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By Jackson R. Pellett

INTRODUCTION The Friedensville mine is situated in Upper Saucon Township, Le- high County, Pennsylvania, in the southern central part of the Allentown quadrangle of the United States Geological Survey, approximately 5 miles southeast of the City of Allentown and 4 miles south of the City of Bethlehem. Zinc was first discovered in the Friedensville area early in the 19th century and several mines were operating during the latter part of the century. Zinc oxide was produced in 1853 and zinc metal in 1859. All mining in the area ceased in 1893 chiefly because of an unfavorable economic situation caused by a severe ground water problem and competition from the higher grade ores in New Jersey. Property acquisition by the New Jersey Zinc Company began in 1899 and periodic exploratory drilling was carried on until 1940 when sufficient reserves were proved for development of a mine. Shaft sinking was undertaken in 1947 and, due to severe hydrologic conditions, was not completed until 1952. Production began in 1958 and today the mine is producing about 64,000 tons of zinc concentrate per annum. The concentrates are trucked to the Company's smelter at Palmerton, Pennsylvania, approximately 30 miles north of Friedensville. The mine also produces from its mill tailings industrial and agricultural grades of limestone for commercial markets.

Jan 1, 1970

By Nelson Severinghaus

The Rock Chapel plant of Consolidated Quarries Corporation (Fig. 1) is three miles northeast of Lithonia, DeKalb County, Georgia. It was opened about eight years ago for crushed stone aggregate. This paper reviews a number of experiments that have been tried in drilling and blasting, and gives the practice in use today. It also presents several theories on the action of explosives in this type of blasting. The rock worked is a bare dome of granite gneiss about 3000 ft. in diameter, rising 150 ft. above the surrounding ground (Fig. 2). It is uniform in composition and quality, without seams, and extends downward to unknown depth below the quarry floor. A water well drilled 600 ft. remained in the same rock. The principal difficulty encountered in blasting is an easy split, which tends to break down the rock in large blocks.

Jan 1, 1938

By Nelson Severinghaus

The Rock Chapel plant of Consolidated Quarries Corporation (Fig. 1) is three miles northeast of Lithonia, DeKalb County, Georgia. It was opened about eight years ago for crushed stone aggregate. This paper reviews a number of experiments that have been tried in drilling and blasting, and gives the practice in use today. It also presents several theories on the action of explosives in this type of blasting. The rock worked is a bare dome of granite gneiss about 3000 ft. in diameter, rising 150 ft. above the surrounding ground (Fig. 2). It is uniform in composition and quality, without seams, and extends downward to unknown depth below the quarry floor. A water well drilled 600 ft. remained in the same rock. The principal difficulty encountered in blasting is an easy split, which tends to break down the rock in large blocks.

Jan 1, 1938

By Paul Torrey

THE Northwestern Pennsylvania Oil Producers Association and the United States Geological Survey have cooperated in conducting a pre-liminary study of the character of the flood waters, the relationship of changes in concentration of the salts dissolved in these waters to ultimate flood-oil production, and the original association of oil and water in the Bradford field. Bradford has long been recognized as a dry-sand field. As a matter of fact, there had been little information available on the oil-field waters of northern Pennsylvania until this investigation was undertaken. THE BRADFORD SAND Practically all of the oil produced in the Bradford field comes from one horizon, generally known as the Third, or Bradford, sand. Originally, it was believed that the Bradford sand was equivalent to the Third sand of Venango County, Pennsylvania and the name "Third" unfortunately still persists, although shortly after the discovery of the Bradford pool Carll1 determined that there was a stratigraphic interval of approximately ;000 ft. between the two horizons. The Bradford sand, although varying considerably in thickness and lithology within local areas, is persistent throughout the field. It is of marine origin and, upon both paleontologi-cal and stratigraphic evidence, is regarded as a basal member of the Chemung formation.

