Search Documents

By T. S. Spice, H. L. Lovell, R. W. Utley

With the increased demand for lightweight aggregate, such materials have been manufactured from slags, clays, slates and, to a minor extent, the refuse of coal preparation processes. The latter source is attractive due to current interest in eliminating air pollution and improving the unsightly appearance of refuse piles as well as potential economic advantages, if a satisfactory product can be manufactured. A study has been made relating the composition of coal refuse, expressed as washability data, and the properties of a resulting aggregate. Three different refuse samples (bituminous and anthracite) were separated at gravities ranging from 1.4 to 2.96. Their chemical composition was determined. Aggregates were prepared in the laboratory from these fractions before and after ashing, at temperatures between 1250' and 1350°C. The specific gravity, expansion and compressive strength of the products were measured. The response of the refuse to bloat is related to the chemical composition of the ash to yield a glass of desirable viscosity and to the presence of a material which will form a gas in the appropriate temperature range. Carbonaceous material within the particle is a negative factor since after the glassy phase forms, oxygen cannot enter the mass thus inhibiting bloating. Precombustion of the refuse is also detrimental since it removes substances of gas-forming capability. The fraction sinking at 2.60 yielded an aggregate which had the lowest specific gravity, greatest expansion and greatest compressive strength. The purpose of this study was to seek and evaluate possible relationships between the composition of coal refuse, as expressed by washability data and factors affecting the production of a lightweight aggregate from refuse by bloating. The study was related to an intense program in the Department of Mineral Preparation at the Pennsyl- vania State University to study the possible elimination of air pollution from coal refuse fires by producing a low-carbon secondary refuse. Another phase of this program is considering possible uses of such a secondary refuse. Thus one study was to determine if a lightweight aggregate could be produced from this new refuse material and what effect the nature of refuse beneficiation would have upon the characteristics of a commercial aggregate product. It was hoped that these studies would assist in the design of a process and in establishing the optimum specific gravities at which refuse separation could be made in respect to the production of a low grade fuel from the float product and a raw material for lightweight aggregate from the sink product. The combination of producing a saleable low grade fuel and a lightweight aggregate, while at the same time minimizing disposal costs and air pollution contributions would be attractive to the coal mining industry. MECHANISM OF BLOATING Austin, Nunes and Sullivan,1 Ehlers,3 Everhart, 4 Riley7 and others, have stated that bloating is an expansion process in which two essential conditions exist simultaneously. These are: the development of a glassy phase over a relatively wide temperature range (the viscosity of this glassy phase plays a major role in the retention of the evolved gases) and the evolution of gases (SO2, SO3, CO2 and O2) from mineral decomposition in sufficient quantities at appropriate temperatures to form a cellular structure in the mass. Unless these two "type" reactions take place at the same time or in overlapping ranges of time and temperature, cellulation will not occur. In this event, the gas will escape or the melt will be too fluid to retain it; or if retained, the cells may be too large or the walls too thin for good strength in the product. The stages that occur when clays and shales are heated in an oxidizing atmosphere may be summarized as follows: 1) Drying and removal of free water to 200°C. 2) Absorbed water dehydration period (200 to 480°C). 3) Chemically-combined water dehydration period (480 to 700°C).

Jan 1, 1965

Discussion of the paper of E. C. HARDER, presented at the Pittsburgh meeting, October, 1914, and printed in Bulletin No. 94, October, 1914, pp. 2573 to 2586. I. C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va.-I have seen some of the great iron-ore deposits described in this paper. -One of these in the State of Minas Geraes appears to be an immense mountain of iron ore about 2,000 ft. in height. All over its surface from bottom to top may be seen large masses of rich iron ore, varying in weight from a few pounds to several tons, and from all that one can judge without exploitation, the quantity of available ore is certainly very large in this particular mountain. Whether it will prove a mere surface deposit or shell, like the famous Iron Mountain of Missouri, is for future exploration to determine. The question of transportation is the main factor in determining the availability for exportation of these Brazilian iron ores. There is no coal in Brazil that can be manufactured into coke without expensive previous treatment, since the best of the raw coal in the States of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, and Parana, contains about 35 per cent. of ash, of which about 6 per cent. is sulphur, and coal of this composition cannot be utilized in iron smelting without purification. When I was chief of the Brazilian Coal Commission in 1904 to 1906, I had a cargo of this coal shipped to Balk, Germany, and treated in the great coal-testing plant of the Humboldt Engineering Works, located just across the Rhine from Cologne. It was found that by crushing and washing the Brazilian coal, it yielded 33 per cent. of briquetting coal, containing only 10 to 12 per cent. of ash (of which 1 per cent. was sulphur), and 42 per cent. of slack coal, with 25 per cent. of ash and low in sulphur, so that about 33 per cent. of the Brazilian coal could be converted into coke of fair quality, as shown by the following average of three analyses, using air-dried coal, of briquets made from the Barro Branco coal bed, State of Santa Catharina: Moisture 1.56 Volatile matter 31.66 Fixed carbon 56.73 Ash : 10.05 Total 100.00 Sulphur 1.34 Phosphorus 0.003 B.t.u 13,395

