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By R. W. Brown, J. L. Loper

The process of sand erosion has been harnessed to perform a useful function—the directed perforating of oilfield tubular goods and formation rock. In this process the sand is carried by a liquid medium and the resrrlting slurry is forced through a nozzle at an extren~ely high velocity. Upon impingement against casing or formation, the fast-moving sand particles erode a perforalion in the casing followed by cavity formation in the medium behind the casing. The many factors influencing the rate and extent of this penetration are inherently difficult to establish experimentally. Equations describing submerged jet behavior have been applied to these conditions. The following paper develops the equations for predicting the performance of the perforating jet. INTRODUCTION The cutting power of high-velocity sand has been well known in the petroleum industry for many years. Sand carried by a high-velocity gas stream causes severe erosion. This effect has been the cause of numerous production problems in certain areas. It was logical to expect that this phenomenon would one day be adapted to useful industrial applications. Development of mobile, high-pressure, high-horsepower pumping equipment in the last decade has made this possible. The sand erosion process involves pumping a fluid containing abrasive solids through a set of nozzles at a high differential pressure (2,000 to 4,000 psi). The pressure conversion into kinetic energy imparts high velocity to the sand particles which, upon impact with the formation face or casing wall, erode the material in an organized pattern. This paper attempts to establish the effects of the various parameters and to predict the performance and limitations of the process. The following factors will be considered: nozzle differential pressure, perforation size, sand concentration, nozzle stand-off distance and backpressure. In general, this discussion is presented along theoretical lines and is substantiated by field results and data where reliable field data exists. POWER EQUATIONS The penetration rate of a high-velocity hydraulic jet is proportional to the power or energy of the jet at the point in quesion. The power of the submerged jet will decrease with distance (or penetration) into the cavity created by the jet. As the cavity is extended into the formation, the power of the jet diminishes to a value equal to the threshold cutting power of the particular formation which is defiined as the lowest power level at which the formation will be abraded by the jet. Obviously, when this point is reached, no further cutting of the formation can occur. It is assumed that this power level for a particular formation is a function of the hardness of that formation. The following equation can be written for the hydraulic process of formation abrasion.

By S. F. Urban, G. Derge

AT the time this investigation was initiated variations were observed in the quality of different heats of basic electric-furnace steels, although they had been made under purportedly similar conditions. This indicated that these variations were related to normally unobserved variations in the character of the bath, especially during the "refining" period. Although the slags used for this operation are commonly referred to as "reducing" slags, and are regarded as having a "deoxidizing" action on the bath, no reliable measurements of this action were available. It was decided, therefore, to study the behavior of oxygen in the metal for a large enough number of heats to learn its normal variations and to relate these variations to regularly observed conditions [f] operation. The most important general conclusion reached was that the time a heat is held under a reducing slag should be reduced to a minimum, which was about an hour and a half under the conditions studied. Beyond this time no observable beneficial effects are obtained from the reducing slags, insofar as oxygen and sulphur content of the bath are concerned. It is likely that added time may increase hydrogen content as well as heat costs. The oxygen content of the bath is never reduced below the amount in equilibrium with the carbon. Concurrently with this work, J. S. Marsh1 presented data that supplement and support many of the results of this paper. PROCEDURE The work was done in two different electric-furnace shops of the same plant. The selection of heats was made primarily with regard to the convenience of heat schedules. Companion slag and metal samples were taken just prior to slag-off and throughout the refining period for an initial set of 17 heats, and before slag-off and near tap for an additional 13 heats. Slag sampling presented no particular problem; a spoonful of slag was poured onto a metal plate and when sufficiently cool was sealed in an airtight container. Sampling the metal for oxygen presented a more complex problem. Because of the lack of previous experience in sampling electric-furnace baths, a number of methods were compared. Chilled Wedge Samples2 An unkilled metal sample is removed from tie furnace in a well-slagged carbometer spoon and poured immediately into a heavy copper mold designed to provide rapid freezing. Three different types of molds were used to determine the optimum for electric-furnace heats. The Big Wedge Mold (a) was a 4 by 4 by 4-in. split copper mold, yielding a wedge-shaped casting 1 in. wide, 1 ½ in. long, and ¼ in. maximum thickness, and was finally adopted as the most satisfactory design. The Long Wedge Mold (b) was a 2 by 2 by 5 ¼ -in. split copper mold, yielding a wedge-shaped casting 1 in. wide, 2 ¾ in. long, and ¼ in. maximum thickness. The Small Wedge Mold (c) was 2 by 2 by 4-in. split copper mold, yielding a wedge-shaped casting 1 in. wide, 1 ½ in. long, and ¼ in. maximum thickness.

