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By H. K. Shearer

Oil production in north Louisiana in 1938 was 28,442,910 bbl., a decrease of 225,160 bbl., or less than 1 per cent, from 1937. The principal increases were at Cotton Valley, Lisbon and Zwolle. The greatest decrease was at Rodessa, with small normal declines in production of the old settled fields. Natural gas production from gas wells declined 15.9 per cent from 1937, but casinghead gas increased, so the decline in total production was only 6.9 per cent. Decline in completions was due to lack of proven areas for drilling, as well as price and marketing difficulties; and wildcat activity mas also less than in 1937. The increase in number of dry holes was due chiefly to shallow drilling in the old Caddo and Zwolle fields. Most important events in 1938 were the discovery of the Shreveport deep oil and gas field, extension of the Logansport gas-distillate field into Louisiana, development of oil production in the Bodeaw zone on the flanks of Cotton Valley, opening of deep gas-distillate production at Shongaloo, and completion of one well in a deeper horizon at Bluc Lake (Zwolle field). Geological Notes The deep drilling done in 1938 did not cause any important changes in geological correlation and nomenclature of the formations below the Upper or Gulf Cretaceous. The stratigraphic section of the Lower Cretaceous and deeper beds, with names used in the accompanying tables, as approved a year ago by the Shreveport Geological Society, is as follows:

Jan 1, 1939

By H. K. Shearer

Oil production in north Louisiana in 1938 was 28,442,910 bbl., a decrease of 225,160 bbl., or less than 1 per cent, from 1937. The principal increases were at Cotton Valley, Lisbon and Zwolle. The greatest decrease was at Rodessa, with small normal declines in production of the old settled fields. Natural gas production from gas wells declined 15.9 per cent from 1937, but casinghead gas increased, so the decline in total production was only 6.9 per cent. Decline in completions was due to lack of proven areas for drilling, as well as price and marketing difficulties; and wildcat activity mas also less than in 1937. The increase in number of dry holes was due chiefly to shallow drilling in the old Caddo and Zwolle fields. Most important events in 1938 were the discovery of the Shreveport deep oil and gas field, extension of the Logansport gas-distillate field into Louisiana, development of oil production in the Bodeaw zone on the flanks of Cotton Valley, opening of deep gas-distillate production at Shongaloo, and completion of one well in a deeper horizon at Bluc Lake (Zwolle field). Geological Notes The deep drilling done in 1938 did not cause any important changes in geological correlation and nomenclature of the formations below the Upper or Gulf Cretaceous. The stratigraphic section of the Lower Cretaceous and deeper beds, with names used in the accompanying tables, as approved a year ago by the Shreveport Geological Society, is as follows:

Jan 1, 1939

By J. D. Shaw, E. B. Gebert, D. O. Noel

It is, of course, expected that manufacture of the various metal powders should involve numerous methods adapted to the specific characteristics of the metals themselves. Several methods for powdering a particular metal may be available, but the physical characteristics of the powder as produced by the several methods may be quite different. In the final analysis, the application of the metal powder dictates the physical properties that the metal powder must possess, and this, to a very large extent, will determine which of several possible methods of manufacture is adopted. Sometimes powder of the same metal is produced by more than one method, each powder having specific characteristics that make it particularly suitable for its application. For purposes of classification, the various methods of powdering metals can be grouped as follows: 1. Machining. 2. Milling (by ball mills, stamps, attrition mills, etc.). 3. Shotting (pouring molten metal into water, air, etc.). 4. Granulation (by stirring molten metal while solidifying). 5. Atomizing (disintegrating by steam, compressed air, etc.). 6. Condensation of metal vapor. 7. Reduction of oxide powders. 8. Chemical precipitation. 9. Electrolytic deposition. 10. Sintering (for producing alloy powders). 11. Formation of an alloy followed by dissolving or otherwise removing one of the alloying constituents. Machining Turnings, cuttings, filings, etc., are, of course, produced as by-products in machine work of various kinds, and find certain applications as metal powders. For example, iron powder so produced is used extensively as a reducing or precipitating agent and as a constituent in certain hard-finish cements.