Jan 4, 1915

By Edgar Stansfield

ONE of the most striking features of the coal series passing from peat through brown coal, lignite, etc., up to anthracite is the gradual reduction of moisture content with the increased coalification of the original plant material. Thus drained peat from a bog may contain 90 per cent water, brown coal contain 50 per cent, lignite 30 per cent, while a bituminous coal may contain only 1 per cent moisture. Moisture, therefore, is one of the important factors to be considered in coal classification, especially with the lower rank coals. With bituminous and higher rank coals the moisture content is less satisfactory for classification; it may even pass a minimum value and then increase with increasing rank to anthracite and superanthracite. Coal in an undisturbed seam contains moisture which is an integral part of the coal, but it may also be wet with free, underground water percolating through the seam. Only the former must be considered in evaluating the moisture content of the coal for classification purposes; this will be called the "true moisture" of the coal. When the seam is mined and sampled the sample taken may show the true moisture; on the contrary, it may contain in addition free mine water or, especially in dry, well ventilated mines, it may contain less than the true moisture. Coal contains unstable organic compounds which may decompose, with the production of moisture, when the coal is exposed to air at ordinary temperatures, or is heated with or without exposure to air. The potential moisture of a coal therefore is higher than its actual moisture. The lower the rank of the coal, the greater its instability, as a rule, and the greater the care necessary to avoid oxidation or decomposition in any investigation of moisture content. The majority of coal workers have preferred, on account of the difficulty in evaluating the true moisture of a coal, and for other reasons, to classify coals by analyses calculated to the dry-coal basis. A number of workers familiar with lower rank coals have recently insisted that the classification of such coals can be satisfactory only if analyses on the moist-coal basis are employed. The moisture-holding capacity of coal is therefore intimately connected with coal classification, and in this paper a procedure is outlined for determining the true moisture of a coal.

Jan 1, 1932

By R. Clare Coffin

The production of oil in the Rocky Mountain district, including southeastern New Mexico, increased from 33,048,630 bbl. in 1930 to 34,325,163 bbl. in 1931. This increase was due to production in New Mexico, which exceeded the 1930 figure by approximately 5,000,000 barrels. Total production by fields is given in Table 1. Exploration during 1931 resulted in the discovery of a new oil-producing horizon in the Big Muddy field in Natrona County, Wyoming, and ' the discovery of a new gas pool in the Powder Wash structure, Moffat County, northwestern Colorado. Gas was discovered also in the Frontier sands of the Bunker Hill dome, Carbon County, Wyoming, but no test has yet been made by which to determine the significance of this discovery. All other exploration which resulted in increasing the known reserves of oil and gas in the district was confined to drilling in partly outlined fields where known limits of production were extended. During the year two major gas pipe lines were completed in western Montana, and one in southwestern New Mexico was extended into Arizona. One new project involving the marketing of natural gas from Wyoming fields included the conversion of an existing oil line to a gas line to serve towns in southeastern Wyoming and western Nebraska. Colorado The decline of 132,501 bbl. in the production of oil in the Colorado fields during 1931 from the figure of 1930 is due to the natural decline of existing wells, partly offset by the increased production in the Greasewood area. New exploration was limited largely to northeastern Colorado, where attempts were made to find oil in areas adjacent to the Grease-wood field. Powder Wash, Moffat County.—The Ohio Oil Co. is to be credited with the discovery of a gas field in the Power Wash structure in Moffat County, Colorado. The initial well drilled in sec. 5-11-97 encountered a sand at a depth of 2152 ft. which produced 34,188,000 cu. ft. of gas on an open-flow test. The rock pressure was reported as 630 Ib.