Jan 1, 1947

By M. Cohen, R. T. Howard

It has long been realized among metallurgists that a fast, reliable method for the quantitative determination of the percentage of microconstituents in an alloy would be of great benefit in studies of equilibrium and transformation in the solid state. For example, Polushkinl has shown that the compositions of two coexisting phases in a binary system at a given temperature may be calculated very simply with the aid of two alloys lying in the two-phase field if the relative amounts of the two phases in each alloy can be determined. Recently, Grange and Stewart2 have traced the course of the austenite-martensite reaction in a series of commercial steels by making visual estimates of the percentage of martensite formed as a function of cooling temperature. The correlation of mechanical properties with structure, a subject of wide-spread current interest, is likewise dependent upon quantitative microanaly-sis. Yet, there are very few investigations described in the metallurgical literature, wherein methods of quantitative microscopy are employed. Usually, the relative amounts of the microconstituents are estimated in a qualitative or semiquantita-tive way. The authors were faced with this problem some time ago in studying the kinetics of austenite decomposition. Several aspects of this research could not be treated satisfactorily by other quantitative tools, such as specific volume,' magnetic,6 dila-tometric, electrical resistance7 or x-ray measurements.a It became necessary to find an impersonal quantitative method that could be applied to microstructures. Fortunately, it was noted that geologists and petrographers had coped with quantitative microscopy to a considerable degree in their attempts to evaluate the mineral contents of rocks. A number of excellent articles were found on this subject, and since they appear to be unknown generally to many metallurgists, the first part of the present paper is concerned with a review of the literature in some detail. With this survey as a background, the authors have adapted the so-called methods of point-counting and lineal analysis to metallography, as described in the second part of the paper. Austenite-martensite structures were selected for illustration not only because they are important in many ways, but because such fine intermixtures are notoriously difficult to estimate visually. Literature Survey Perhaps the earliest work on quantitative microscopic analysis goes back to Delesse9 (1848) who proved mathemati-

Jan 1, 1948

By M. Cohen, R. T. Howard

It has long been realized among metallurgists that a fast, reliable method for the quantitative determination of the percentage of microconstituents in an alloy would be of great benefit in studies of equilibrium and transformation in the solid state. For example, Polushkinl has shown that the compositions of two coexisting phases in a binary system at a given temperature may be calculated very simply with the aid of two alloys lying in the two-phase field if the relative amounts of the two phases in each alloy can be determined. Recently, Grange and Stewart2 have traced the course of the austenite-martensite reaction in a series of commercial steels by making visual estimates of the percentage of martensite formed as a function of cooling temperature. The correlation of mechanical properties with structure, a subject of wide-spread current interest, is likewise dependent upon quantitative microanaly-sis. Yet, there are very few investigations described in the metallurgical literature, wherein methods of quantitative microscopy are employed. Usually, the relative amounts of the microconstituents are estimated in a qualitative or semiquantita-tive way. The authors were faced with this problem some time ago in studying the kinetics of austenite decomposition. Several aspects of this research could not be treated satisfactorily by other quantitative tools, such as specific volume,' magnetic,6 dila-tometric, electrical resistance7 or x-ray measurements.a It became necessary to find an impersonal quantitative method that could be applied to microstructures. Fortunately, it was noted that geologists and petrographers had coped with quantitative microscopy to a considerable degree in their attempts to evaluate the mineral contents of rocks. A number of excellent articles were found on this subject, and since they appear to be unknown generally to many metallurgists, the first part of the present paper is concerned with a review of the literature in some detail. With this survey as a background, the authors have adapted the so-called methods of point-counting and lineal analysis to metallography, as described in the second part of the paper. Austenite-martensite structures were selected for illustration not only because they are important in many ways, but because such fine intermixtures are notoriously difficult to estimate visually. Literature Survey Perhaps the earliest work on quantitative microscopic analysis goes back to Delesse9 (1848) who proved mathemati-