Jan 1, 1927

By Ronald F. Ayers

The basic research for this study was conducted by Battelle's Columbus Laboratories in 1974. The high-sulfur content of coal threatens to erode its competitive position in the future. The impact of sulfur removal on final costs of eastern interior coal lies at the very heart of this market analysis. An extensive market survey was conducted that considered both traditional coal markets as well as anticipated future markets. Competition for coal from this province considers low-sulfur Western coal, nu- clear power, international oil and coal trade, as well as Appalachian coal producers. Based on projections of future energy consumption under several scenarios, a comprehensive market forecast for eastern interior coal was made to 2040. The study upon which this paper is based was completed by Battelle's Columbus Laboratories for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1974. It is but part of an overall effort by the Corps to evaluate the costs and benefits to the nation of waterway improvements. This study is primarily concerned with future coal markets for production from those counties near the Wabash River in the heart of the Eastern Interior Province. An objective here is to consider a most pessimistic energy (and hence, coal) demand for planning purposes.

Jan 1, 1978

By Ellis Clark

DURING the winter of 1877-78 the Glendon Iron Company, by the advice of the superintendent, Mr. Frank Firmstone, decided to make the experiment of exploding a heavy blast of gunpowder in their limestone quarry at Cedar Hill, Palmer Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania. The amount of limestone used in the five furnaces of the company is about 60,000 tons per annum, and it was thought that with successful results; this entire amount or more would be thrown down at a single operation, disintegrating the mass to a greater or less extent, and obviating the necessity of blasting and boring the rock from the face of the cliff, both of which operations are slow, and therefore, costly. The rock at the quarry is Auroral limestone, or No. 2 of the old Survey. No fossils have ever been found in the quarry, nor in the immediate vicinity. The nature of the rock varies considerably in

Jan 1, 1879

By Ellis Clark

During the winter of 1877-78 the Glendon Iron Company, by the advice of the superintendent, Mr. Frank Firmstone, decided to make the experiment of exploding a heavy blast of gunpowder in their limestone quarry at Cedar Hill, Palmer Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania. The amount of limestone used in the five furnaces of the company is about 60,000 tons per annum, and it was thought that with successful results? this entire amount or more would be thrown down at a single operation, disintegrating the mass to a greater or less extent, and obviating the necessity of blasting and boring the rock from the face of the cliff, both of which operations are slow, and therefore, costly. The rock at the quarry is Auroral limestoue, or No. 2 of the old Survey. No fossils have ever been found in the quarry, nor in the immediate vicinity. The nature of the rock varies considerably in

Jan 1, 1879

By H. M. Chance

The great outspread of the coal measures over portions of thirtyone of the sixty-seven counties of Pennsylvania, and the large number of workable seamy comprising the coal series,—together with some workable seams lately shown to belong to the (so-called) barren measures,—-create the impression that these fields contain a practically inexhaustible supply of fucl, and those who have estimated or attempted to estimate their available tonnage have generally promulgated this view. But the actual total contents of this coal-field is of no importance to us at present; calculations including all seams, whether thick enough to mine or not, whether pure enough to furnish a marketable fuel or not, whether accessible at reasonable depth or not, are of no practical value. As coal producers, we are interested not in the total contents, but in the total amount of easily accessible coal of good quality contained in beds thick enough for remunerative mining. The estimates contained in this payer refer exclusively to workable and accessible coal of commercial value,—we may call it available" coal. I am not aware that any one has as yet attempted to estimate in

Jan 1, 1882

By H. M. Chance

THE great outspread of the coal measures over portions of thirty-one of the sixty-seven counties Of Pennsylvania, and the large number of workable seams comprising the coal series, together with some workable seams lately shown to belong to the (so-called) barren measures, create the impression that these fields contain a practically inexhaustible supply of fuel, and those who have estimated or attempted to estimate their available tonnage have generally promulgated this view. But the actual total contents of this coal-field is of no importance to us at present; calculations including all seams, whether thick enough to mine or not, whether pure enough to furnish a marketable fuel or not, whether accessible at reasonable depth or not, are of no practical value. As coal producers, we are interested not in the total contents, but in the total amount of easily accessible coal of good quality con-tained in beds thick enough for remunerative mining. The estimates contained in this paper refer exclusively to workable and accessible coal of commercial value, we may call it "available" coral. I am not aware, that any one has as yet attempted to estimate in

