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By John M. Lovejoy

CURRENT production of petroleum on such a vast scale presents many interesting problems- the solutions of which are important not only to those directly interested in the business, but to the nation as a whole. The industry is relatively young. Until the discovers of the Lucas gusher at Spindletop in 1901 petroleum production had not exceeded 60,000,000 bbl. per year compared with 1,100,000,000 bbl. in 1936. In 36 years then, the modern oil business, production, transportation, refining, and marketing has developed. I will first present a brief history. of oil production as a background for consideration of the present situation.

Jan 1, 1937

By E. G. Leonardon, Sherwin F. Kelly

The first to appreciate and foresee the value of applying electrical measurements to structural studies was Prof. Conrad Schlumberger, Professor of Physics at the School of Mines in Paris. One of his earliest practical undertakings in this line was carried out, in the field, at Fierville-la-Campagne, Normandy, in 1912. His book, published in 1920, still stands as an authoritative, fundamental treatise on the use of the electric current in geological studies, in spite of the rapid evolution of geophysics during the last seven years. A remarkable feature of this book is that, even then, it stressed the role of electricity in structural investigations and made public the first successful results obtained therewith. Stratigraphic studies have been pursued continuously by Conrad Schlumberger and his associates since 1912, the only interruption being the World War. The results attained demonstrate the wide possibilities of electrical exploration in structural work. This field of activity is, at the least, as varied and valuable as the search for ore. It is curious that until very recently it has so slightly attracted the attention of geophysicists and geologists on this continent. The purpose of this paper is to present briefly some examples of the practical application of the potential methods to geological studies. These examples are chosen from a number of problems solved in the field by our firm, in the course of its consulting practice. Certain fundamental points are briefly stated before the field operstions and interpretations are described. Conductivities of the Rocks Compared with metallic substances, rocks are poor conductors. However, it would be a grave error to affirm that they are completely insulating and that no electrical current can flow through them. It is surprising to encounter, even now, in certain discussions about the applicability of the potential methods, deductions based on this assumption that rocks are absolutely nonconductive.

Jan 1, 1929

By Hans S. Carlsson

Like most industrial processes, nuclear power production creates wastes, which have to be handled and ultimately disposed of in a safe manner. Some of the wastes contain very long-lived radioactive substances and have to be isolated for very long periods of time before they have decayed to harmless levels. Sweden, like many other countries with similar geology, intends to use crystalline rock for isolating the high-level nuclear waste from the biosphere. The suitability of a rock mass for a repository needs to be investigated extensively. Apart from the political and practical considerations for a site selection, a detailed study has to be performed in terms of geology, hydrogeology, geophysics, geochemistry and rock mechanics. The responsibility of the site selection studies in Sweden is entrusted to the Swedish Nuclear Fuel Supply Company, Division KBS (SKBF/KBS) . The paper gives a brief presentation of the "Standard Program" for the studies that will be carried out during 1980-1990. Modifications of the program are justified on the basis of gained experience or specific circumstances for each site. The program is compiled by the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) in cooperation with KBS.

Jan 1, 1982

By D. Turnbull, A. M. Turkalo

It is well known that if copper that has been severely cold-worked by rolling (70-98 pct) is heated to high temperatures a small number of large grains are formed at the expense of the fine grained structure that appears upon primary recrystallization. Dahl and Pawlek,' Cook and Mac-Quarie,2 Ward,3 and Boas and Bowles4 have studied this phenomenon in copper. It has been reported as taking place with measurable velocities in the temperature range 700-1080". Boas and Bowles have reported that the time necessary for the transformation is of the order of days at 700°C. According to Ward3 the number of secondary grains which appear in OFHC copper decrease with increasing perfection of cubical alignment after primary recrystallization; also the perfection of cubical alignment increases with decreasing grain size prior to the final reduction. In this investigation two heats, A and B, of especially high purity copper (99.999 pct) supplied by the American Smelting and Refining Co., were used. The behavior of samples prepared from the two heats was qualitatively very similar providing that the grain sizes established prior to the final reduction were about the same. We observed that in specimens prepared from bars which were relatively coarse grained prior to final reduction secondary recrystallization took place at a rapid rate at temperatures as low as 500°C. This is about 200-300°C lower than the temperature necessary to obtain fairly rapid transformation in OFHC copper. A 0.22 in. thick rectangular bar of lot B was cold-reduced 60 pct by straight rolling and given a penultimate annealing treatment at 250°C. Following this it was cold-reduced 90 pct and heated to various temperatures in the range 450-1040°C. The specimens were about 8 mils thick

Jan 1, 1950

By Robert Lewis

Some recent experiments in the use of compressed air for rock drills at higher than usual pressures, up to 150 lb. per sq. in., emphasize the importance of maintaining the compressed-air system in the best condition if the greatest possible over-all efficiency is to be secured. No claim of high over-all efficiency can be made for the compressed-air system of braking that is used on railroad trains, yet the air brake works effectively. Compressed air is not used efficiently in the rock drill, but no other type of machine drilling is yet a serious competitor of the air-driven rock drill.