Jan 1, 1948

By Robert T. Howard, Morris Cohen

IT has long been realized among metallurgists that a fast, reliable method for the quantitative determination of the percentage of microconstituents in an alloy would be of great benefit in studies of equilibrium and transformation in the solid state. For example, Polushkin1 has shown that the compositions of two coexisting phases in a a binary system at a given temperature may be calculated very simply with the aid of two alloys lying in the two-phase field if the relative amounts of the two phases in each alloy can be determined. Recently, Grange and Stewart2 have traced the course of the austenite-martensite reaction in a series of commercial steels by making visual estimates of the percentage of martensite formed as a function of cooling temperature. The correlation of mechanical properties with structure, a subject of wide-spread current interest, is likewise dependent upon quantitative microanalysis.3 Yet, there are very few investigations described in the metallurgical literature, wherein methods of quantitative microscopy are employed. Usually, the relative amounts of the microconstituents are estimated in a qualitative or semiquantitative way. The authors were faced with this problem some time ago in studying the kinetics of austenite decomposition. Several aspects of, this research could not be treated satisfactorily by other quantitative tools, such as specific volume,4 magnetic,5 dilatometric,6 electrical resistance7 or x-ray measurements.8 It became necessary to find an impersonal quantitative method that could be applied to microstructures. Fortunately, it was noted that geologists and petrographers had coped with quantitative microscopy to a considerable degree in their attempts to evaluate the mineral contents of rocks. A number of excellent articles were found on this subject, and since they appear to be unknown generally to many metallurgists, the first part of the present paper is concerned with a review of the literature in some detail. With this survey as a background, the authors have adapted the so-called methods of point-counting and lineal analysis to metallography, as described in the second part of the paper. Austenite-martensite structures were selected for illustration not only because they are important in many ways, but because such fine intermixtures are notoriously difficult to estimate visually. LITERATURE SURVEY Perhaps the earliest work on quantitative microscopic analysis goes back to Delesse9 (1848) who proved mathemati-

Jan 1, 1947

By James P. Savely, Victor L. Kastner

Inspiration Consolidated Copper Company is currently mining in four pit areas; Live Oak, Red Hill, Thornton and Joe Bush Extension, near Globe, Arizona. Small satellite orebodies lying outside the main pits have been mined out in a series of small open pits. Major slope instability has affected production in every pit. Some consequences of the instability have been; (1) Serious interruption of mining plans, which resulted in deferred ore production, lost ore, reduced mining rates and increased stripping requirements. (2) Forced replacement of crushing facilities. (3) Serious effects on other production facilities. The introduction of a slope stability monitoring and control function as an integral part of mine planning has been successful in reducing the impact of these failures and will eventually result in economic pit design based on probabilistic slope analysis. This case history presents a brief review of the problems associated with slope instability at Inspiration's mines followed by a more detailed report on one specific failure area in the Thornton pit where the use of horizontal drain holes for slope stabilization appears to be successful. Relationships between slope movement rate, rainfall, and mining activity are shown.

Jan 1, 1983

By H. G. Doll

'This paper discusses a method and apparatus for determining the dip of formations traversed by a drill hole, by means of electrical measurements in the hole. The process consists in recording the Spontaneous Potentials present along three oriented generatrices in the hole. By comparison of the three curves thus obtained, after application of a correction factor to compensate for any deviations of the hole, the dip angle and the dip direction are determined. Excellent accuracy is obtained for dip angles over 10°. Because the method is simp1e and the apparatus rugged, the measurements are rapid and reliable; consequently, they can be made at all the levels that are of interest at any time after the well has been drilled. Mechanical cores are not needed to evaluate the dips. A convenient, time-saving procedure is to perform the dipmeter survey at the time the electrical log is taken, using for both operations the same cable and truck. Actual examples of results obtained in wells of the Gulf Coast area are given. Introduction The problem of determining the angle and direction of the dip of the strata traversed by a drill hole has practical interest, and sometimes vital importance, which need not be emphasized to the oil industry. The need for that type of information has existed ever since wells have been drilled. Certainly it has not subsided, in spite of the numerous inventions and improvements made in other fields of the art of drill-hole exploration. The few examples given in this paper are but illustrative of this fact. In the past, methods have been devised, and used, to solve this problem, but generally they have met with limited success, possibly because they failed more or less to answer the requirements of a modern age for fast yet accurate measurements. If accurate, the results were obtained at the cost of very tedious and lengthy operations. The new S. P.* dipmeter service offered to the oil industry is the result of exhaustive and in this particular field. In 1032 a dipmeter and electromagnetic teleclinom-eter service was made available. The apparatus employed then was of a rather delicate and costly construction, and the measurements had to be made with precautions sometimes difficult to secure on the rig. Although the information given by the electromagnetic dipmeter was limited to the direction of the dip, very interesting results were obtained in California, Trinidad, Venezuela, Rumania and, most notably, in the Netherlands East Indies.+ Apparatus The S. P. dipmeter surveys present none of the drawbacks mentioned above. The apparatus is rugged and free from constructional complications, therefore well adapted to field use. This, combined with the new, basically simple approach to the problem, explains the rapidity of execution of the measurements. The results are remarkably accurate and they are complete, giving the

