Presented for the free energy of formation of a number of the interoxide compounds. The free energy of mixing the liquid metasilicates of CaO and MgO shows slight positive deviations from the ideal. temperatures and to obtain activities of the other components by application of the Gibbs-Duhem equation and the properties of several interoxide compounds. Recent investigations on the activity of silica in the SiO2-CaO-A12O3 system1-3 and recogntion of a serious error in older data for the free energy of formation of SiO2 (Ref. 4) have succeeded in bringing a fair degree of concordance into the results of different investigators. In the present study, the activity of silica is obtained from the silicon-distribution experiments described in a previous paper,&apos; the revised activity coefficient of silicon

Jan 1, 1965

By Alfred Siegel

Mineral pigments give color, opacity, or body to paint, stucco, plaster, mortar, cement, linoleum, rubber, and similar materials. They must be finely divided, substantially insoluble, and generally inert for such uses. Inorganic pigments may be grouped somewhat arbitrarily as follows: A. Natural mineral pigments dug from the earth. 1. Those consisting mostly of iron oxides, such as hematite and limonite. 2. Those containing large amounts of clay or noncoloring matter, such as ocher, sienna, umber, and colored shales. 3. Those whose color is not due to iron oxide, such as Vandyke brown (including sap brown, an alkali extract of Vandyke brown), graphite, and terre verte. B. Synthetic pigments. 1. Those containing iron oxide as the essential coloring matter, such as "pure" reds, yellows, and blacks, and Venetian reds. 2. Those not containing iron oxide, but rather such compounds as lithopone, zinc white, titanium white, ultramarine, Prussian blue, and the like. Only groups A and B-1 are discussed here. All the pigments in those two categories, except Vandyke brown, sap brown, and some of the carbonaceous slates, contain, as their essential color constituents, one or more compounds of iron; namely, an oxide-limonite (2Fe2O3.H2O to Fe2O3.4H20), hematite (Fe2O3), or magnetite (Fe2O3.FeO). Man&apos;s first permanent coloring materials were earth pigments-the ochers, iron oxides, and various iron-stained clays. The caves occupied by prehistoric man and the arts of the ancient Chaldean, Egyptian, and Cretan civilizations bear mute witness to this and also testify to the beauty and permanence of earth colors. As the Roman era developed, earth pigments were pushed from their pre-eminent position by white lead and red lead and in the Middle Ages by zinc oxide. Today, of course, the number of acceptable pigments is very large and on a value basis the group of natural and synthetic earth pigments stands forth with $16,000,000 per year; it is surpassed by titanium, lead and zinc pigments. Of this sum,21 natural pigments supplied 31 pct of the tonnage and 16 pct of the value of the total finished pigment in 1957, the remainder representing the tonnage and value of sales of the synthetic iron oxide colors. The average value of finished natural pigments in 1958 was $80.62 per ton. The average value of manufactured pigments in the same year was $202 per ton. Of the 60,000 tons of manufactured colored pigments sold in 1958, the reds comprised 76 pct of the market and the yellows 20 pct. The reds furnished 68 pct of the value and the yellows 24 pct. Of the finished iron oxide pigments (natural and manufactured) sold in 1958, the reds dominated the market with 66 pct of the quantity and 63 pct of the value; yellows supplied 17 pct of the quantity and 20 pct of the value, and browns furnished 11 pct of the quantity and 10 pct of the value. The average value of the reds was approximately $152, and the average value of the yellows $190 per ton. The highest valued pigment in 1958, with almost 12 pct of the total tonnage and 21 pct of the value of the iron oxide pigment market, was manufactured red from calcined copperas valued at $286 per ton.

