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Jan 1, 1960

By C. E. Abbott

THE Birmingham district, Alabama, is distinctive in the proximity to one another of its deposits of iron ore, coal and flux. These three basic requisites for the making of iron and steel are found within a radius of 10 miles. Both dolomite and limestone are produced, the former for blast-furnace flux and the latter for basic open-hearth operations. The Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., a subsidiary of the United States Steel Corporation, operates a limestone mine at Muscoda, near Bessemer, 12 miles southwest of Birmingham, served by its own railroad transportation system. The mine has a capacity of 130 tons per hour. Average analyses of a recent month's production are as follows: Fe2O3 Si02 A12O3 CAC03 MGCO Lump, per cent 0.51 0.22 98.63 0.14 Crushed and washed, percent 0.70 0.26 98.36 0.18 Lump stone, 2 1/2 to 7 1/2 in., is used in open-hearth operations at Fairfield Steel Works. Fine crushed and washed stone, 1 ¼ to 0.063 in., is calcined at the, lime-burning plant and used for lime charges at the Ensley open hearths.

Jan 1, 1936

By J. S. Levine, M. Prats

Several methods are available for calculating the performance of solution-gas-drive reservoirs from the PVT properties of the oil and from the relative permeability and other properties of the formation. These methods require a number of simplifying assumptions. The present method of computation has made use of a high-speed computer to solve simultaneously the nonlinear partial differential equations that describe two-phase flow by solution-gas drive in order to calculate the performance of a reservoir. Some of the results obtained by the nonlinear partial differential equation solution are compared with those obtained with an approximate method, which has been called the semisteady-state solution. The pressure and saturation profiles from the wellbore to outer boundary calculated by the two methods are compared for one constant-terminal-rate case and two constant-teminal-pressure cases. The agreement in these profiles, as well as in the values of average reservoir pressure and cumulative recovery, leads to the conclusion that, for most engineering calculations, the semisteady-state method will give a reasonable approximation to the numerical solution of the differential equations describing solution-gas drive. An unfavorable (as regards ultimate oil production) set of relative permeability curves was used in the calculations in the belief that the effect of the parameters which were studied would be emphasized to a greater degree. Furthermore, the reservoir was assumed to be completely homogeneous, and these results should not be considered applicable to any other type of reservoir. Gravity effects are not considered. The absolute permeability was varied from 25 to 0.5 md. At an economic limit of 2 B/D, the recovery for a 25-md reservoir is about 1.8 times as great as that for a 0.5-md reservoir. The effect of permeability on the producing gas-oil ratio is minor. Once PVT properties of the oil and the relative penneability properties of the reservoir are fixed, the pro- during gas-oil ratio is found to be a function of the fraction of oil recovered. Well spacings of 10, 40 and 80 acres were considered. For the assumed homogeneous-reservoir properties, the effect of spacing on recovery at an economic limit of 2 B/D was very slight. Certain dimensionless groups can be used to extend the results to other fields having different penneabilities, spacings, reservoir thicknesses, well radii and porosities, so long as the PVT and relative permeability properties are similar to those used in this paper. INTRODUCTION An important aspect of reservoir engineering is the prediction of the performance of the reservoir based on the limited information normally available early in the life of a field. Usually, soon after a field has been discovered, it is necessary to decide upon the spacing to be employed and the production program to be used for most efficient utilization of reservoir energy. Where these decisions have not been dictated by legal or political considerations, they have frequently been based on experience factors which indicate that two fields with similar characteristics will probably have similar performances. To the extent that the industry has been successful in economically exploiting oil reservoirs, this rule-of-thumb method has been found to have merit. A large amount of theory has been developed with which it is possible to predict the performance of a reservoir by using certain known properties of the oil and the formation. Because of the difficulties of the mathematics involved for a drainage area having square or rectangular boundaries, the problem usually has been simplified and idealized by assuming each drainage area to have radial symmetry and the field to be represented by a number of these drainage areas. Muskatl was one of the first to formulate the theory for two-phase flow and to solve the equations for a few cases by numerical integration, using the relatively slow means of computing available at that time. His equations describing