Jan 1, 1932

By F. C. Greene

The oil and gas industry in Missouri in 1934 continued along the same lines that have marked the previous years. One new gas pool has been opened, others have been extended and in one oil pool a 25-bbl. well was completed. Missouri has no laws or regulations relating to drilling or the filing of well logs and the Geological Survey depends on its own scouting activities to obtain information. The data herein have been taken largely from a paper by the author recently published in the 58th Biennial Report of the State Geologist of Missouri. That report is available on application to H. A. Buehler, State Geologist, Rolla, Missouri, accompanied by ten cents in stamps, the amount of the postage. The preliminary figures, subject to revision, indicate that before the end of December, 1932, there were 2495 completions, of which 320 were oil wells, 1139 were gas wells and 1036 were dry. Over half of the oil wells were drilled in the Richards-Stotesbury area of Vernon County and were pumped for only a short period of time. During the period 1933-34 there were 201 completions, of which 10 were oil wells with an initial daily capacity of 100 bbl., 90 were gas wells, with an open flow of 26,578,256 cu. ft., and 101 were dry. The most active areas in drilling for gas in 1934 were the Marota area, sec. 17, T.49N., R.32W., Jackson County, the Grandview area in T.47N., R.33W., Jackson County, and the Plattsburg area in Clinton County. The Knoche oil pool in sec. 16, T.46N., R.33W., Cass County, was the scene of the only important oil development. In the Marota pool nine wells were completed to the Squirrel sand, with a combined open flow of about 5,000,000 cu. ft. The pool is on a small symmetrical dome with a closure of at least 30 ft. The average depth of the wells is 450 ft. The Squirrel sand (Upper Cherokee, Pennsylvanian) had a thickness of 94 ft. in a near-by dry hole, but only the upper 30 or 40 ft. is drilled in the producing wells. The largest well

Jan 1, 1935

By H. E. Crum, W. E. Hubbard

This review covers the northern 32 counties of the Texas Panhandle, an area 180 miles square. The westerly three-fourths of the district lies wholly within that great area known as the Llano Estacado or "staked plains." Six of the counties produce oil and gas and three produce gas alone. All of the production is associated with the Amarillo arch, a huge anticline superimposed upon a buried mountain range which is undoubtedly a continuation of the Wichitas of southwestern Oklahoma. Oil Production The production of the Texas Panhandle up to Jan. 1,1930, was slightly over 157 million barrels, 90 per cent. of which came from Hutchinson and Gray counties. About 33,000,000 bbl. was produced during 1930. Though this was about 9 per cent. above the 1929 production, it was over 8,000,000 bbl. less than was produced during the peak year, 1928. The present daily production is slightly over 40,000 bbl., which is the allowable production under state-wide proration. The assumed potential for the purpose of proration is 124,500 bbl. and the actual capacity of the wells probably would be in the neighborhood of 100,000 barrels. The total initial production of the oil wells completed in 1930 was 157,289 bbl. from 308 wells, or 511 bbl. per well, as compared to a 734-bbl. average from the 350 oil wells drilled during the preceding year. The completions in Gray County numbered 232, with an average initial of 614 barrels. Completions During 1930, 526 wells were completed in the Panhandle as compared to a total of 503 during 1929. Of the year's completions, 308 were oil wells, 169 produced gas and 49 were dry holes. Of the 3027 wells drilled in the Panhandle to date, 2780 have produced oil, gas or both, making the ratio of dry holes to producers about 1:11.3. Ignoring the 63 dry holes drilled in nonproductive counties, the ratio becomes 184:2780 or 1:15.1 which is slightly less favorable than that which obtained at the end of 1929.

Jan 1, 1931

By Frederic H. Lahee

After abandoning two dry holes, on the Mrs. Daisy Bradford land, C. M. Joiner finally completed his No. 3 on Sept. 8, 1930, at a total depth of 3592 ft. This well is 735 miles somewhat north of west of the town of Henderson, in Rusk County. Between Oct. 2 and Oct. 6, this well made numerous heads which indicated that it would produce about 300 bbl. daily. By Nov. 27, two dry holes,' completed near the Joiner well, taken in conjunction with the small production from this well, served to dampen any enthusiasm among those who hoped for a major pool; but by December 18 three other producers had been completed. On Dec. 28, 1930, E. W. Bateman's Lois Della Crim No. 1 drilled itself in with an estimated daily yield of between 10,000 and 15,000 bbl. from a depth of 3650 ft. This well, 10 miles north of the Joiner well, also in Rusk County, initiated the leasing campaign that led to the later orgy of drilling. On Jan. 25, 1931, Moncrief, Farrell and others completed their J. K. Lathrop 1 as another big producer, 7 miles east of Gladewater in Gregg County and 14 miles N. 20" E. from the Bateman Crim well. The Lathrop well, 3574 ft. deep, flowed 320 bbl. in 1 hr. through a ½in. choke. The first well completed in Smith County was Cook No. 1, drilled by Guy Lewis et al. in the James Jordan Survey, 4.7 miles west of the Joiner discovery well. On Mar. 30, 1931, it flowed 137 bbl. in 33 min, through a ¾-in. choke. The top of the pay sand was found at 3672 ft. Finally, in Upshur County, on May 5, the Mudge Oil Co. et al. completed the Richardson No. 1, which flowed 274 bbl. through a 4 2/64-in. choke in 2 hr. This well is 4 miles northwest of the Lathrop producer. Development It is unnecessary to give a lengthy description of the rapid development of the area discovered in these five far-separated wells, or to discuss the speculations offered as to whether there were several pools or only one.