Jan 1, 1882

Graham Macfarlane, Louisville, Ky. (communication to the Secretary*):—In the paper by S. Whinery under the above caption mention is made of the occurrence of Clinton iron-ore in Kentucky and Tennessee. I believe that this is really a ferruginous limestone in what the Tennessee Geological Survey calls the Fernvale formation. In Davidson and Sumner counties, Tennessee, this occurs at about the horizon stated by Mr. Whinery. The maximum thickness of the deposit is from 10 to 12 ft., but it averages between 6 and 8 ft., lying practically horizontal. The Red River Furnace Co., under my direction, opened a mine in the Fernvale " red rock" near Goodlettsville, Tenn., several years ago. When it was first found we assumed it to be Clinton ore, but the absence of the characteristic Clinton fossiliferous structure and other evidence satisfied us that it is really limestone saturated with iron oxide. I think the very low ratio of SiO2 and Al2o3 to iron content as compared with the usual ratio in the Clinton ore is also evidence in favor of its being the Fernvale. The Tennessee Geological Survey states that at outcrops where this ore has been leached it carries about 44 per cent. of iron; under cover, from 20 to 25 per cent. of iron and from 3 to 6 per cent. of silica, the remainder being chiefly calcium carbonate. Its phosphorus content is irregular and generally rather high for a foundry-iron mixture. Since it is more than self-fluxing, we have at times operated with a mixture of brown hematite and red ore with no limestone.

Jan 1, 1913

By N. W. Lord

There hare been made at one or two places in Ohio, during the last year or two, some irons of rather unusual phosphorus-percentages. The first of these which I had occasion to examine came from Moxahala Furnace, in Perry county. The furnace was built originally to smelt an ore found in large deposits near its furnace in the " black band" horizon. The deposit was easily exposed by simple stripping;" it was from six to eight feet thick, being a blne carbonate ore, very free from silica. This ore yielded, on analysis, from two to 3 per cent. of phosphorus, when carefully sampled. The furnace company had trusted entirely to old analyses made on "outcrop" ore, well weathered, and received all other results with indifference. The result of the first run of the furnace was an iron in large whitish-gray crystals, and so brittle that it could be pulverized in a mortar. This iron contained 4.90 per cent. phosphorus. A limited quantity only was made, which was gradually disposed of as a great ('softener" to foundries. The Moxahala Furnace was subsequently run on Lake Superior ore mainly. The second case of such iron occurred last summer at Mt. Vernon Furnace. A deposit of what was locally known as "Hallelujah" ore, was opened for the furnace. This ore was a blue carbonate, similar to the first-described. The iron made was pure tin-white in color, and showed large crystals without a trace of the grain of ordinary pig-iron. It was sopposed at the furnace to be spiegeleisen, and was sent to me to be

Jan 1, 1884

By William P. Blake

The attention of travellers, upon the desert bordering the Great Colorado of the West, is often arrested by broad stretches of pebble-covered plains, or mesas, glittering in the sunlight from the myriads of polished surfaces, giving, at a distance, the appearance of a sheet of water. It is not alone the well-rounded, polished surface of these pebbles which commands attention, but, in addition, their nearly black or darkbrown color; and, above all, their uniform distribution in a level sheet, covering the plain in a continuous layer or pavement like a vast mosaic without sand or soil. Hundreds of square miles along the lower Colorado, especially in Yuma county, Arizona, and on the borders of the Colorado Desert in California, are thus covered. It is evident that the former cxtent of such pebbly plains was much greater than now, for the continuity of the mesa is broken into by the numerous dry arroyos or " washes " formed during exceptional showers or deluging rains. In some places there is an underlying bed of pebbly conglomerate, a mixture of pebbles and sand; in others the pebbles rest on a sandy, earthy foundation. The rounded pebbles are distinctly alluvial in origin, and pertain to the ancient Colorado drainage system; but it is not comprehensible that such regular layers of polished pebbles could have been left by subsiding floods or river action. Attention was early directed by me to these remarkable plains, first examined in 1853, when exploring for the United States and seeking a practicable route for a railway to the Pacific coast.* The cut and polished surface of the pebbles