Jan 1, 1930

By H. F. Seifert

THE classification and preparation of non-ferrous scrap metals is a subject of interest to every individual and corporation that employs in its processes of manufacture non-ferrous metals and alloys and accumulates in such manufacture scrap from these materials for disposition in the form of turnings, borings, short ends, punchings, clippings, grindings, washings, etc. All too frequently the disposition of such scrap is left to individuals who have no knowledge of the subject either from a metallurgical or a commercial standpoint, or both. Much money is thus lost which with a little more intelligent effort might be saved, and in this day of fierce competition and small profits such an opportunity cannot be ignored. The Mineral Resources of the United States for the year 1925, the latest issue available (Part 1, page 221), gives the secondary non-ferrous TABLE 1.-Some Secondary Non-ferrous Metals Recovered in the United States for the Year 1924-25 Material Short Tons Value Copper, including that in alloys other than brass.... 250,600 $ 71,170,400 Brass, scrap remelted 242,300 56,270,800 Lead as metal 112,4201 39,477,100 Lead as alloys 112,460 Zinc as metal 61,430 11,359,000 Zinc -in alloys other than brass 13,300 Tin as metal 1 7,950 35,165,400 Tin in alloys 23,000 Antimony as metal 1 } 3;794,000 Antimony in alloys 10,839 Aluminum as metal 17,700 24 Aluminum in alloys 26,300 ,816,000 Nickel as metal 19 1 1,518,000 Nickel in non-ferrous alloys 2,109 Total 882,600 $243,570,700

Jan 1, 1928

By Ursula E. Wolff

Il.lechanica1 twins have been observed in brigsten single crystals of a variety of axial orientations defornzed at room temperature in tension or bending. The twins formed near the final fracture and were up to 3 p thick. The twinning plane was always of the type (113). Twinning at room ternperature occurred only after considerable prior slip. Twins usually preceded fracture and nucleated cracks. The crack surfaces often alternated between a (001) plane and the twin interfaces. Secondary twins could also nucleate from cracks. In the absence of twinning tensile samples failed by shear; twinned samples failed by cleavage. On the assumption that observed sudden load drops in the stress-strain curves are associated with twinning, a critical resolved stress for twinning of 60, 000 to 65, 000 psi was calculated. MeCHANICAL twinning has been observed in iron and iron alloys at low temperature by a number of investigators.'-7 Similarly, for high-purity tungsten, twinning has been reported for deformation temperatures below 211°K.8-10 In W-Re and Mo-Re alloys, 20 pct Re was determined as the lower limit for twin formation at room temperature." Since the twins are generally very narrow, they are usually identified only by etching techniques. The expected (112) habit plane has always been confirmed by angular analysis of the surface traces. Recently, however, a complete identification by X-ray analysis has been performed on twins in a Mo-35 pct Re alloy.12 During an investigation of the deformation charac- teristics of tungsten single crystals, twins were revealed in tensile and bend samples deformed at room temperature. This paper deals with the conditions for such twinning and the relation of twinning to fracture. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Tungsten single crystals, 1/8 in. in diam, of a variety of axial orientations were grown from un-doped material by four-pass electron-beam zone melting. A representative analysis is given in the following table: From these crqstals, tensile samples with 1 in. gage lengths were made by surface grinding, leaving shoulders for gripping. The diameter after grinding was 0.082 in. The distorted surface layer was then removed by ele1:trolytic polishing which reduced the diameter of the gage length to 0.080 in. Tensile tests were carried out at room temperature in an Instron machine under two different sets of conditions: a) Rigid mounting; strain rate 0.02 in. per in. per min. b) Gimbal mounting; strain rate 0.002 in. per in. per min up to a total strain of approximately 0.2 pct, then 0.01 in. per in. per min to fracture. Stress axis and growth direction coincided in all samples and are subsequently called orientation.

Jan 1, 1962

By C. Fairhurst, B. C. Haimson

Pink Tennessee Marble was tested for wedge bit penetration characteristics at static and dynamic (10 - 250 ft/sec) loading rates. No significant differences were found within the dynamic range as far as the energy required to remove a unit crater volume and the force used to cause a certain penetration. Under static loading, however, both the energy and the force required were significantly lower. Tests run on bits of varying width indicated that as the wedge bit narrowed to an almost conical shape, the energy used per unit crater volume became considerably lower.