Jan 1, 1932

By W. A. Ver Wiebe, E. G. Dahlgren

The year 1937 must be considered the most eventful one ever experienced in the development of oil and gas activity. Out of a total of 57 new pools discovered, 18 are apportioned to eastern Kansas and 39 to western Kansas. (For statistical purposes Kansas is divided along the meridian that separates ranges 3 E. and 4 E.) In addition to numerous longdistance extensions of the large Hugoton gas field of southwestern Kansas, two other gas pools were discovered in the area lying west of range 3 E. The 37 new oil pools in that area are to be found in 13 different counties, among which Rice heads the list with a total of seven oil pools and one gas pool. Ellis and Barton Counties both added six new oil pools, while Russell County follows in fourth place with four. Among eastern counties Butler heads the list with four new pools. Cowley arid Chautauqua each accounted for three new discoveries. The number of wells necessary to accomplish this result totals 2657, of which 1915 are oil wells and 128 gas wells. The initial production of the oil wells amounted to 2½ million barrels. Although most of the wells were drilled in proven territory, there was a good deal of wildcatting. The fact that 614 dry holes were completed emphasizes the ever-present risk attendant upon the efforts of pioneers. Some of the more venturesome spirits reached out to the counties farthest west in the state. An indication of the feverish excitement reached at times is recorded in the fact that no less than 600 drilling operations were in progress during one week in May, or the fact that over 100 new locations were staked during the second week in July. During one week in May, 65 successful oil wells were completed for an initial production of 68,000 barrels. Many drilling obligations came due during the year, and this perhaps accounts for the fact that one company had as many as 59 active operations at one time during September. Another evidence of great interest in oil possibilities in Kansas is furnished by the record of sales of oil properties, which in one case reached the high figure of about $3000 per acre.

Jan 1, 1938

By K. C. Gilbart, Edgar Stansfield

One of the most striking features of the coal series passing from peat through brown coal, lignite, etc., up to anthracite is the gradual reduction of moisture content with the increased coalification of the original plant material. Thus drained peat from a bog may contain 90 per cent water, brown coal contain 50 per cent, lignite 30 per cent, while a bituminous coal may contain only 1 per cent moisture. Moisture, therefore, is one of the important factors to be considered in coal classification, especially with the lower rank coals. With bituminous and higher rank coals the moisture content is less satisfactory for classification; it may even pass a minimum value and then increase with increasing rank to anthracite and superanthracite. Coal in an undisturbed seam contains moisture which is an integral part of the coal, but it may also be wet with free, underground water percolating through the seam. Only the former must be considered in evaluating the moisture content of the coal for classification purposes; this will be called the "true moisture" of the coal. When the seam is mined and sampled the sample taken may show the true moisture; on the contrary, it may contain in addition free mine water or, especially in dry, well ventilated mines, it may contain less than the true moisture. Coal contains unstable organic compounds which may decompose, with the production of moisture, when the coal is exposed to air at ordinary temperatures, or is heated with or without exposure to air. The potential moisture of a coal therefore is higher than its actual moisture. The lower the rank of the coal, the greater its instability, as a rule, and the greater the care necessary to avoid oxidation or decomposition in any investigation of moisture content. The majority of coal workers have preferred, on account of the difficulty in evaluating the true moisture of a coal, and for other reasons, to classify coals by analyses calculated to the dry-coal basis. A number of workers familiar with lower rank coals have recently insisted that the classification of such coals can be satisfactory only if analyses on the moist-coal basis are employed. The moisture-holding capacity of coal is therefore intimately connected with coal classification, and in this paper a procedure is outlined for determining the true moisture of a coal,