Jan 1, 1904

By J. Geertsma, F. de Klerk

During the hydraulic fracturing treatment of an oil or gas well the liquid pressure in the borehole is increased until tensile stress in the surrounding rock exceeds tensile strength. Once a tensile fracture is initiated, it is penetrated by liquid from the borehole and fracture propagation under continuous hydraulic action takes place. The fracturing liquid carries a propping agent to ensure a highly permeable flow channel after pressure release. Field results range from failure to obtain increased production to outstanding success. In all cases, however, it unfortunately remains uncertain whether the values chosen for the operational parameters, such as injection rate, pumping time and fluid viscosity, were in fact the ideal ones. Though experience provides a lead, a more satisfactory way to predict results would seem to be to subject the fracture propagation process to a theoretical analysis that (1) makes the maximum use of the relevant physical information and (2) so simplifies the resulting calculations that the field engineer gets practical data that he can handle comfortably. We are attempting here to do this in connection with the prediction of fracture width and areal extent before pressure release. What remains of the fracture afterwards depends on the distribution of the propping agent between the fracture walls, and that is a separate story. Idealization of the Problem To keep the problem tractable, a number of simplify- ing assumptions have had to be made: 1. The formation is homogeneous and isotropic as regards those of its properties that influence the fracture-propagation process. 2. The deformations of the formation during fracture propagation can be derived from linear elastic stress-strain relations. 3. The fracturing fluid behaves like a purely viscous liquid; i.e., any peculiar flow behavior due to the addition of gelling agents or other additives is neglected. Moreover, the effect of the propping agent distribution on the distribution of fluid viscosity in the fracture is not taken into account. 4. Fluid flow in the fracture is everywhere laminar. 5. Simple geometric fracture-extension patterns are assumed — either radially symmetrical propagation from a point source (Fig. 1A) or rectilinear propagation originating from a line source (Fig. 1B). In the first case the periphery of the fracture is circular, in the second case it is rectangular. 6. A rectilinear propagation mode can be accomplished only by injection over a large perforated interval, thus forming a line source. Such a rectilinear fracture must therefore be located in the vertical plane. A circular propagation mode might be expected from injection through a narrow band of perforations. This forms a point source. Because gravity effects are excluded from our considerations, the fracture propagation plane may in this case assume any angle with respect to the wellbore as far as the

Jan 1, 1970

By C. E. Shoenfelt

The deepening of the General Crude Oil Company's No. 1 Meyers, NE. NE. SE. of sec. 22, 24S., 36E., in the Cooper area of Lea County, in April, 1934, resulted in the discovery of an oil field of major importance. The discovery well is an old well drilled by Cranfill $ Reynolds and completed in July, 1929, in limestone at 3438 ft. for an initial production of 90,000,000 cu. ft. (estimated) of 'gas. Deepening operations were started early in April, 1934, and cores were taken from the old total depth of 3438 to 3508 ft. A Haliburton test taken through the drill stem at 3439 to 3460 ft. showed 50,000,000 cu. ft. of gas with an increase of 5,000,000 cu. ft. between 3461 and 3474 ft. When completed the well tested 12,000,000 cu. ft. of gas and 5000 bbl. of oil at 3474-3508 feet. The new oil field—the result of this discovery—is between the Eunice and the Jal fields, closer to the productive area of Jal than to that of Eunice but far enough away from both to be considered a separate area. Eventually, all of these pools may be joined together by productive oil wells to form a single unit of large size. They lie in a general northwest-southeast alignment and the intervening areas have not been condemned by dry holes. In the drilling campaign that followed this discovery, 24 wells were drilled, of which 23 were oil wells with combined initial productions of