Jan 1, 1960

By L. A. Schrider, J. A. Wasson

A method of predicting waterflood performance has been developed that combines certain facets of several previously published prediction techniques. The manner of combination has required the development and use of some new and some little-known relationships and has eliminated several of the weaker assumptions inherent in the original individual prediction methods. This approach, which was designed for computer solution, has removed the necessity of referring to plotted curves and permits the analytical prediction of water flood performance for a five-spot well pattern in either homogeneous or stratified reservoirs. The Predicted values are expressed in common oilfield units rather than in abstract or dimensionless terms. The calculation procedure has been programmed in FORTRAN IV and the entire program listing is available to potential users.* Introduction Prior to initiation of secondary recovery of oil by waterflooding, the possibilities of economic success or failure must be evaluated with the greatest practical accuracy. Although many prediction techniques are available, most, if not all, have serious limitations. In recent years, the Bureau of Mines has attempted to stimulate interest in the secondary recovery of oil from Appalachian pressure-depleted reservoirs. Waterflooding, because of its widespread acceptance and success, is the principal secondary-recovery method considered. During the life of the project, several performance prediction methods have been studied and applied. Because these methods, individually, have inherent assumptions and limi-tations, portions of some of them have been selected and combined in an effort to eliminate such shortcomings wherever possible. We believe that the resulting technique is as accurate as the necessary available data will permit and that it has several distinct advantages over previously published methods. Development of the Method The fractional flow equation developed by Buckley and Leverett&apos; from Darcy&apos;s law is the fundamental mathematical statement describing immiscible fluid-fluid displacement in porous media. A generalized form of this relationship, whose derivation is readily available in the literature, is The formation dip, a, is usually very small in those petroleum reservoirs being considered for pattern waterflooding in the Appalachian area. Therefore. in many cases. a has an almist negligible value. In addition, Ap, the difference between the density of water and the density of oil, is relatively small. For these reasons the gravitational term may often be neglected. Capillary pressure is a function of saturation, which is in turn a function of distance from the upstream boundary of the system or the injection well. In this study it is assumed that the frontal zone of the waterflooding (or zone of capillarity) has negligible length and that only those saturations in the water-swept zone at breakthrough and later are of interest. As the distance in a waterflood pattern is comparatively large and the change in water saturation with distance is usually small, the change in capillary pressure with distance is negligible. The simplified form of the fractional flow equation is appropriate, therefore, in this application. Three variables must be considered in determining that fraction of the total fluid flow that consists of water: the viscosity ratio, saturation, and relative permeability ratio.

Jan 1, 1969

[AARONSON, E.: Discussion on Recent Developments in Fractionation as Applied to Tube Still Distillation, G26, 418 Abbe. See Microscope. Abbe apertometer, 95, 16 ABBOTT, W. L.: A.S.M.E. president, M26,113 biography, M26,113 ABORN, R. H.: Discussions: on Effects of Columbium in Chromium-nickel Steels 113, 159 on Pure Iron and Allotropic Transformations 84, 342 on Prevention of Intergranular Corrosion, 100,329 ABORN, R. H. AND BAIN, E. C.: Discussion on Widmanstätten Structure in Ironcarbon Alloys 105, 252]