Jan 1, 1932

By Prince Lazarovich Hrebilianovich

I was asked by the chairman of one of the Sessions on Employment Problems to talk about the viewpoint of the foreign workingman. I am not a workingman. I have never done what a work-hand might call an honest day's labor; that is, I have never been in a factory or manufacturing plant or in a mine, though in truth, hard work and I are well acquainted. I was a soldier, am an engineer, have long been actively interested in the most important waterway construction in the near East, have served politics and diplomacy, written books and lectured at universities. My knowledge of the foreign workingman in this country comes from the fact that my own compatriots here at various times came to me and appealed for advice and help, and last year I was asked by the employment manager of a corporation to undertake a welfare job at one of their plants. I went out, saw the plant, talked with the superintendent and outlined certain of my ideas which he personally heartily approved, but which did not find favor with those higher up. I approach the subject of the foreign workman's point of view with the understanding that the industrial employer's effort is for the maximum of efficiency. I am conversant with labor conditions abroad both in industry and agriculture. What I have learned of industrial conditions in America as they affect the foreign immigrant has been chiefly gathered from the cases referred to of foreign workmen who from time to time have come to me with their troubles. In the course of those investigations, in order to give whatever help or advice was possible, I have been impressed with the fact that the great United States industries evidently had not yet sufficiently recognized the value of studying the conditions of the workingman in the lands of his origin across the seas. A careful study of that which could be called the moral element in connection with its foreign labor would give industry a knowledge of the man's reason for coming, what grievances he brings with him, his hopes for a future, and the peculiar character of his capacities. The employer would thereby be enabled to meet the man, to be helpful to him, to aid him and at the same time promote industrial efficiency, inasmuch as a workman who believes that he is being dealt with humanly and squarely is contented and satisfied and will give willingly, and even with pride, the best that is in him; justice and a 'air deal is all the man wants.

Jan 1, 1918

By Leo J. Vogel, E. D. Hummer

INTRODUCTION by E. D. HUMMER An efficient refuse-disposal system is a necessary part of the modem cleaning plant. The large-scale refuse system and disposal area, engineered for the lifetime of the plant, has become more important due to the greater tonnages of refuse produced from increased quantities of mechanically mined and prepared coal. Laws and increased government regulations have affected the design and operation of disposal systems. THE EFFECT OF MINE AND PLANT OPERATION Refuse disposal starts at the mining face. The mining system, the type of roof support, the machinery used, and the degree of discipline at the face contributes to the amount and type of refuse that must be removed through the disposal system. Economies gained through modification of the mining system or mining machinery may be partially offset by increased dilution of the mined coal with impurities from associated rock formations. In some cases the change in the mining system and equipment has reduced the dilution. In all cases the ratio of impurities that must be removed from the raw-coal feed to the plant not only affects the maintenance and operating costs of the plant, but greatly affects the design of the refuse disposal system. The design of a mine and plant should include the location and the estimated capacity of the disposal areas for the life of the property or plant. Complete evaluation of the disposal system and an estimate of its annual cost of operation over the life of the property or plant should be incorporated in the plant and mine evaluation. Plant design should be as simple as possible, consistent with the efficient production of clean coal. Material transfer points, crushing, screening and pumping operations should be kept to a minimum to reduce degradation and the subsequent increased difficulty and cost of refuse removal. The maintenance of good process control by operating management will result in a minimum of misplaced material in both refuse and clean coal. Reduction of misplaced float material in the plant refuse is an important factor in preventing combustion in the refuse storage pile. THE REFUSE DISPOSAL AREA Combustion in refuse piles occurs when air enters the pile in sufficient quantity to support oxidation. At certain rates of air in-filtration, the heat produced by the oxidation process is not dissipated and temperature rises.

Jan 1, 1968

By R. W. Raymond

IX the death of William H. Scranton, which occurred at Oxford, N. J., June 19, 1889, the Institute has been called once more to mourn the loss of a name from the fast diminishing list of those who constituted its membership in the first year of its existence. But it loses more than a name—a friendly presence and an intellectual force have departed ; a fruitful life has been cut short. Mr. Scranton was born in Belvidere, N. J., on the 13th of January, 1840. He was the eldest son of Colonel George W. Scranton, the

Jan 1, 1890

By J. H. Nead

The experiments herein described were undertaken with a view to investigating thoroughly the influence of carbon on the tensile and impact physical properties of carbon steel. The original comprehensive plan included investigation of a series of steels with varying carbon contents over a wide range of heat treatments. These were to be studied as to their static tensile qualities, and also their resistance to shock as measured by the Charpy impact bending test. A thorough metallographic examination was likewise included in the schedule. The Charpy tests and the metallographic examination have not been completed to date, and are accordingly withheld for another report. All heat treatments, however, have been made, and the static tensile tests have been completed. A description of the procedure of the experiment and the results thus far obtained are therefore reported herein. Conclusions No attempt is made to draw general conclusions from these experiments, but the curves and the data are submitted as being of general importance and wide applicability. Composition of Materials An attempt was made to secure steels increasing in carbon by increments of 0.1 per cent. from 0.1 per cent. up to 0.8 per cent., and from that composition to 1.6 per cent. by increments of 0.2 per cent. Actually, however, steels of the composition given in Table I were procured, and as the carbon contents were arranged sufficiently well so that satisfactory curves could be drawn showing the relation between carbon content and other properties, these steels were used in the experiments.