Jan 1, 1935

By Milton H. Ward

INTRODUCTION Historically, planning a mine involved the economic decision of whether to mine by open-pit methods or underground methods. The method selected was influenced by a number of factors, including size, tenor, and location of the deposit. If the project could not be justified by either underground or open-pit practices, it remained in fallow until economic conditions changed or technology advanced. Technology has advanced and the mining industry now has another option, that of in situ leaching. This method is on the threshold of becoming a commonly used alternative for production in many types of metal and mineral deposits. It will be utilized as the primary method for developing an ore body or as an adjunct to open-pit or underground operations. The following considers application of the technique to a deposit that had been partially exploited by open-pit methods. HISTORY The Big Mike Copper Mine is located approximately 30 miles south of Winnemucca, in Pershing County, Nevada. Interest in the property dates from the turn of the century, but little exploration was undertaken until the mid '60s. In 1967 Cerro Corporation acquired the property and initiated a major drilling effort. Ranchers Exploration obtained the property after this exploration program in late 1969 and confirmation drilling was undertaken. The deposit was delineated and it was determined that reserves amounted to about 100,000 tons of 10.0% massive copper sulfide ore and 700,000 tons of 2 .O% mixed oxide-sulfide ore. The ore body was a lenticular deposit, dipping at 50°. The massive sulfide mineralization was chalcocite and

Jan 1, 1974

By R. W. Raymond

R. W. Raymond, New York City: In his paper at the New York meeting (Trans., xix., 28), Mr. Ledyard described, among other mines, the Belmont, in the county of Peterboro, Ontario, the developments of which at that time indicated, though they did not, perhaps, completely demonstrate, a deposit of high-grade Bessemer magnetite of very great extent. Mr. Ledpard said that experts estimated the quantity of ore within 100 feet of the surface at 1,000,000 tons. But the precise data upon which this estimate was based were not furnished. We are all interested in the development of fresh supplies of Bessemer ores. I think nobody who knows how enormous is the demand can seriously fear that such deposits will be exploited too rapidly. On the other hand, I need not here enlarge on the fact that a considerable number of enterprises, in which American ironmasters have been more or less interested, for the development of Canadian iron-ore deposits, have been unsuccessful, more by reason of disappointment as to the quantity of the ore and the facilities for cheaply mining it on a large scale, than as to its quality. Of course, a Canadian nine supplying the American market is handicapped at present, to the extent of 75 cents per ton, by the duty on foreign iron-ore; but this would certainly not be prohibitory in the case of a deposit sufficiently large, rich, and accessible. Or, to put it otherwise, there might easily be, somewhere in Canada, near our borders, a mine so favored that its product could be profitably

Jan 1, 1892

By Paul Billingsley

Introduction. THE Georgetown mining district is located in Deerlodge county, Mont., about 20 miles west of Anaconda. It lies along the divide between the headwaters of Warm Springs creek, draining eastward, and Flint creek, flowing west and north through the Philipsburg valley. The actual divide is formed by Cable mountain, a narrow ridge running north and south, terminating to the south in low hills overlooking Georgetown lake, and to the north in a high, rugged plateau that falls off to the west to the wide valley of Flint creek. Oil the eastern, or Warm Springs, slope of Cable mountain is the Cable mine, with the Hidden Lake mine a few miles north. On the western slope is the Southern Cross group, with smaller mines, the Twilight, Cincinnati, Red Lion, and Big Bill, at intervals to the northward. The Georgetown mines lie in the hills south of Cable mountain; the Philipsburg mines, of which the Granite Mountain, Bimetallic, Hope, and Trout are the chief, form a separate group to the north, overlooking Flint Creek valley and Philipsburg. (See Fig. 1.1) The region ranges in elevation from 5,000 to 9,000 ft. It is, with the exception of the lower valleys, well timbered with small fir and pine, although Cable mountain and the higher summits to the northward rise slightly above timber line. The main valleys have the smooth contours of glaciation, and their mouths are frequently choked with morainal deposits.