Jan 1, 1938

By D. O. Noel, E. B. Gebert, J. D. Shaw

IT. is, of course, expected that manufacture of the various metal powders should involve numerous methods adapted to the specific characteristics of the metals themselves. Several methods for powdering a particular metal may be available, but the physical characteristics of the powder as produced by the several methods may be quite different. In the final analysis, the application of the metal powder dictates the physical properties that the metal powder must possess, and this, to a very large extent, will determine which of several possible methods of. manufacture is adopted. Sometimes powder of the same metal is produced by more than one method, each powder having specific characteristics .that make it particularly suitable for its application. For purposes of classification, the various methods of powdering metals can be grouped as follows: 1. Machining. 2. Milling (by ball mills, stamps, attrition mills, etc.). 3. Shotting (pouring molten metal into water, air, etc.). 4. Granulation (by stirring molten metal while solidifying). 5. Atomizing (disintegrating by steam, compressed air, etc.). 6. Condensation of metal vapor. 7. Reduction of oxide powders. 8. Chemical precipitation. 9. Electrolytic deposition. 10. Sintering (for producing alloy powders). 11. Formation of an alloy followed by dissolving or otherwise removing one of the alloying constituents. MACHINING Turnings, cuttings, filings, etc., are, of course, produced as by-products in machine work of various kinds, and find certain applications as metal powders. For example, iron powder so produced is used extensively as a reducing or precipitating agent and as a constituent in certain hard-finish cements.

Jan 1, 1938

By D. O. Noel, E. B. Gebert, J. D. Shaw

It is, of course, expected that manufacture of the various metal powders should involve numerous methods adapted to the specific characteristics of the metals themselves. Several methods for powdering a particular metal may be available, but the physical characteristics of the powder as produced by the several methods may be quite different. In the final analysis, the application of the metal powder dictates the physical properties that the metal powder must possess, and this, to a very large extent, will determine which of several possible methods of manufacture is adopted. Sometimes powder of the same metal is produced by more than one method, each powder having specific characteristics that make it particularly suitable for its application. For purposes of classification, the various methods of powdering metals can be grouped as follows: 1. Machining. 2. Milling (by ball mills, stamps, attrition mills, etc.). 3. Shotting (pouring molten metal into water, air, etc.). 4. Granulation (by stirring molten metal while solidifying). 5. Atomizing (disintegrating by steam, compressed air, etc.). 6. Condensation of metal vapor. 7. Reduction of oxide powders. 8. Chemical precipitation. 9. Electrolytic deposition. 10. Sintering (for producing alloy powders). 11. Formation of an alloy followed by dissolving or otherwise removing one of the alloying constituents. Machining Turnings, cuttings, filings, etc., are, of course, produced as by-products in machine work of various kinds, and find certain applications as metal powders. For example, iron powder so produced is used extensively as a reducing or precipitating agent and as a constituent in certain hard-finish cements.

Jan 1, 1938

By R. E. Heithecker

Almost every oil well drilled into limestone formations in Kansas is treated with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid upon completion: to increase potential capacity of well and thereby increase its "daily allowable" production; to shorten time required to produce recoverable oil; and to increase quantity of oil recovered ultimately from reservoir. Acid treating marked a forward step in the producing fields of Kansas; in fact, many old limestone fields that almost had reached their economic producing limit were "rejuvenated" with acid and their capacities to produce increased several times. It also caused a marked increase in the ultimate oil recovery of some old and nearly depleted fields of Kansas. The effect of the acid was due to the cleaning-out action by the acid at the face of the limestone, the enlargement of the small drainage channels, and the apparent penetration of the acid to previously undrained porous and saturated strata. Studies of the effects of acid were made in the Fairport field, three groups of wells in the El Dorado field and the Shutts field. Estimation of increased recoveries resulting from acid in these fields and groups of wells ranged from 1000 to 2400 bbI. per acre. Limestone structures that had been tested by drilling and found noncommercial were later completed as commerical oil-producing formations through the use of acid. The Kansas City formation, Valley Center field of Kansas, is an example. Increased oil production and revenue from the old fields justified the reconditioning of equipment, which in most cases had become in poor mechanical condition. The first treatment with hydrochloric acid of an oil well in Kansas was in October 1932, and by the end of 1937 almost 6000 wells had been treated. Many wells were treated more than once and the total number of treatments exceeded 8000 by the end of 1937. Approximately 12 3/4 million gallons of acid was required for these treatments. The report includes 15 illustrations and 16 tables.