Jan 1, 1971

The Howe Memorial Lecture, in memory of Henry Marion Howe, Past President of the Institute, was authorized in April, 1923, as an annual address to be delivered by invitation under the auspices of the Institute by an individual of recognized and out standing attainment in the science and practice of iron and steel metallurgy or metallography, chosen by the Board of Directors upon recommendation of the Iron and Steel Division. The following were the Howe lectures and lecturers for the years indicated: 1924 What is Steel? By Albert Sauveur.

Jan 1, 1936

The Howe Memorial Lecture, in memory of Henry Marion Howe, Past President of the Institute, was authorized in April, 1923, as an annual address to be delivered by invitation under the auspices of the Institute by an individual of recognized and out- standing attainment in the science and practice of iron and steel metallurgy or metallography, chosen by the Board of Directors upon recommendation of the Iron and Steel Division. The following were the Howe lectures and lecturers for the years indicated: 1924 What is Steel? By Albert Sauveur.

Jan 1, 1934

The Howe Memorial Lecture, in memory of Henry Marion Howe, Past President of the Institute, was authorized in April, 1923, as an annual address to be delivered by invitation under the auspices of the Institute by an individual of recognized and out- standing attainment in the science and practice of iron and steel metallurgy or metallography, chosen by the Board of Directors upon recommendation of the Iron and Steel Division. The following were the Howe lectures and lecturers for the years indicated: 1924 What is Steel? By Albert Sauveur.

Jan 1, 1932

The Howe Memorial Lecture, in memory of Henry Marion Howe, Past President of the Institute, was authorized in April, 1923, as an annual address to be delivered by invitation under the auspices of the Institute by an individual of recognized and out standing attainment in the science and practice of iron and steel metallurgy or metallography, chosen by the Board of Directors upon recommendation of the Iron and Steel Division. The following were the Howe lectures and lecturers for the years indicated: 1924 What is Steel? By Albert Sauveur.

Jan 1, 1934

Howe Memorial Lecture The Howe Memorial Lecture, in memory of Henry Marion Howe, Past President of the Institute, was authorized in April, 1923, as an annual address to be delivered by invitation under the auspices of the Institute by an individual of recognized and outstanding attainment in the science and -practice of iron and steel metallurgy- or-metallography, chosen -by-the Board-of Directors upon recommendation of the Iron and Steel Division. The following were the Howe lectures and lecturers for the years indicated 1924 What is Steel'., By Albert Sauveur.

Jan 1, 1938

The Howe Memorial Lecture, in memory of Henry Marion Howe, Past President of the Institute, was authorized in April, 1923, as an annual address to be delivered by invitation under the auspices of the Institute by an individual of recognized and outstanding attainment in the science and practice of iron and steel metallurgy or metallography, chosen by the Board of Directors upon recommendation of the 11on and Steel Division. The following mere the Howe lectures and lectures for the years indicated: 1924 What, is Steel? By Albert Sauveu

Jan 1, 1944

By Rudyard Kipling

Through the courtesy of the British Museum of Natural History we have received a copy of an address delivered by Rudyard Kipling at Folkestone, Feb. 15, 1918. We take pleasure in reproducing it in full, because its sentiments are just as appropriate here and now as they ever were. If you will allow me. I will tell you a story. Once upon a time, a. hundred years ago, there was a large and highly organised community in India who lived by assassination and robbery. They Were educated to it from their infancy; they followed it

Jan 9, 1918

By T. E. Brower

SHORTLY after our previous paper on this subject was printed,1 we located a source of uncertainty in the results arising from the unexpected fact that hydrogen slowly reduces silica at 1100° C. in presence of iron, even when the iron nowhere touches the silica, although in absence of iron it does not do so. This difficulty has been completely obviated by the use of a small high-frequency furnace, which enables us to heat the specimen for analysis without raising the temperature of the silica vessel to a point at which any appreciable reduction of the silica glass occurs. We now describe this modification of procedure, and present some typical results obtained with it. For any given specimen of steel, the results are entirely definite and. reproducible, but their precise significance is still open to some question, as indeed is true of all methods of oxygen determination so far developed. Further elucidation of this question is to be expected from the cooperative comparison of the several methods now under way under the auspices of the Bureau of Standards at the instance of the Iron and Steel Division of the A.I.M.E.

Jan 1, 1934

By ANDREW McVILLIAM, WILLIAM H. HATFIELD

AT the 1902 May meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, the, authors presented a paper on " The Elimination of Silicon in The Acid Open-Hearth," wherein they recorded a few typical examples of certain Siemens charges out of a very large number specially watched for the purposes of that research. The main deductions drawn from those experiments have been accepted in all the intelligent criticism during or after the discussion on the paper. One opinion, however, was rigidly held by all who mentioned the matter, with the single exception, perhaps, of Mr. Lange, and that was the necessity for the attainment and the maintenance of an abnormally high temperature in order that the percentage of silicon in the metallic bath might increase, or that an unusually large proportion of silicon might be retained in the metal. The original decision was ar-rived at on the results of scores of trials, and has since been the subject of frequent experiment. The authors still retain their opinion that although, naturally, a higher temperature will accelerate the (probable) action between the carbon of the steel and the excess silica of the slag, they then fairly proved, and have now abundantly confirmed the fact, that around the temperatures occurring in Siemens steel-making practice the chemical composition of the slag, particularly with regard to its acidity, is the factor which determines whether the percentage of silicon in the molten steel shall increase or decrease. In the discussion in 1902 Mr. Saniter called attention to Mr. H. H. Campbell's work, and in the reply the authors also mentioned that of Messrs. Winder and Brunton of 1892, the two