Jan 1, 1936

The papers discussed in the following pages were presented during two sessions of the Geophysics Education Committee of the Mineral Industry Education Division on Feb. 17 and 18, 1941. At the first meeting, to consider the "Influence of Geophysics upon Geology Curricula," this Committee was joined by the Geophysics and Mining Geology Committees of the A.I.M.E., the Society of Economic Geologists, representatives of the American Geophysical Union, and delegates from the Committees on College Curricula and on Applications of Geology of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Quentin D. Singewald and Sherwin F. Kelly presided. At the ensuing session, especially emphasizing the integration of geology, physics and chemistry for the solution of earth problems, the joint participants with the Geophysics Education Committee were the Geophysics Committee, and representatives of the American Geophysical Union and of the Committee on College Curricula of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Richard M. Field and W. R. Chedsey presided. In the following summary of the discussion at the two meetings, written discussion submitted subsequently is not differentiated from that offered orally at the session. A provisional report of the Geophysics Education Committee was presented at the second session, and some of the following discussion refers to it. This report has not been printed (it is anticipated that a more comprehensive, final one will be rendered at the 1942 annual meeting). A few mimeographed copies of this provisional report were made. Dr. W. P. Haynes presented some notes prepared by Dr. F. H. Lahee, Chairman of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists&apos; Committee on College Curricula. This Com- mittee&apos;s inquiries reveal the general opinion that a four-year academic preparation is inadequate, five or six being advisable. The fundamentals, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and English composition, should be stressed in the first three years, with specialization in the last two or three years. Some companies provide an apprenticeship period, and themselves give additional training. During academic years more attention needs to be given to engineering training, to field mapping, and in geology to stratigraphy and sedimentation. The amount of mere memory work should be cut, and men trained to observe and reason. Dr. Lahee emphasized the need of more adequate preparation in English composition, because of the inability of many graduates to compose acceptable reports. Sherwin F. Kelly pointed out that much time in university training, which ought to be devoted to technical subjects, was taken .up with English courses. He emphasized that it is the part of the universities to demand of the high schools that the students they send to the university be properly trained to speak and write English. Prof. W. T. Thom protested against the crowding of high-school material into already overcrowded college curricula. C. E. Dobbin, chairman of the Committee on Applications of Geology of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, described briefly the work of his committee in publicizing geology, and said that it found a widespread popular interest in the subject but a lack of appreciation of its importance. He recommended that attempts to coordinate the works of geologists and geophysicists be expanded somewhat toward the further developing and encouraging of a "species of geopolitician" capable of assisting the progress of geology and geophysics by more vigorous advertising of

Jan 1, 1946

The papers discussed in the following pages were presented during two sessions of the Geophysics Education Committee of the Mineral Industry Education Division on Feb. 17 and 18, 1941. At the first meeting, to consider the "Influence of Geophysics upon Geology Curricula," this Committee was joined by the Geophysics and Mining Geology Committees of the A.I.M.E., the Society of Economic Geologists, representatives of the American Geophysical Union, and delegates from the Committees on College Curricula and on Applications of Geology of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Quentin D. Singewald and Sherwin F. Kelly presided. At the ensuing session, especially emphasizing the integration of geology, physics and chemistry for the solution of earth problems, the joint participants with the Geophysics Education Committee were the Geophysics Committee, and representatives of the American Geophysical Union and of the Committee on College Curricula of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Richard M. Field and W. R. Chedsey presided. In the following summary of the discussion at the two meetings, written discussion submitted subsequently is not differentiated from that offered orally at the session. A provisional report of the Geophysics Education Committee was presented at the second session, and some of the following discussion refers to it. This report has not been printed (it is anticipated that a more comprehensive, final one will be rendered at the 1942 annual meeting), but a few mimeographed copies of this provisional report are at the A.I.M.E. headquarters and will be mailed on request. . Dr. W. P. HAYNES presented some notes prepared by Dr. F. H. LAHEE, Chairman of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists&apos; Committee on College Curricula. This Committee&apos;s inquiries reveal the general opinion that a four-year academic preparation is inadequate, five or six being advisable. The fundamentals, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and English composition, should be stressed in the first three years, with specialization in the last two or three years. Some companies provide an apprenticeship period, and themselves give additional training.. During academic years more attention needs to be given to engineering training, to field mapping, and in geology to stratigraphy and sedimentation. The amount of mere memory work should be cut, and men trained to observe and reason. Dr. Lahee emphasized the need of more adequate preparation in English composition, because of the inability of many graduates to compose acceptable reports. SHERWIN F. KELLY pointed out that much time in university training, which ought to be devoted to technical subjects, was taken up with English courses. He emphasized that it is the part of the universities to demand of the high schools that the students they send to the university be properly trained to speak and write English. Prof. W. T. THOM protested against the crowding of high-school material into already overcrowded college curricula. C. E. DOBBIN, chairman of the Committee on Applications of Geology of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, described briefly the work of his committee in publicizing geology, and said that it found a widespread popular interest in the subject but a lack of appreciation of its importance. He recommended that attempts to coordinate the works of geologists and geophysicists be expanded somewhat, toward the further developing and encouraging of a "species of geopolitician" capable of assisting the progress of geology and geophysics by more vigorous advertising of