Jan 1, 1939

By R. E. Heithecker

Almost every oil well drilled into limestone formations in Kansas is treated with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid upon completion: to increase potential capacity of well and thereby increase its "daily allowable" production; to shorten time required to produce recoverable oil; and to increase quantity of oil recovered ultimately from reservoir. Acid treating marked a forward step in the producing fields of Kansas; in fact, many old limestone fields that almost had reached their economic producing limit were "rejuvenated" with acid and their capacities to produce increased several times. It also caused a marked increase in the ultimate oil recovery of some old and nearly depleted fields of Kansas. The effect of the acid was due to the cleaning-out action by the acid at the face of the limestone, the enlargement of the small drainage channels, and the apparent penetration of the acid to previously undrained porous and saturated strata. Studies of the effects of acid were made in the Fairport field, three groups of wells in the El Dorado field and the Shutts field. Estimation of increased recoveries resulting from acid in these fields and groups of wells ranged from 1000 to 2400 bbI. per acre. Limestone structures that had been tested by drilling and found noncommercial were later completed as commerical oil-producing formations through the use of acid. The Kansas City formation, Valley Center field of Kansas, is an example. Increased oil production and revenue from the old fields justified the reconditioning of equipment, which in most cases had become in poor mechanical condition. The first treatment with hydrochloric acid of an oil well in Kansas was in October 1932, and by the end of 1937 almost 6000 wells had been treated. Many wells were treated more than once and the total number of treatments exceeded 8000 by the end of 1937. Approximately 12 3/4 million gallons of acid was required for these treatments. The report includes 15 illustrations and 16 tables.

Jan 1, 1939

By V. J. Sikora, T. S. Hutchinson

This paper presents a method for making a water-rlrive ana1gsis without prior knowledge of aquifer geometry and uniformity using a standard desk calculator. Although it is necessary to know the initial oil in place to use this method, this is a minor limitation to the scope of (he method since in most reservoirs it is possible to obtain reasonably accurate volumetric oil-in-place estimates. An equation is developed which relates pressure at the water-oil contact to the water influx rate as a function of time by a factor called the resistance function. The resistance function introduces the composite effect of the aquifer geometry and flow resistance disrribution. It is pointed out that the characteristic shape of this function makes it possible to start with on approximation of the function and successively improve the approximation until the correct resistance function curve is obtained. In this fashion water-drive estimates can be made without the limitation of assuming simplifed aquifer shapes and flow distributions. This is the novel feature of this development. Methods are given for extrapolating the final curve to calculate future aquifer behavior. Equations are developed for adjusting the pressures and water influx rates where it appears that possible errors in these quantities make it difficult or impossible to obtain a useuble resistance function curve without this adjustment. Application of the pressure build-up analysis techiiique to estimate. some of the aquifer properties is also presented INTRODUCTION A great many oil pools are the result of oil accumulation in some type of trap in an otherwise large and continuous porous stratum. The void space of this stratum outside of the oil pool itself is filled with water or brine. In analyzing performance of the oil pool surrounded by this water aquifer, it is quite necessary. in most cases, to include behavior of the water. When the pressure at any point in a fluid system is lowered, such as by opening a well in an oil sand, fluids in the immediate neighborhood of this point will begin flowing towards this lower pressure sink. As pressure in this area drops due to flow towards the sink, fluids from farther out will start to flow towards the lower pressure. As more and more fluid is removed from the system, the distance from the sink or well within which flow is occurring will continually increase; that is, thc region of disturbance will grow. If some rigid boundary such as a fault is reached by the disturbance, this area will cease to grow; but if some movable boundary is reached, such as a water-oil contact, the area will grow on out into the water, although rate of growth may and almost always does change. The relation between amount of pressure drop and amount of fluid flowing at any point and at any time in an aquifer depends on such factors as compressibility and viscosity of the fluids, the porosity and permeability of the rock, geometry of the whole system and withdrawal rate or pressure drop. With these factors known, it is theoretically possible to calculate the pressure-flow behavior of the system, However, in practice true solutions to the problem are next to impossible due to complexity of reservoir systems. A number of approximate methods of solution have been developed based on various simplifying assumptions. One frequent assumption is that the water-oil contact can be located and equations defining oil reservoir and aquifer solved separately by assigning values to various parameters so as to match past pressure and production history. Usually the properties of the aquifer are not known, since few, if any, wells are drilled through the aquifer; but the water influx and the pressure at the reservoir boundary are known over some time. If it can now be assumed that the aquifer is circular, pie-shaped, or linear, and that it has uniform properties, it is possible to fit a theoretical dimensionless curve to the past aquifer performance history and therefore calculate future water drive. These theoretical curves are available in the literature,1,2,3 Of course, the assumption of uniform aquifer properties is almost always somewhat in error. Fortunately, however, moderate variations from the average have little effect on behavior of the system; and, hence, the best fit of a theoretical curve is frequently satisfactory. In other cases variations in aquifer properties and geometry are large enough that none of the available theoretical curves will give an acceptable fit of the data. In these cases, methods of fitting the data with various electrical analyzers have been developed.1,2' It is the purpose of this paper to present an approach