Jan 1, 1916

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from the Circular to Authors. The field is the unit in this tabulation. In cases of fields extending across State boundaries, such as Rodessa, it is suggested that each State author treat the section of the field in his State as a unit, and by a footnote indicate that the field extends into an adjacent State. Each space in Table 1 may represent one of four possibilities; either it is not applicable to the particular field, or the proper entry is not determinable, or the proper entry may be determinable but is not determinable from data available to the author, or the proper entry is determinable. When spaces are not applicable, leave blank; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable from data available to the author, please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author, make such entries. y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. The entry of an 0 is a positive declaration, and an important declaration where it is in order. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entry need not be hedged to such extent as when the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. It is thought that the nearest whole numbers are sufficiently accurate for our purposes except as to percentage of sulphur in oil. If an author desires to report any other figures to tenths, he may do so. The quantity of gas produced should include, where possible, gas sold or otherwise marketed, and gas blown into the air, burned as flares or otherwise wasted. Segregation of these figures would be interesting if the authors can make such segregation. In any event, the figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir. Under the columns on "Depth," the average depth to the top of the productive zones and to the bottom of the productive wells, when subtracted, should give the approximate thickness of the productive zone. For fields where this is not true

Jan 1, 1940

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from the Circular to Authors. The field is the unit in this tabulation. In cases of fields extending across State boundaries, such as Rodessa, it is suggested that each State author treat the section of the field in his State as a unit, and by a footnote indicate that the field extends into an adjacent State. Each space in Table 1 may represent one of four possibilities; either it is not applicable to the particular field, or the proper entry is not determinable, or the proper entry may be determinable but is not determinable from data available to the author, or the proper entry is determinable. When spaces are not applicable, leave blank; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable from data available to the author, please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author, make such entries. y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. The entry of an 0 is a positive declaration, and an important declaration where it is in order. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entry need not be hedged to such extent as when the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. It is thought that the nearest whole numbers are sufficiently accurate for our purposes except as to percentage of sulphur in oil. If an author desires to report any other figures to tenths, he may do so. The quantity of gas produced should include, where possible, gas sold or otherwise marketed, and gas blown into the air, burned as flares or otherwise wasted. Segregation of these figures would be interesting if the authors can make such segregation. In any event, the figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir. Under the columns on "Depth," the average depth to the top of the productive zones and to the bottom of the productive wells, when subtracted, should give the approximate thickness of the productive zone. For fields where this is not true

Jan 1, 1940

By H. H. Hasler

THE mining and removal of coal from two or more beds, either simultaneously or consecutively, in vertically adjacent areas have always been matters of concern to mine operators from both operating and recovery points of view. However, with the progressive introduction and use of electrical and mechanical facilities, such problems assume even greater proportions. In this paper typical cases occuring in Cambia County, Pa., are given and procedures whereby such problems may be .greatly reduced, if not entirely eliminated, are suggested. Throughout a considerable portion of the Central Pennsylvania bituminous coal region, particularly in Cambria County (Fig. I), the portion of the region to which references in this paper are made, large areas are encountered where two or more beds of coal occur and have been mined extensively since the earliest days of mining in the county. Generally, operations were commenced in one bed of coal on a property, following which, as conditions appeared to warrant, operations were commenced in another bed or beds on the same property, in some instances by the same operator. Operating results by no means have been uniformly successful, as the following review of some typical cases indicates, partly because of lack of experience in earlier cases and in certain later cases to disregard for the experiences of earlier operators. It is suggested that repetitions of such failures may be reduced largely, if not eliminated entirely, by adherence to a few basic principles founded upon past experiences. Geology and Stratigraphy The geology, stratigraphy, and relief of almost all of Cambria County have been studied and reported at length by the U. S. Geological Survey in its Johnstown, Ebensburg and Barnesboro-Patton Folios and other publications, by the Pennsylvania Geological Survey and by various individuals. All exposed rocks occurring within the boundaries of the county are of sedimentary origin, consisting of alternate beds of sandstone, slate, shale, fireclay, coal, limestone, etc., and all have been classified by the U. S. Geological Survey as extending from the upper strata of the Catskill formation, Devonian system, to and including, in a few hilltop areas, the lower strata of the Monongahela formation, Carboniferous system. Included within that range is the Allegheny formation, Pennsylvania series, which embraces all of the commercially important beds of coal that occur in the county, viz., the A, or Brookville, to the E, or Upper Freeport, both inclusive, shown in Fig. 2. The measures are traversed by a series of anticlines and synclines, extending in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction, which form broad, gently sloping basins (flat to 15 pct pitch, exceptionally to 25 pct). However, the topography of the surface is such that long lines of outcrops of all beds of coal overlying bed B, and to a limited extent bed B also, occur over large areas, a factor which contributed to the early and extensive development of mining activities in the county. Earliest mining developments of commercial importance were made in B, C', D, and E beds of coal, and it is in these beds that the principal mining operations are being conducted. To a limited extent, mining operations also have been conducted in local areas in the A, B rider and C beds. Coal beds being mined today range in thickness from approximately 28 to 60 in. Intervals between the respective beds of coal are variable but conform somewhat to the following general averages: A to B, 60 to 100 ft.; B to C, 50 ft.; C to C', 70 ft.; C' to D, 45 ft.; and D to E, 45 ft. The following are typical mining cases obserced over a period of years in various parts of the county.