Mar 1, 1905

By H. D. Kessler, Joseph B. McAndrew

WHEN there is occasion to make structural use of metals at temperatures above 900°C (1652°F), the choice of alloys is severely limited, and those materials which meet special requirements as to density, strength, toughness, and resistance to creep, oxidation, or fatigue at such temperatures are at a premium. Any new type of high temperature alloy which is found to be outstanding with respect to several of these properties is therefore likely to find special applications for which it is uniquely advantageous as compared to other alloys. Such is the case with the 7 titanium-aluminum alloys. This y phase is an intermediate phase based on the composition TiAl, and extends from about 35.5 to 44.5 wt pct Al at temperatures up to 1000°C, above which the field broadens to include 60 pct A1 at 1340°C.' The alloys of principal interest have a narrow melting range, with 7 forming by the peri-tectic reaction, melt + ß=y at about 1460°C. Unlike most intermediate phases, the binary alloys containing titanium and aluminum in approximately equiatomic proportion possess low room temperature hardness,' in addition to which they have low density, good resistance to oxidation, and relatively high modulus of elasticity.' Unpublished work done at Armour Research Foundation showed

Jan 1, 1957

By E. P. Miesch, P. B. Crawford

A study was made of the effect of permeable and impermeable lenses in a reservoir on the production capacity of a well. Both steady-state and unsteady-state data were obtained. An electrical resistivity model was used to obtain the steady-state data and thermal models. were constructed to obtain the unsteady-state data. The productivity of a well is affected very greatly only when the lenses are close to the well. The effect of circular lenses on the productivity ratio can be correlated with the distance from the center of the lens to the center of the well divided by the radius of the lens. When this dimensionless distance is equal to six or greater, the effect of the lenses on production capacity will be negligible. The pseudo steady-state productivity of a heterogeneous reservoir can be predicted using steady-state data. INTRODUCTION Many analytical solutions of reservoir behavior assume that reservoir rock is uniform and homogeneous. Although this assumption is used, all of the data from core analyses and well logging indicate that the reservoirs are heterogeneous. Very little work has been done on the performance of heterogeneous reservoirs. The work of Landrum,l et al. showed that transient phenomena in oil reservoirs could be studied with thermal models. Pickering and Cotman2 used thermal models to study flow in stratified reservoirs and investigated the effect of inhomo-geneities in oil reservoirs on transient flow performance. Loucks3 made a mathematical study of the pressure build-up in a system composed of two concentric regions of different permeability. Root, Silberberg and Pirson4 studied the effect of the growth of the flooded region on water influx predictions using a thermal model consisting of three concentric cylindrical regions of different thermal properties which simulated the aquifer, the flooded region and the unflooded portion of the original hydrocarbon region. Tomme, et a1.5 made a mathematical study of vertical fractures. The object of this investigation was to study the effect of highly permeable and impermeable lenses in the vicinity of the wellbore on the pressure depletion history of the well. Steady-state data were obtained for both conductive and nonconductive lenses that completely penetrated the formation. The lenses were symmetrically located at various distances from the wellbore. The unsteady-state data were obtained on seven thermal models. EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE STEADY-STATE DATA The steady-state data were obtained from an electrical resistivity model 30 in. in diameter and approximately 11/2 in. deep. The outside of the model was lined with a 30-in. diameter copper strip, which served as the outer boundary of the reservoir. The bottom was covered with a sheet of plexiglass so that it would be nonconductive. The model was filled with a slightly saline solution. The well size was varied from an 0.064-in. diameter copper wire to a 10-in. diameter copper cylinder. Readings were taken with an impedance bridge using AC current to prevent polarization at the contacts. Copper and wax lenses were used to represent infinitely conductive and nonconductive lenses, respectively. The resistance was first measured for each well diameter with no lenses in the reservoir. Then the conductive and nonconductive lenses were spaced symmetrically at various distances from the well and the resistance read from each lens location. The diameters of the conductive lenses were 3, 1.022 and 0.624 in., and those of the nonconductive lenses were 3, 2.25 and 1.563 in. The ratio of each resistance reading to the resistance reading with no lenses in the reservoir

Jan 1, 1965

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Jan 1, 1907