By H. M. Manasevit, R. L. Nolder, L. A. Moudy

The observation that silicon-on-sapphire crystallo-graphic relationships exist which are unrelated to one another implies that there are regions of sapphire orientations containing these relationships which are separated by boundaries. The presence of these boundaries is demonstrated, initially on rounded cylindrical surfaces md more definitively on flat sapphire substrates with orientations along primary crystallograPhic zones. By means of reflection electron and X-ray diffraction techniques the crystallographic relationships have been studied. Two new relationships have been found, viz., (111) Si (1014) sapphire and (001)Si (1012) sapphire. Also found were multicrystalline relationships. The approximated boundaries between the crystallographic regions for each relationship are shown by means of a stereo-graphic projection. These studies also clarify discrepancies in the literature concerning the silicon-sapphire relationships on the (1120) sapphire substrate. SINCE the first report of the deposition of single-crystal silicon on sapphire in 1963' this epitaxial system has been the object of study by many semiconductor laboratories. In particular, there has been strong interest in the crystallographic relationships between the two materials. In 19652,3 we demonstrated that at least four distinct modes of orientation relationships can occur, namely, (100)Si (0112) sapphire, (111)Si 11 (1124) sapphire, (111)Si (1120) sapphire, and (111)Si (0001) sapphire. Each relationship could be obtained when the substrate plane was at the particular orientation indicated. Other workers as well as our laboratory concurred in general with the initial results. However, two discrepancies were observed. First it was observed by Joyce et a1.4 that on a (1120) substrate a (110) silicon deposit could be obtained. This was actually consistent with the (111)Si (1124) sapphire mode. Second, two other laboratories,5,6 as well as our own,7 have found a deposition on the basal plane which is different than our initial findings. Even though a (111)Si deposit was obtained, the crystallographic relationships were not identical to those previously found. Subsequent work in our laboratories has confirmed that the form found in these later investigations of the basal plane is by far the more predominant, and the original finding was an anomaly. The relationships which have been previously estab1.ished are summarized in Table I. It is seen that at present a rather small number of possible substrate orientations has been investigated. Therefore, it seemed appropriate that a systematic investigation of silicon epitaxy on various sapphire substrate orientations would be of value. It was expected that the answers to three questions could be obtained from such an investigation. These are as follows: 1) Since we know of at least four distinct modes of orientation relationships, over what range of substrate orientation do these modes occur and what is the form of the boundary expected between the different regions in which each mode occurs? 2) Are there other modes which occur on substrate orientations not previously investigated? 3) What is the explanation for the discrepancy between our laboratory's findings and those results reported by Joyce et al.4 concerning the relationships occurring on (1120) substrates? APPROACHES AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Two different approaches were used. Initially, depositions were carried out on rounded cylindrical surfaces which lay perpendicular to the (0112) plane.* By this means the presence of boundaries and their approximate positions could be determined. Finally and more definitively, depositions on flat sapphire substrates with a variety of orientations, mostly along primary crystallographic zones and about the (1120) plane, were studied by means of reflection electron diffraction and X-ray diffraction (using back-reflection Laue patterns and full circle goniometer techniques) in order to determine crystallographic relationships. The sapphire orientations investigated by these means

Jan 1, 1969

By Jerry G. Rose, Robert C. Howell

This paper addresses a process by which both the disposal and utilization of preparation plant coal refuse can be simultaneously accomplished with an attendant benefit of significantly increasing the percentage of extractable coal. A laboratory study is described in which coal refuse was successfully utilized as an aggregate in low cost concrete (coal-crete) mixes under simulated mine environments. Coal-crete specimens with compressive strengths of 14 000 kPa (2000 psd were consistently produced. A construction sequence and mining plans are offered for placing the low-cost coal-crete pillars in accessible areas in room and-pillar mines so that a substantial portion of the remaining coal pillars could be extracted. The method could be applicable in areas where mining procedures do not permit pillar extraction because of possible surface subsidence, roof problems, or other conditions. Possible structural difficulties with the coal-crete pillar support system are discussed. Using a discounted cash flow analysis, the economic feasibility of mining with the coal-crete pillar system is investigated. The cost of the system is compared to the cost of a mining system which would have less coal recovery. The analysis indicates that although at higher coal selling prices the coal-crete mining system may yield an acceptable rate of return, the alternative of leaving the coal pillars is more attractive at the present time.