Jan 1, 1952

By J. S. Westwater

The Mather mine of The Negaunee Mine Co. embraces nearly all of Sections 1 and 2, T47N, R27W, within the limits of the cities of Negaunee and Ishpeming on the Marquette iron range of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Operations of the Negaunee Mine Co., the stock of which is jointly owned by Bethlehem Steel Co. and The Cleve-land-Cliffs Iron Co., are under the direction of the latter company. The opening of the Mather mine was described by C. W. Al1en.† Mather " A " shaft was completed to an initial depth of 2352 ft in early 1943. The shaft capacity of over one million tons yearly is in prospect of being realized by orderly development and mining, and sinking of the second or "B" shaft then started in accordance with previous planning. Mather "B," also a vertical shaft, was designed as a twin to Mather "A" shaft and the sinking technique developed at Mather "A" was utilized in "B" shaft operation. Shaft Sinking General Plan An average depth of 16 ft of sand overburden at the shaft site was cleared away by bulldozer, and the shaft approximately 15 by 20 ft in rock opening put down to an initial depth of 87 ft. Mucking of the broken rock to this depth was accomplished by an Insley excavator equipped with a 1/2 yard ca-pacity Owens clamshell bucket. Addition of 200 lb weight to each lip of the clam bucket provided adequate "bite" to dig the broken diorite and jasper rock. Temporary heavy wood bearers were placed across the shaft mouth to support the steel shaft sets which were hung in this initial 87 ft depth, aligned accurately and concreted in place from the lowest set upwards. The permanent steel headframe foundations and three service tunnel openings to the shaft were also concreted in the upper section to the shaft collar. A temporary wood headframe was then erected over the shaft mouth, and initial hoisting machinery assembled consisting of a Lake Shore 12 ft diam single drum grooved for a 1 3/8 in. rope and powered by two 400 hp motors to attain hoisting speed of 1100 fpm. Compressed air was obtained from a Nordberg 2 stage tandem horizontal type with a capacity of 1500 cfm. An enclosed landing platform at the shaft collar was equipped with a rotary dump and pocket for discharge of the rock into a Euclid 15 ton truck. On completing assembly of this equipment and installation of a special cage in the shaft, sinking was resumed on a three shift, six days per week

Jan 1, 1950

By Michael Hoch, Walter C. Wyder

The isothermul section of the Nb-Ti-Zr-O system at 1500°C was investigated using X-ray dzffraction and metallographic techniques. UP to 66.7 at. pct 0, the system contains nine four-phase regions. Tsopleths at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 55 at. pct 0 weye constructed. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the general shape of the quaternary equilibrium phase diagram of niobium, titanium, zirconium, and oxygen at 1500°C. The system was truncated at 66.7 at. pct. O., PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS The Ti-Zr-O system was investigated in this laboratory.' The binary systems of interest have been compiled and discussed by anssen2 and Levin, McMurdie, and Ha11. Elliott4 has determined the Nb-O system by metallographic and X-ray diffraction techniques. He shows the existence of three oxides, namely NbO, NbO2, and Nb2O5. At 1500°C the solubility of oxygen in niobium is about 4 at. pct. No solid solubility region is shown for either NbO or NbO2. EQUIPMENT The same equipment as that for the study of the Ti-Zr-O system was used. The X-ray diffraction patterns were analyzed with the help of the ASTM card set5 and NBS circulars.6 MATERIALS The niobium powder (99 pct pure), the titanium powder (99.6 pct pure), the niobium pentoxide, and the zirconium dioxide used in this study were purchased from the Fairmount Chemical Co., Newark, N.J. The zirconium powder (99.4 pct pure) was obtained from the Charles Hardy Co., Inc., N.Y. Reagent-grade titanium dioxide was purchased from the Matheson Co., Inc., Norwood, Ohio. The oxides were dried in air at 700°C for 24 hr before use. Though the materials used were not "hyper-pure," the impurities present do not affect the results (lattice parameters, phase boundaries), within the experimental accuracy. PROCEDURE Samples of the desired compositions were made up, in mole pct, from the materials listed above. In some cases the intermediate binary compounds, such as NbO and TiZrO4 were prepared beforehand and used in the preparation of the samples. This technique enabled equilibrium to be reached from two sides. The components of each sample were mechanically mixed in a mortar and pestle and pressed into 3/16-in. diam pellets. The pressures used in compacting were of the order of 50 to 100 x 103 psi. Sintering was accomplished by heating the samples in a tungsten crucible (3/4-in. high, %-in. diam, 1/8-in. wall, lid with XB-in. hole). The pellets were separated from each other and from the crucible by means of small spiral coils of tungsten wire placed between the stacked pellets and on the bottom of the crucible. The sintering time was from 4 to 12 hr at 1500°C under a vacuum of 6 x 101-5 to 1 x 10-6 mm of Hg. All samples were reground after the first or second heating repressed, and reheated. In most cases: equilibrium was obtained after the first heating, as the X-ray diffraction pictures after each heating remained unchanged. Quenching of the samples from 1500°C was at first only possible by allowing the crucible and its contents to lose heat by radiation. The temperature dropped from 1500° to 900°c in approximately 1 1/2 min, which was considered adequate when compared to the times used by other investigators to reach equilibrium in the temperature range of 1000°c and lower. Later, a new technique for faster quenching of the samples was cleveloped. This technique involved the removal of the samples from the crucible, whereupon they were quenched by coming in contact with the water-cooled copper base of the furnace. This manipulation was performed without breaking the vacuum. The sample pellets were placed on a tungsten wire rack inside the crucible. The wire rack passed through the hole in the crucible lid, where it was connected to a small nonmagnetic chain. The chain was fed to the side of the furnace by means of a brass rack which fitted between the body and lid of the furnace. Suspended at the end of the chain, near the furnace wall, were three magnetic washers. With the use of a strong