Jan 9, 1913

By George W. Maynard

In the course of an examination of some of the California hydraulic mines in November last, I visited the property of the Gold Run Ditch and Mining Company, near Dutch Flat, Placer County. This is one of the most important and extensively worked mines in the district. The gold occurs in the characteristic blue gravel, which averages 175 feet in thickness, the lower 40-60 feet being made rip of cement gravel, which resists the action of water, and can only he loosened by blasting. The specimen which I have the pleasure of laying before the members was presented to me by Mr. I. L. Gould, the intelligent superintendent of the mines, who informs me that he found it in the old river channel, about twelve feet above the bedrock. The flattened water-worn nugget of gold, about the size of a kidney-bean, is imbedded in blue cement gravel, around which quartz has crystallized. When found the projecting portion of the nugget was enveloped in quartz, the core of gravel and gold having only been discovered after breaking the lump of quartz. On the quartz there is a shell of cement. The specimen is a remarkable confirmation of the theory of the deposition of quartz from solution. DISCUSSION. Dr. T. STERRY HUNT, in commenting upon this occurrence, remarked that it is in accordance with what we already know of the recency of some of the quartz of this region, and cited the microscopic

Jan 1, 1880

By H. L. Sheakley, D. J. Coolidge

This paper does not deal with all sands used in the glass industry in Missouri; it covers only that used in the plate-glass factory at Crystal City. However, it is probably safe to say that other sands, pro- duced throughout the state for this purpose, are of identical nature. The glass sand used in Missouri is cornrnonly called the St. Peter deposit, which is ascribed to the Ordovician Rock series in the form of sandstone. This St. Peter deposit, aside from a few small outliers, covers a large area of eastern Missouri. It forms, through a broad curve, the northeast margin of the typical Ozark region between Cape Girardeau on the southeast and Mineola, Montgomery County, on the northwest. The belt is extremely irregular, varying from one to ten miles in width; its length is 150 miles in a straight line. The outcrop near the entrance to the Crystal City mine appears in the form of a sandstone bluff approximately 30 ft. high, running along Plattin Creek (Fig. I). Above the sand rock an overburden of Joachim limestone appears, which thickens to nearly 300 ft. and forms the hill commonly called Buck Knob. Test holes where drilled at various points and the drillers' log indicate that the St. Peter deposit ranges in thickness from 63 to 71 feet. Properties of the St. Peter Sand From an analysis of the glass sands of the St. Peter formation in Missouri, the follow-

Jan 1, 1948

As already said Pattin's map and the later one of Evans' showed coal in several places in Ohio as early as 1750, and possibly 1748; the reference on the latter map was' to an exposure near Bolivar, in Tuscarawas County, as well as along the Hocking River. So far. as now known, it 'was not mined in either place until 1810. George Croghan, in descending the Ohio with his party in 1765, mentions an "Alum Hill" which they saw near the present site of Pomeroy, probably an exposure of saline deposits, but does not mention coal. As settlement north of the Ohio River was prohibited until 1787, no coal was mined until long after that date. In 1785 a survey of seven ranges in the Ohio country was made, the line running west from a point on the north bank of 'the Ohio River, due north of the western termination of the southern boundary of Pennsylvania. The surveyors noted, "from hence to Stoney Brook between two very steep and high Ridges; it is eight yards wide, its bottom is of Slate and Sand Stone, and in many parts of it are large pieces of excellent Coal washed by, the Rains from the Neighboring Hills."' This was the present Yellow Creek, and the coal was from some of the lower measures. The Scioto Company published a pamphlet in French in 1787, to promote the sale of their lands and emigration to them, in which was said,

Jan 1, 1942