Jan 1, 1980

By Jerry G. Rose, Robert C. Howell

This paper addresses a process by which both the disposal and utilization of preparation plant coal refuse can be simultaneously accomplished with an attendant benefit of significantly increasing the percentage of extractable coal. A laboratory study is described in which coal refuse was successfully utilized as an aggregate in low cost concrete (coal-crete) mixes under simulated mine environments. Coal-crete specimens with compressive strengths of 14 000 kPa (2000 psi) were consistently produced. A construction sequence and mining plans are offered for placing the low-cost coal-crete pillars in accessible areas in room and-pillar mines so that a substantial portion of the remaining coal pillars could be extracted. The method could be applicable in areas where mining procedures do not permit pillar extraction became of possible surface subsidence, roof problems, or other conditions. Possible structural difficulties with the coal- crete pillar support system are discussed. Using a discounted cash flow analysis, the economic feasibility of mining with the coal-crete pillar system is investigated. The cost of the system is compared to the cost of a mining system which would have less coal recovery. The analysis indicates that although at higher coal selling prices the coal-crete mining system may yield an acceptable rate of return, the alternative of leaving the coal pillars is more attractive at the present time.

Jan 3, 1979

Frank Firmstone, Easton, Pa. (communication to the Secretary*) : It may not be amiss to point out that the top-pressure in iron blast-furnaces is largely affected by variations in the temperature of the gas. I find in my note-books, cases in which the pressure was from 9.25 to 9.5 in. of water when the material in the furnace was low (after dinner-hour), which fell to from 8 to 8.5 in., when the furnace was again full, and the gas consequently cooled. The chief cause for this effect is, that, at the higher temperature, there is a decrease in the weight of the gas in the descending-leg of the siphon formed by the down-comer and the chimneys. It does not seem probable that there is any direct relation between top-pressure and quantity of flue-dirt. Top-pressure, at any given moment, measures the " head " necessary to discharge the gas then passing, against the resistances of pipes, valves, etc., in the gas-conduits between the top of the furnace and the mouths of the chimneys, and can be increased at will by closing, more or less, the valves, or dampers, at the stoves and the boilers. The question of relation between top-pressure and flue-dirt can be settled very easily by direct experiment, working alternately with gas-valves open, and partly closed, and noting the top-pressures and the respective quantities of fluedirt collected. The quantities of fine ore blown away, as shown by Mr. Grammer's tables, are astonishing to one who has had no actual experience with Mesabi ore and hard driving. Flue-dirt, in the sense in which he uses the term, was unknown at anthracite furnaces so long as the working was normal; when it did occur, it was always an incident of scaffolding and bad work, and was no doubt caused by an increase in the velocity

Jan 1, 1904

By M. E. Wadsworth

The chief value of a paper like this consists in its statistical tables, putting on record material useful to future inquirers. The data here given have been compiled from time to time as far back as 1874, and subsequently brought up to date. Much of the data could only be procured by personal inspection of the catalogues, as for example those relating to the Lawrence Scientific School, which were taken at that time from the catalogue of Harvard University, on file in the University Library, by the present writer, then an instructor in that institution. These tables of statistics were first prepared for publication by the present writer in 1888-1890 and published in his "Report to the Board of Control of the Michigan College of Mines " (Michigan Mining School) for 1886 to 1890. Later they were revised, enlarged and brought down to date in his reports to the same Board for 1890-92; and since that time they have been, at his request, revised, greatly enlarged and kept up to date by Mrs. Frances H. Scott, the efficient Librarian and Secretary of the Michigan College of Mines. Great credit is due to her for her devotion to this work and her untiring efforts to have the statistics complete as far as possible. The accompanying running commentary is given simply as a string to hold these statistics together, and in order to call attention to a few points. In compiling any tables like those accompanying this paper, one is confronted by serious difficulties, some of which render these results only approximate. In order to insure greater correctness and fullness in the statistics to be published the writer's reports for 1890-92 were sent to the president of every college, university, and technical school in the country, so far as known. Accompanying this was a personal letter which asked of each one his aid in correcting any errors, and in giving fuller statistics. But relatively few answers were obtained, and subsequently from one to many letters have been sent to each institution not formerly reply-