Jan 1, 1962

US 4,134,944-Production of iron oxide ore pellets of uniform size and excellent strength. Small pieces of ore are rolled into nuclei in a first pellet-rolling circuit in the presence of a binder, the nuclei sized and hardened by sintering or cold-bonding of the binder, the nuclei rolled in additional ore to form product pellets, the pellets sized, the suitable size fraction taken as product, and undersize pellets returned to the rolling operation. P. A. Ilmoni and R. Drugge, assigned to Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara AB Jan 16, 1979. 5 pp. (264-37) Filed- 5-25-77 (800,278) Priority: Sweden, 6-2-76 (76/06,¬241). Same British 1,553,763, dated Oct 10, 1979. US 4,145,210-In the induration of pellets of iron oxide ore or iron works dust or sludge, a charge of dried pellets and 2-20% by weight of coke having a size range of from 5 to 30 mm, a drum index of more than 70, a reactivity index of less than 50, and a tumbler index of more than 50 is charged into a rotary kiln The charge is heated and passed through the rotating kiln to indurate the dried pellets without burning the coke Powder-coated coke is recovered from the kiln for reuse. Ring formation in the kiln is substantially prevented. K. Kato and K Kadota, assigned to Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd, and Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. Mar 20, 1979 10 pp (75-3) Filed- 2-22-77 (770,947) Priority: Japan, 2-24-76 (51/19,754) US 4,145,211-Method of cooling hot metallized iron oxide ore agglomerates from a direct reduction furnace Agglomer¬ates ranging from 3/a in to 41/2 in in cross-section and at a temperature of 1000-2000°F are formed into a moving bed while at rest relative to each other Air at ambient tempera¬ture is passed through the bed at a velocity sufficient to cool the agglomerates rapidly to a temperature no greater than about 500°F without substantial reoxidation of the metal in the agglomerates and by using air as the sole cooling gas. C A Czako, A Berzins, and M J Greaves, assigned to Arthur G McKee & Co Mar. 20, 1979 15 pp. (75-34) Filed: 7-18-77 (816,467)

Jan 1, 1980

By E. S. Wheeler

The rapid increase in the use of monel metal and malleable nickel in the form of sheet, rod and tube has resulted in a similar increase in the demand for these metals in the form of castings. These castings range in size from small valves and pipe fittings weighing a few ounces to large centrifugal pumps, gate valves and marine propellers, some of the last weighing as much as 24,000 lb. A group of such castings is shown in Fig. 1. A large nickel agitator is shown in Fig. 2. Monel metal castings are widely used in accessories for steam power plants and in a variety of chemical plant equipment where the corrosion resistance, high strength and toughness characteristic of this metal render it particularly valuable. Nickel castings find extensive use in the construction of corrosion-resistant apparatus, and are often used in conjunction with wrought nickel sheet and tube in the fabrication of equipment for handling a variety of chemical and food products, particularly dairy products. In response to this demand for castings, numerous foundries have undertaken the production of castings of these metals and have met with varying degrees of success. The successful production of castings of monel metal and nickel requires careful attention to molding practice, proper melting equipment

Jan 1, 1930