Jan 1, 1941

The papers discussed in the following pages were presented during two sessions of the Geophysics Education Committee of the Mineral Industry Education Division on Feb. 17 and 18, 1941. At the first meeting, to consider the "Influence of Geophysics upon Geology Curricula," this Committee was joined by the Geophysics and Mining Geology Committees of the A.I.M.E., the Society of Economic Geologists, representatives of the American Geophysical Union, and delegates from the Committees on College Curricula and on Applications of Geology of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Quentin D. Singewald and Sherwin F. Kelly presided. At the ensuing session, especially emphasizing the integration of geology, physics and chemistry for the solution of earth problems, the joint participants with the Geophysics Education Committee were the Geophysics Committee, and representatives of the American Geophysical Union and of the Committee on College Curricula of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Richard M. Field and W. R. Chedsey presided. In the following summary of the discussion at the two meetings, written discussion submitted subsequently is not differentiated from that offered orally at the session. A provisional report of the Geophysics Education Committee was presented at the second session, and some of the following discussion refers to it. This report has not been printed (it is anticipated that a more comprehensive, final one will be rendered at the 1942 annual meeting). A few mimeographed copies of this provisional report were made. Dr. W. P. Haynes presented some notes prepared by Dr. F. H. Lahee, Chairman of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists&apos; Committee on College Curricula. This Com- mittee&apos;s inquiries reveal the general opinion that a four-year academic preparation is inadequate, five or six being advisable. The fundamentals, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and English composition, should be stressed in the first three years, with specialization in the last two or three years. Some companies provide an apprenticeship period, and themselves give additional training. During academic years more attention needs to be given to engineering training, to field mapping, and in geology to stratigraphy and sedimentation. The amount of mere memory work should be cut, and men trained to observe and reason. Dr. Lahee emphasized the need of more adequate preparation in English composition, because of the inability of many graduates to compose acceptable reports. Sherwin F. Kelly pointed out that much time in university training, which ought to be devoted to technical subjects, was taken .up with English courses. He emphasized that it is the part of the universities to demand of the high schools that the students they send to the university be properly trained to speak and write English. Prof. W. T. Thom protested against the crowding of high-school material into already overcrowded college curricula. C. E. Dobbin, chairman of the Committee on Applications of Geology of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, described briefly the work of his committee in publicizing geology, and said that it found a widespread popular interest in the subject but a lack of appreciation of its importance. He recommended that attempts to coordinate the works of geologists and geophysicists be expanded somewhat toward the further developing and encouraging of a "species of geopolitician" capable of assisting the progress of geology and geophysics by more vigorous advertising of

Jan 1, 1946

By N. A. Ziegler

CONSIDERABLE work has been and is being done on the changes of physical properties that take place in alloys at elevated temperatures, and much information on this subject is published. Much less is known, as pointed out by Rickett and Wood,1 about reactions between the alloys and atmospheric gases and still less is known about changes within the alloy itself under the influence of heat and given atmosphere. Moreover, most of the work published has been done on the alloys of "heat-resist-ing" type, in which chromium is an essential ingredient, the behavior of all other alloys being quite unknown, except perhaps of decarburization produced at the surface by oxidizing atmospheres. It has been shown&apos; that iron, with total amount of foreign ingredients not exceeding 0.01 per cent, if heated in an oxidizing atmosphere at above 900° C., may be saturated with oxygen to 0.1 per cent. It was suspected that something of a similar nature may take place in iron-silicon alloys (transformer material), the mechanism of such processes being either a direct diffusion of oxygen into the alloy, or oxygen combining with silicon to form Si02 or more complicated (silicate) inclusions. Another possi-bility to be considered was that during annealing in oxidizing atmos-pheres, when scale is being formed, silicon may oxidize preferentially at the surface, thus impoverishing the alloy in silicon. In collaboration with Dr. T. D. Yensen,3 the writer set out to investigate this problem about two years ago in order to settle these questions.