Jan 1, 1946

By H. G. Doll

'This paper discusses a method and apparatus for determining the dip of formations traversed by a drill hole, by means of electrical measurements in the hole. The process consists in recording the Spontaneous Potentials present along three oriented generatrices in the hole. By comparison of the three curves thus obtained, after application of a correction factor to compensate for any deviations of the hole, the dip angle and the dip direction are determined. Excellent accuracy is obtained for dip angles over 10°. Because the method is simp1e and the apparatus rugged, the measurements are rapid and reliable; consequently, they can be made at all the levels that are of interest at any time after the well has been drilled. Mechanical cores are not needed to evaluate the dips. A convenient, time-saving procedure is to perform the dipmeter survey at the time the electrical log is taken, using for both operations the same cable and truck. Actual examples of results obtained in wells of the Gulf Coast area are given. Introduction The problem of determining the angle and direction of the dip of the strata traversed by a drill hole has practical interest, and sometimes vital importance, which need not be emphasized to the oil industry. The need for that type of information has existed ever since wells have been drilled. Certainly it has not subsided, in spite of the numerous inventions and improvements made in other fields of the art of drill-hole exploration. The few examples given in this paper are but illustrative of this fact. In the past, methods have been devised, and used, to solve this problem, but generally they have met with limited success, possibly because they failed more or less to answer the requirements of a modern age for fast yet accurate measurements. If accurate, the results were obtained at the cost of very tedious and lengthy operations. The new S. P.* dipmeter service offered to the oil industry is the result of exhaustive and in this particular field. In 1032 a dipmeter and electromagnetic teleclinom-eter service was made available. The apparatus employed then was of a rather delicate and costly construction, and the measurements had to be made with precautions sometimes difficult to secure on the rig. Although the information given by the electromagnetic dipmeter was limited to the direction of the dip, very interesting results were obtained in California, Trinidad, Venezuela, Rumania and, most notably, in the Netherlands East Indies.+ Apparatus The S. P. dipmeter surveys present none of the drawbacks mentioned above. The apparatus is rugged and free from constructional complications, therefore well adapted to field use. This, combined with the new, basically simple approach to the problem, explains the rapidity of execution of the measurements. The results are remarkably accurate and they are complete, giving the

Jan 1, 1946

By Albert A. Mathews

OUTCROPS of gypsum rock near the present site of the city of Gland Rapids, Mich., were known to fur traders early in the nineteenth century. However, the deposits seemed without value and were not worked for some time. So far as cat1 be learned, Michigan gyp- sum was first used by a plasterer who settled in Grand Rapids in 1834 as a member of its fourteenth white family. In building a house for one of the early traders, be used some otnamental stucco mouldings manufactured from the local gypsum deposits for decorations in the gables and around some circular windows. The gypsum was broken out with a hammer, ground in an Indian corn mill, and burlled in a caulclron kettle,. After two attempts, the ornaments were successfully set, and remained on the house until it was destroyed by fire in 1850.

Jan 1, 1936

By C. F. Smart

THE heat treatment of the bronze composed of 88 per cent. copper, 10 per cent. tin, and 2 per cent. zinc, has been investigated by H. S. and J. G. S. Primrose,1 and also by the U. S. Bureau of Standards.2 The results obtained by H. S. and J. G. S. Primrose on dry-sand castings subjected to reheating followed by air cooling, or by quenching in water, are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The values for tensile strength have been FIG. 1.-EFFECT OF QUENCHING ON DRY SAND CASTINGS (H. S. AND J. G. S. PRIMROSE.) converted from tons per square inch to pounds per square inch. Figs. 3and 4, have been plotted from values obtained by the Bureau of Standards on material of the same composition and treatment. Both investigations show that the ductility of the cast bronze is improved by heating to 700° C. and cooling in air, the strength not being impaired by this treatment. They are not in agreement, however, as to the effect of quenching, Messrs. Primrose reporting a decrease, and the Bureau of Standards an increase, in both strength and ductility when the cast bronze is heated to 600° or 700° C. and quenched.