Jan 1, 1898

By Albert R. Ledoux

Discussion of the Paper of Albert R. Ledoux, read at the Atlantic City Meeting, February, 1904. ARTHUR JARMAN, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia' (communication to the Secretary*): Some remarks upon. Dr. Ledoux's interesting paper from one who has not visited America may, I hope, be of interest to members. It appears to me that there is considerable difference between the training of the American and of the British mining engineer. Not that the subjects are different, but rather in the way in which they are handled, the illustrations being, as far as possible, mining in character. Colloquial instruction is unknown in English curricula, but could be introduced with advantage. Students here assure me that an hour of conversation is of tar more use to them than an hour of the best lecturing. In England a school-year of 6 or 7 months would be considered very short indeed; but Americans do not consider it so, for the reason that the rest of the year is mostly spent in acquiring practical acquaintance with their subjects in works or in the field, and the shorter courses, when coupled with this large amount of outside expe¬rience, produce an essentially practical-minded engineer, who is also more of a business man; whereas the English system, though excellent from a scholastic point of view, produces the theoretical rather than the practical man. British schools are waking up, however, and the practical aspect of the engineer's training is receiving greater consideration. Once launched upon his career, the American engineer is immediately called upon to exercise his self-reliance and ingenuity, if he is to retain the confidence of his employers; but what can we say of English directors? In how many cases is the engineer allowed to guide the destinies of his company? Witness several recent cases of gross waste of money upon unsuitable plants, and the perpetuation of prehistoric methods of

Mar 1, 1905

By J. M. Karpinski, R. O. Tervo

A method and equipment have been developed for measuring the impact strength of grains of brittle materials. It is shown that brittle materials develop a characteristic particle size distribution when fractured by impact. A simple mathematical model has been found to describe this distribution, and one of the parameters of the model has been designated the r value. The r value is directly proportional to impact energy and, for fixed impact energy, it becomes a useful criterion of grain strength. Data are presented on the variation of the r value as a function of sample history, initial size, energy input and number of impacts. The results are interpreted in terms of the flaw theory of brittle fracture. The view is now widely held that brittle materials comprise a strong matrix, throughout which flaws or points of weakness are scattered at random. Failure always starts at one or more of these imperfections, and planes of fracture are established by the geometry of the flaw distribution. This view has been developed extensively by Weibull 1,2 and experiments of a confirmatory nature have been reported.3,4 Thus the process of fracture or size reduction of brittle materials can be regarded as a process of elimination or creation of flaws, and the concept of strength is intimately connected with the size and history of the specimen tested. One consequence of the point of view described above is that brittle materials will fracture to yield similar size distributions, although the impact energy to produce a given amount of fracture may vary greatly from one material to another. Generally speaking, experimental investigations of brittle fracture in solids have been confined to two extreme experimental situations. On one hand, we have tests on single specimens of well-defined, but artificial, geometry and, on the other, empirical data have been obtained on the feed-product relation in a variety of mills. The first situation necessitates specimen preparation, which in the case of brittle materials is equivalent to a priori size reduction, while the second one suffers from the disadvantage that little knowledge is gained about individual fracture events. Also, the statistical significance of single specimen tests may be questioned. Our approach lies somewhere between these two extremes. We test a large population of sized specimens and yet subject each specimen to a single fracture event. In 1956 G.H. Fetterley of Norton Co., Chippawa, Ont., made the empirical observation that product size distributions obtained from impacting sized grits can be described by the following equation where R is the proportion by weight of the grain that remains on a screen having an opening x on a side, x, is a parameter having the dimensions of length, and r is a number. This equation has since been derived on a theoretical basis by Gaudin and Meloy.5 They identify x, with the initial size of the test piece and r with the number of flaws per unit length. As will be shown below, our experiments indicate that both x, and r are functions of energy and hence they should more properly be called the effective initial size and the effective number of flaws respectively. Also, our empirical data give us no basis for assuming that r represents the effective number of flaws per unit length, rather than per unit volume. METHOD AND MATERIALS The impact test machine has been designed to feed specimens, essentially one at a time, into an evacuated chamber, where they fall freely and are struck with random orientation by one or the other of a pair of flat steel vanes. The vanes are mounted at opposite ends of a steel bar, which rotates at a closely controlled angular velocity about a vertical axis. Fig. 1 shows the flat circular vacuum chamber with the cover removed, and the horizontal steel bar with the steel vanes at the ends. The cylindrical pot in which the grains are collected after impact appears at the left. Fig. 2 shows the equipment assembled for a test. The vacuum chamber occupies the central position with the variable speed drive below the table surface, the vacuum pump at the extreme left