Jan 1, 1934

By J. L. Huiatt, D. G. Foot

The Bureau of Mines devised a direct flotation method for treating low-grade carnallite (KCl*MgC12*6H20) and sylvinite (a mixture of KC1 and NaCl) ores characterized by a high content of water-insoluble impurities. The procedure consists of flocculation-depression of the insoluble slimes; decomposition leach (carnallite only); potash rougher, cleaner, and recleaner flotation; and final product leaching. The technique eliminates the necessity of removing the water-insoluble slimes by mechanical or flotation desliming. Laboratory results demonstrated that the direct flotation procedure, when compared with conventional techniques, yielded equivalent or improved flotation results with equal or less reagent consumptions. The direct flotation method recovered 81.6% of the solid phase KC1 from camallite ore and 79.7% of the KCl from sylvinite ore in final products containing 60.5 and 60.9% K2O, respectively. A flowsheet incorporating the described flotation procedure is presented.

Jan 1, 1983

By Bernard E. Weichman

The oil shales of the Green River formation were deposited in an inland lake which contained abundant plant and animal life. A high percentage of sodium bicarbonate existed in the lower water layers. Digestion of the kerogen-rich mud accumulating on the lake floor lowered the pH of the interstitial waters and precipitated the sodium minerals dawsonite and nahcolite in the kerogen-rich mud. After about five million years of existence, uplift of land areas around the lake caused an influx of clastic sediments which filled up the lake. Continued tectionics gently folded the basin and caused fracturing of the kerogen-lean oil shale. Nahcolite existing in the fractured lean oil shale was dissolved by subsurface waters leaving a tremendous aquifer in a portion of the oil shale. The extent and porosity of the "Leached zone" aquifer is dependent upon the percent of kerogen and nahcolite originally deposited in the oil shale.

Jan 1, 1975

By Charles H. Behre

This paper discusses education and training for economic geologists other than petroleum geologists. Candidates enter economic geology through liberal arts colleges, engineering schools and university graduate study. Whatever their backgrounds, rigorous courses are desirable-now conceded in theory, but not adequately recognized in practice. Besides basic sciences (each studied long enough to give a fair comprehension of its basic tenets), a functional command of English and two modern foreign languages is needed, as well as a broad understanding of mining, milling and metallurgy. A year of economics and finance is recommended. Surveying and drafting are essential skills. Yet geology should be represented in each term; otherwise the initial enthusiasm for the science, once contact is broken, may never be regained. A five-year curriculum is thus designed to take care of all major requirements and culminate in the M. S. degree. This curriculum reduces "cultural" courses below the average liberal arts requirements, but this is regarded as necessary. The pursuit of "culture" is assigned, as in most engineering and medical curricula, to extra college years or extracurricular time. To avoid the danger of over-crowding the schooling, the Doctorate in geology is preferred wherever possible. Its two added years should permit wider professional education; more browsing in "cultural" pastures; due attention to broader social implications; and some training in the research now increasingly required of the mineral industry. "In-course" training through cooperation between school and industry is especially advocated. The Institute should take the initiative in stimulating this practice.

Jan 1, 1947

International Trade in Nonmetallic Minerals. BY J W FURNESS AND E W PEHRSON (Man &. Met, Sept, 432 2500 words) International trade in nonmetalic minerals (exclusive of fuels) is dominated largely by fertilizer raw materials such as phosphate rock, potash, nitrates, sulphur and pyrites and the miscellaneous group of minerals including asbestos, mica, graphite, fluorspar and china clay Cost of trans¬portation deters any substantial movement of the building materials which usually occur widely in nature and are thus available near consuming centers at relatively low cost This paper, which presents a summary for 1932 of the world production, consumption and principal trade relations of asbestos, china clay, fluorspar, graphite, gypsum, mica, phosphate rock and potash illustrated by world charts, is based on an original study of 15 nonmetallic minerals conducted by the U S Bureau of Mines Practical and Legal Aspects of Mme Financing See METAL MINING Economic Significance of High-grade Concentrates See MILLING AND CONCENTRATION

Jan 1, 1937