Jan 9, 1919

By C. F. Smart

The heat treatment of the bronze composed of 88 per cent. copper, 10 per cent. tin, and 2 per cent. zinc, has been investigated by H. S. and J. G. S. Primrose,' and also by the U. S. Bureau of Standards.2 The results obtained by H. S. and J. G. S. Primrose on dry-sand castings subjected to reheating followed by air cooling, or by quenching in water, are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The values for tensile strength have been converted from tons per square inch to pounds per square inch. Figs. 3 and 4, have been plotted from values obtained by the Bureau of Standards on material of the same composition and treatment. Both investigations show that the ductility of the cast bronze is improved by heating to 700' C. and cooling in air, the strength not being impaired by this treatment. They are not in agreement, howevcr, as to the effect of quenching, Messrs. Primrose reporting a decrease, and the Bureau of Standards an increase, in both strength and ductility when the cast bronze is heated to 600' or 700' C. and quenched. The present investigation was undertaken to study the effect of annealing followed by different rates of cooling, and, in particular, the

Jan 1, 1921

By Frederick Laist

I AM APPRECIATIVE of the honor you have done me in electing me to membership in your Society. I value the contacts with men of imagination and ideals which this implies. I am grateful for the recognition of such small contributions as I may have made, or helped to make, to the vast fund of scientific and engineering knowledge. We like to think, as we grow older, that our lives have not been purely parasitical, and that through our efforts some forward step, however small, has been taken toward improving conditions under which we live and do our work. In these days of industrial depression, we hear much criticism of our "machine age." Modern engineering, mass production, the complexity of our lives, all come in for some share of blame. The farmer is said to have been spoiled by the tractor and the gang plow, the factory worker has become a slave of the assembly conveyor, the scientific worker is no longer free but has sacrificed much of his individuality to the research organization of which he is a part. We wonder whether our work as engineers has been worth while and whether our striving after more efficient ways of doing things has been a curse to mankind rather than the boon we thought we were conferring.

Jan 1, 1932

By Arthur Mitchell

POSSIBLY in no other of the non-ferrous mining districts of this country has the use and develop-ment of mechanical loaders been carried to such an extent as in the "lead belt" of Southeast Missouri. It has become apparent to the four mining companies in the district that it is imperative to apply satisfactory mechanical methods to the chief remaining stage of the entire operations-mining, milling, smelting and refining-in which manual labor is still largely used to handle material in process. With increasing wages and with the reduction of the metal divisor by the extension of mining into lower-grade orebodies, the shoveling cost per ton of lead produced has become relatively so large that in an effort to reduce it there is ample justification for considerable capital expenditure. Hand shovelers load about 18 tons of ore per shift and the average grade is less than five per cent. lead. Further, the ore is relatively heavy, about 21 cu. ft. to the ton when broken, and is often so coarse and so closely compacted after shooting that it requires much more block-holing, sledging, and muscular effort to shovel than, for example, does the cherty and more granular ore of the Joplin district or the finer ore in the headings of a drift mine. No mining company desires to pay for mere back muscles if it be economically feasible to avoid it, and labor saving machinery should be susceptible of operation by older employees, who are no longer capable of the more strenuous manual occupations.

Jan 4, 1923

By P. A. Boeck

The thermal insulation of high-temperature equipment for industrial purposes is a subject that has not received from engineers and designers the attention its importance deserves. This may be attributed to a number of causes: In the first place, heat flow is a rather difficult factor to measure under the working conditions of an industrial furnace, and until the comparatively recent introduction into certain operations of the heat balance sheet, with a systematic attempt to account for the discrepancies in the totals, the various causes of heat losses and the reasons for their existence were not brought to light. Moreover, such rapid advancement and radical changes in the design of equipment, especially in metallurgical lines, have occurred that practice has apparently outdistanced the theory of design. In the modern tendency toward greatly increased size of units, effort has seemingly been made to utilize the heat of fuel gases without proper attention having been paid to conserving heat energy and confining it strictly to the points of maximum activity. The systematic study of the thermal properties of structural materials, which is being carried out by various government bureaus and also by a number of technical societies, is forming the basis for more intelligent and consistent work in the economically important subject of prevention of fuel waste. Advantages of Insulation It is not necessary in this practical and utilitarian age to enlarge upon the need of prevention of heat losses, but attention may advantageously be called to the other benefits derived simultaneously with the saving in fuel and the increase in thermal capacity of furnaces when properly insulated. In most industrial furnaces—which are here spoken of in the broadest sense, indicating general high-temperature equipment for any purpose and heated in any manner—the operations are generally carried on through a temperature range which has been found by practice to give the most ef-