Jan 1, 1964

By H. D. Hibbard

At the beginning of a Henry M. Howe lecture it seems fitting to refer to Howe's great contributions to steel metallurgy, and particularly to the literature thereof. Most of my predecessors in this role have been able, from their association with him, to give direct testimony as to his great services; but although connected with him for years in a business way, I am less familiar with what might be called his academic side, except as it is embodied in his utterances, written and oral. Howe was adept in his genial way in extracting information in any line which, at the time, was of interest to him. In a technical lecture one expects as a rule new knowledge-—something about recent advances relating to the subject. On this occasion, however, I will ask you to go back with me to the primary department of steel lore, as the title of my lecture shows, to review the more fundamental features in that field for the purpose of seeking some gaps which we can fill and so give the subject renewed interest. In thus going back one must inevitably repeat many familiar facts, but that seems to be necessary in order to reach a clear understanding of the unrecorded matters. The full interpretation of a steel analysis is at present unattainable, though much progress toward that end has been made. The ultimate analysis, giving the percentages of the five commonly determined elements, does indeed usually give a fair idea of what the steel is, and is ordinarily enough, with knowledge of its history and physical condition, to enable it to be assigned to some purpose or use for which it is reasonably suitable. Rut discrepancies arise. Every maker and every User of steel knows, from at least occasional examples in his own experience, that the ultimate analysis is insufficient by itself to enable one to tell positively, from its interpretation, either the mechanical properties of the steel or its adaptability to the purpose for which it was made. Further, if, while having the specified composition, it is abnormal or unsatisfactory, why it is so. Good, bad and indifferent steels may have substantially the same ultimate analysis.

Jan 1, 1928

By Frank Firmstone

IN April, 1873, No. 2 furnace at the Glendon Iron Works being out of blast, it was decided to alter it from an open to a closed top. The three side flues, through which a part of the gas was formerly taken off, were 15 feet below the top, and as, for various reasons, it was not convenient to cut new flues through the brickwork at the top, as is commonly done with closed-top furnaces, a modification of Coingt's charger was employed. This apparatus, as figured by De Vathaire,* consists of a cup or hopper, like that used with the cup and cone, and a central pipe for taking off the gas, which descends some distance into the furnace, and has a projection around it forming a seat for a ring of a triangular cross-section, which closes the opening between the cup and the central gas-pipe. The charge is put into the cup, and by lowering the ring, is thrown into the furnace, a part going outside of the ring toward the walls, and a part through the inside toward the gas-pipe. In this form the apparatus was not applicable, for: 1st. With a gas-pipe three feet in diameter, in a top eight feet in diameter, the openings left by lowering the ring would not be large enough to let lump coal pass through. 2d. For the charger to shut tight, the ring must bear equally against the projection made for it on the gas-pipe, and against the edge of the cup. This would not be difficult to effect when the apparatus is first put up, but a comparatively small change in the relative position of the parts, such as is almost certain to occur from expansion, would cause the ring to touch the pipe or the cup, whichever happened to be the lower, first, and leave a leak between it (the ring) and the other. In the plan adopted (Fig's. 5 and 6, Plate I), the central opening in the ring is closed by the bottom of the gas-pipe, whereby more room is left for the passage of the stock when the charger is open, than if the pipe descended into the furnace; and the pipe, instead of being rigidly supported, rests on the ring, when the charger is closed, and follows it for two or three inches as it opens, until stopped by the counter-balance lever C. When the ring is raised to close the furnace top, it comes in contact first with the bottom edge of the gas-pipe, then both are raised to¬gether, until stopped by the ring touching the edge of the cup. In this way a good joint is made at both places. * Etudes our lea Haut Fourneaux, page 108.