By A. J. Ardell, O. D. Sherby

The elevated-temperature steady-state creep behavior of polycrystalline a Zr was studied in vacuo under constant tensile stress. The experiments were conducted from 660° to 845°C over the stress range 870 to 5400 psi. The steady-state creep rate, is, of a Zr was found to be related to the applied stress, a, and temperature, T, by the equation where C is a constant. Two interpretations of the data are considered, each requiring different values of the parameters ß, Q, and . It is shown that this formula can be derived using Gilman's phenomeno logical equation relating dislocation velocity to the shear stress for the case where dislocation mobility is limited by the nucleation of kink motion. From the fundamental dependence of strain rate on dislocation velocity and the density of mobile dislocations, the factor exp(ßo) can be related to the stress dependence of the dislocation density, and Q to the energy of kink formation. The two interpretations considered are as follows: Case I—the parameters are adjusted so that the equation above describes the data over the entire range of stress and temperature, implying that creep is controlled exclusively by dislocation glide; Case IIthe parameters are adjusted to allow for the possibility that creep is diffusion-controlled at high stresses but glide-controlled at low stresses. For both cases the values of the parameters are within the spread permitted by the data. Factors favorable to the observation of the unusual stress -dependence of i, for a Zr are discussed and it is shown that the anomalously rapid rates of self-diffusion and the low modulus on the principal glide system are primarily responsible for the anomalous creep behavior. Metal-lograflhic observations are presented and discussed with reference to the overall creep behavior. PREVIOUS investigations of the creep behavior of a Zr have been conducted from room temperature to about 500C The results of these investigations are primarily of engineering significance because of the variety of conditions under which they were carried out, and the low testing temperatures employed. Little information is available concerning the fundamental nature of the elevated-temperature creep behavior of a Zr. This investigation of the creep behavior of a Zr above half the melting temperature (the melting temperature, T,, of a Zr is estimated to be about 1860"K was initiated because there are two significant anomalies of the physical properties of a Zr: a) the rate of self-diffusion in polycrystalline a Zr is anomalously rapid: b) both Young's modulus for polycrystalline a Zr and the shear modylus as-sociated with the prismatic slip system { 1010)( 1120) (the principal slip system in a Zr 7) have anomalously large temperature variations The importance of these quantities to the understanding of creep behavior has been demonstrated, and it was hoped that this investigation would provide a critical test of the predictions based upon the analysis of creep data for other pure metals. However, as the investigation progressed it became increasingly clear that the unusual creep behavior of a Zr could not be analyzed in a conventional manner. 1) EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES Two grades of zirconium, designated A and B, were used in this investigation. The analyses, as supplied by the vendors, are presented in Table I. Material A, with a nominal purity of 99.84 pct, was supplied by the Wah Chang Corp. in the form of cold-rolled sheet from which specimens were machined without further fabrication. Material B, with a nominal purity of 99.95 pct, was purchased from the Nuclear Materials and Equipment Corp. in the form of iodide crystal bar.

Jan 1, 1968

Jan 1, 1967

By H. H. Wright

In many fields edge water is one of the most important factors governing the production of oil. Possibly this fact is not appreciated by many producers except in so far as it may bring about a loss in production from wells drilled on the flanks of structures. In the light of artificial flooding as practiced in New York and Pennsylvania, and of the beneficial effect of natural water-flooding on many wells and leases in the Mid-Continent and elsewhere, it seems reasonable to suppose that very few phases of the petroleum industry hold greater promise for future benefit than the study and control of the natural water drive. Rate of Water Encroachment The rate of movement of water in artificially flooded areas has been referred to as so many feet per unit of time, usually from an injection well toward surrounding producing wells. This definition is vague when used in reference to the movement of natural edge water, inasmuch as such factors as sand thickness, steepness of dip and horizontal extent arc not considered. In the ultimate analysis, only the vertical component of movement affects the production of oil in the natural drive, and in order to define the rate of water encroachment more exactly, such a term as acre-fect per unit time might be used. Thus, where one well is located to each 10 acres a vertical movement of 5 ft. in the water level in a year would be defined as an encroachment of 50 acre-feet per year, and where one well is located to each 20 acres, as 100 acre-feet per year. Such a definition as this is entirely arbitrary, but it takes into consideration to a certain extent the influence of well spacing, and consequent sand drainage, on the rate of water movement. The rate of movement is considered to be an important function of water encroachment, for it is believed that the efficiency of recovery by natural water flood depends a good deal upon the rate of movement. In general, rapid encroachment is thought to effect a poor recovery because of the differential in favor of the movement of water through a sand body and the consequent tendency to trap oil in the sand. Slow movement, on the contrary, is thought to bring about a partial displace-