Jan 1, 1916

By Henry M. Howe

(Cleveland Meeting, October, 1912.) Manuscript received Aug. 20, 1912. PROFESSOR RUFF'S most illuminating paper' describing his extremely valuable investigation of the carbon-iron equilibrium diagram assigns definite temperatures to certain very important lines in the diagram, viz.: the eutectic temperature EB (Fig. 1) and the " near-eutectic " temperature E'B', but without indicating clearly enough the reasoning which warrants these assignments. These temperatures are of such primary importance that it is well to indicate the apparent gaps in the reasoning, in the hope that they may be filled in. In his diagram, Fig. 1, the point X and the lines B'D'HI represent the experimental results reached by Ruff and Goecke; 2 AB, AEB, and SE represent the liquidus, the solidus, and the solubility of the carbon in solid austenite in the absence of graphite according to Gutowsky,3 AB being also in accordance with Spiecker's data;4 ,S'E' the solubility of carbon in solid austenite in the presence of graphite according to Ruer and Iljin; 5 GS the line A3 after Goerens and Meyer;6 I and EBC the true eutectic line as inferred by Prof. Ruff from Gutowsky's data. B'D' is the carbon content found in cast-iron which had apparently saturated itself with carbon in the presence of the graphite of the enclosing graphite crucibles in which the determinations were made. From its straightness and its sharp inflection near 6.67 per cent. of carbon, the carbon content of * Professor of Metallurgy in Columbia University. 1 Metallurgie, vol. viii., pp. 456 to 464 and 497 to 508 (1911). 2 Idem, vol. viii., pp. 417 to 421 (1911). 3 Idem, vol. vi., pp. 731 to 743 (1909). 4 Idem, vol. vi., p. 524 (Wüst) (1909). 5 Idem, vol. viii., pp. 97 to 101 (1911). 6 Idem, vol. vii., pp. 307 to 312 (1910).

Nov 1, 1912

By Thomas B. Douglas

INSTRUMENTATION in the process industries can no longer be regarded as a convenience, but rather an absolute necessity. Although many chemical processes must already be conducted with instruments, every properly designed application of automatic process control will improve operation: 1) the product will be more uniform and of higher quality; 2) the manual labor saved will reduce cost; 3) uniformity of flow and uniform control of process will increase production; and 4) surges will be eliminated, making it possible to operate equipment near ultimate capacity at all times. Industrial instruments fall into two general classifications-those that measure and those that measure and control. The cement industry has been using instruments for a number of years, particularly in the burning process, primarily for indicating and recording. Automatic process control makes additional use of these instruments, and others, to control variables. Assisted by the instrument manufacturers, engineers at Ideal Cement CO. achieved considerable progress in determining how well the usual recording instruments could be made to control various phases of cement-making. The results of these experiments were used to make the new plant at Houston as wholly automatic as possible.

Jan 2, 1958

By WALTER M. DAKE

GENERALY speaking, the bituminous coal mines of the country are being operated at a loss. To purchasers of the necessary commodity, a statement of this character may have the sound of a far fetched propagandist cry; but to the coal producer who lives in the hope of an up-turn in the almost stationary market price of his product, while inking in red his monthly operating balances, it carries the ringing sound of truth.