Jan 1, 1874

ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NEW YORK SECTION - The annual meeting of the New York Section was held at the Machinery Club, May 7. While the dinner, at which fifty attended, was in progress, the names of the nominees for next year's officers were posted. The result of the election was as follows: Chairman, E. P. Mathewson; vice-chairmen, William Y. Westervelt, R. M. Atwater, Jr.; treasurer, Wilber Judson; executive committeemen, Lucius W. Mayer, Edwin S. Berry. The subject for the evening was "Organization and Campaign in France of the 27th Engineers." Colonel O. B. Perry described the many difficulties surmounted, for it was necessary to work with untrained men ALLEN H. ROGERS WALTER S. DICKSON CHAIRMAN OF NEW YORK SECTION SECRETARY OF NEW YORK SECTION and shortage in supplies. He described the unusually fine character and physique of his officers, which made it possible to make the untrained men most efficient. He described in some detail the work of building bridges over the Meuse River and the bringing up of supplies to the first army base, in particular at the Argonne-Meuse sector; General Pershing gave a personal commendation of the work undertaken by this regiment. The Colonel described the methods of operating the transportation of ammunition and supplies to the "army dumps," by which at the time of signing the armistice there had been brought up 600,000 tons of equipment for use in the projected campaigns. An interesting item was that 3,600,000 sand bags had been provided, in case the Germans should be able to turn the line of the American troops. Captain Edwin S. Berry described the methods of sending materials to the front lines and gave figures to indicate the huge quantities required, adding that the order of preference was troops, ammunition, food, and engineers' supplies. The speakers then answered several questions given by the members present. WALTER S. DICKSON, Secretary.

Jan 6, 1919

By E. C. Roberts

TO facilitate some recent microscopic investigations it was necessary to devise special mounting techniques for the polishing of two quite different metallographic specimens. These techniques are extremely simple and are submitted for whatever value they may be to other investigators. The first specimen mount proved very satisfactory for the study of untempered martensite. Since it was undesirable to heat the specimen, lucite or bakelite mounting materials could not be used in the conventional manner. A cold mount was made by drilling a hole of the same diameter as the specimen in a cylindrical piece of polystyrene then press- ing the steel specimen into the hole on an ordinary vise. A prefabricated disk of lucite should work equally well. The only precautions necessary are that the hole be drilled out cleanly and the piece of steel be pressed into the plastic uniformly, otherwise the mount will crack. The second type of mount was required for the study of slag specimens by reflected light. Mounting these specimens in bakelite and then attempting to rough finish the surfaces on graded emery papers resulted in a considerable amount of chipping and breaking out of the slag particles. This made further satisfactory polishing almost impossible. It was found, however, that if the bakelite-mounted specimen was first rough finished to a point where a good specimen surface became visible, the interstices in the specimen surface could be filled and the polishing completed. This filling was accomplished by placing a small amount of lucite powder in the bottom of the steel specimen mold then reinserting the bakelite-mounted specimen on top of the lucite powder. Reheating the mold to the proper temperature and applying the required pressure resulted in the formation of a thin disk of lucite on the bottom of the bakelite specimen. By carefully grinding the lucite away a uniform surface including the slag specimen was obtained and further polishing was unhampered by slag disintegration.

Jan 1, 1951

Hugh M. ROBERTS,* Minneapolis, Minn. (written discussion ? ).¬The paper by Messrs. Hall and Row marks a distinct advance in the art of diamond drilling, because it records a systematic-application of a method for directing the path of the diamond bit. Their work is an admirable example of engineering development. They had a definite object to attain; i.e., the drilling of many vertical diamond-drill holes to depths of 2500 or 3000 ft. (762 or 914 m.). They availed them-selves of a method of wedging seldom used, improved the manner of making the wedges, developed a technique of survey, and put the process into practical, continuous operation. So effectively has this been done that they determine the average cost of the work. The publication of the results, in the form of detailed diagrams, makes the application general to whoever has a similar problem. The wedging of diamond-drill holes has been practised in the Lake Superior region for the purpose of making branch holes, particularly where the original hole has penetrated a great thickness of glacial drift. The uneven nature of the iron formations has caused the results to be somewhat uncertain. One operation, in 1907, near the American mine on the Marquette Range, by the firm of Longyear & Hodge, predecessors of the E. J. Longyear Co., resulted in the drilling of a hole 1828 ft. (557 m.) deep, with two branches at depths 100 ft. (30 m.) and 770 ft; (234 m.), respectively. A second hole from the same set-up went to a depth of 2497 ft. (761 in.) with a branch at 185.0 ft. (563 m.). In this instance, the wedges were forged to the desired shapes and angles with respect to each other. A drill hole, sunk in 1915,. in the township of Bates in the. Iron River district of Northern Michigan, which penetrated 385 ft.

Jan 11, 1919