Jan 1, 1925

By O. J. C. Runnalls, L. M. Pidgeon

Some observations on the kinetics of the iodide process are reported. The deposition rate is geometry-sensitive in a system containing a finely divided titanium charge. Further, results indicate that the iodine diffusion rate influences the velocity of the process. The nonvolatile iodide, Til,, forms in the hot filament zone, thus removing iodine from the cycle. TITANIUM metal of 99.9 pct purity may be prepared using a refining technique originated by Van Arkel and de Boer.' The purity of this metal, commonly called iodide titanium, exceeds that produced by any known process. In a recent application, the method was employed by Gonser et al.² to prepare titanium rods up to 2 to 3 cm in diam. In the Van Arkel-de Boer system, the relative influence of the fundamental mechanisms: l—production of titanium iodides, 2—gaseous countercurrent diffusion, and 3—decomposition, on the deposition rate have not been clearly established. Blocher and Campbell" have indicated that the controlling step in the process under practical conditions of operation may be the reaction rate of iodine with the crude metal. Fast' reported that crude titanium metal reacted with iodine rapidly, even at room temperature, in his apparatus. Little has been reported on the effect of gaseous diffusion or decomposition on the deposition rate. It is these aspects of the process about which this investigation is centered. An attempt has been made to separate these latter effects from those due to the formation of the iodides at the crude metal surface by a division of the experimental program. Reaction of Iodine with Titanium Apparatus: In the investigation of gas-metal reactions of this type, the chemical reactivity of the halogen and halide vapors dictates the use of all-glass apparatus. In such a system standard techniques for measuring reaction rates are difficult to employ. Here, a simple apparatus was devised (Fig. 1) so that some indication of the reactivity of titanium powder with iodine vapor could be obtained. A stream of iodine gas was evolved from a bulb of controlled temperature and passed over a sample of titanium powder heated in a horizontal tube furnace. The product of the reaction, TiI4, volatilized and was condensed outside the furnace in a series of four glass bulbs, each cooled to room temperature in turn. Preliminary experiments indicated that distillation was retarded in a sealed evacuated system due to a pressure build-up in the condensing end of the apparatus. Hence, the system was pumped continuously using a mechanical pump and two oil diffusion pumps in series, through a liquid air trap. The iodine bulb was made large and a capillary restriction was inserted between the titanium bulb and the condensers so that the iodine pressure over the metal would approach the equilibrium pressure over solid iodine crystals. The effect of this restriction on the evaporation rate of TiI4, was determined separately. The iodine bulb was heated in an oil bath controlled to ±2°C. The titanium bulb temperature was automatically controlled to ±5°C. Procedure: About 200 mg of —30 mesh titanium powder, weighed to 0.1 mg, was placed in the reaction bulb after part B had been joined to part A. The powder was tapped into a long (5 cm) shallow mass along the bottom of the tube. Two chromel-alumel thermocouples were inserted into the magnesium radiator which was clamped to the reaction

Jan 1, 1953

By Rztssell H. Bennett

A SURVEY of the Mesabi Range iron-ore industry demonstrates that a satisfactory degree of technical progress has been achieved in the last fifteen years. This advance has not been made over a uniform front, but, by salients and bays, according to the different initial positions, economic and technical, of the component producing companies. The producers endowed with rich ore have in general, because of natural advantages, progressed more slowly than their neighbors with leaner properties. The advance has been made step by step all along the line -blasting, loading, hauling and concentrating-and without the benefit of radical innovation. There have been, for instance, no such parallel discoveries in iron ore as leaching and flotation in copper. The much lower unit price of iron operates, of course, to bar the application of these and other practices developed for the higher-priced metals. There exists, however, a radically new concentration process whose technology is well worked out and which may become economically operative in the not too distant future; this, as so often happens in engineering advance, because of recent developments in an entirely unrelated field. First, however, let me devote a paragraph or two to the more important economies effected in mining.

Jan 1, 1932

By Frank G. Snyder, Paul E. Gerdemann

The Southeast Missouri lead district, located about 70 miles south of St. Louis, embraces four important sub-districts and several minor ones. The important sub-districts, in order of discovery, are Mine La Motte, the Old Lead Belt, Indian Creek, and the Viburnum Lead Belt. Descriptions that follow are of geology and ore deposits of the Old Lead Belt. The ore deposits are stratiform in character and are localized in a narrow carbonate bar and algal reef environment on the flanks of exposed Precambrian of the St. Francois Mountains. Ore structures include a variety of primary depositional features such as pinchout zones, disconformities, ridge structures, reefs, and submarine gravity slides. Faulting, prior to and during ore deposition, "prepared" the host rock and strongly fractured areas are mineralized much more intensively and extensively than unfractured parts of the same sedimentary structures. The deposits are epigenetic in character. Mineralization is believed to have occurred at the time that post-lower Ordovician faulting took place. The mineralizing solutions are believed to be concentrated brines from adjacent basins that moved out of the basins during faulting, uplift, and erosion of the St. Francois positive area.

Jan 1, 1968