Jan 1, 1931

By J. E. Worthington, W. H. Spence, I. T. Kiff

Gold was discovered at the Haile mine in Lancaster County, South Carolina, in 1827 or 1828, and since that time the mine has been worked intermittently by both open-pit and underground methods until its forced closure in 1942 by World War II. Production figures are incomplete, especially for the early years, but the total gold produced is estimated to have been greater than 200,000 oz. Thus, the Haile mine has been the most productive gold mine in the eastern United States. The upper, residually enriched ores were relatively rich, but the bulk of the production has come from the mining of lower grade ores. General Geology The Haile mine is located in late Precambrian or early Paleozoic rocks of the Carolina slate belt at the edge of the Atlantic Coastal Plain [(Fig. 1)]. The metamorphic grade is lower greenschist facies and the rocks have been folded into a sequence of northeast-trending isoclinal folds. The gold is associated with siliceous, pyritic, and kaolinized felsic pyroclastic and tuffaceous rocks in an interbedded volcanic and volcanoclastic sequence of felsic to mafic tuffaceous rocks and argillaceous sediments [(Fig. 2)]. The ore bodies occur in two northeast trending zones approximately 500 m apart; each zone is 30-70 m wide and 600 m or more in length, with possible extensions to the east beneath the Coastal Plain sediments. Mineralogy. Gold in the Haile mine is always associated with siliceous and/or pyritic ores. The gold occurs in at least three states: As native gold as originally deposited; as residual gold derived from the breakdown of pyrite; and as gold included in pyrite. Major associated minerals in addition to quartz and pyrite are kaolinite, sericite, and iron oxides. Minor molybdenite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, copper sulfides, sphalerite, rutile, and topaz are also present. Petrology. The gold-bearing ore zones vary from highly siliceous rocks to pyritic massive sulfide lenses. This variation is most easily seen today along strike from the Haile pit to the Red Hill pit. Ore grade material still exposed in the wall of the Haile pit consists of a highly siliceous and very thinly bedded rock containing minor pyrite. Along strike, the character of the mineralization changes to pyritic massive sulfide lenses occurring interbedded with siliceous horizons at the Red Hill pit. The siliceous rocks vary from the thinly-bedded material as just described from the Haile pit to silicified fragmental-appearing rocks to totally recrystallized cherty rocks lacking any recognizable primary features. Scattered, apparently at random, throughout the very thinly-bedded and very fine-grained ore face of the Haile pit are seemingly anomalous silica-rich clasts or concretions up to 5 cm in diameter which will be discussed later in this paper. Alteration. One of the most striking features of the Haile deposit is the alteration mineral assemblage which is intimately associated with the siliceous and pyritic ores. This altered material has been intersected in drill core at depths greatly exceeding the modern weathering profile and is, therefore, of hydrothermal origin rather than from supergene processes. This "sericite," actually a fine-grained mixture of sericite, kaolinite, and quartz, can be shown to stratigraphically underlie the gold- quartz-pyrite zone, and is well exposed in the open pit just southeast of the Haile and Bumalo pits. Relict textures indicate that this highly altered material was originally a felsic ash flow. Other similar alteration zones have been found in outcrop and drill core underlying the remaining ore bodies. Thus each of the mineralized zones consists of two parts: A siliceous and/or pyritic gold-bearing ore zone which is stratigraphically underlain by a zone of high alumina minerals, in this case sericite and kaolinite along with variable amounts of quartz. A green chrome mica, presumably fuchsite, is present in trace amounts in the high alumina zone. Genesis An adequate model to explain the origin and distribution of the gold deposits in the Carolina slate belt is presently lacking. Worthington and Kiff1 suggested a volcanogenic origin for certain gold deposits in the North Carolina slate belt from the waning exhalations of felsic volcanic piles. They also pointed out that such an origin has similarities to many epithermal precious metal deposits located in more recent volcanic piles in the western United States. A further key to the understanding of the genesis of the gold mineralization at the Haile mine is the close association of the mineralization in siliceous and sulfidic horizons to the genetically related and stratigraphically underlying high alumina alteration. Such high-alumina alteration is common around felsic volcanic centers in the Carolina slate belt and the mineralogy as seen today consists of some combination of kaolinite, sericite, pyrophyllite, kyanite, andalusite or sillimanite depending on the local prevailing grade of metamorphism. Accompanying the high-alumina alteration are large quantities of pyrite and iron-oxide minerals as well as characteristic minor accessory minerals often including base metal sulfides, fluorine-bearing minerals (topaz, fluorite, apatite), titanium-bearing minerals (ilmenite, rutile),

Jan 1, 1981

SINCE I have mentioned the art of alchemy in. many parts of this treatise of mine, especially when 'came to the description of the practice of various operations,* I do not here intend to argue as to whether it may be called true or not. But in case it is true, inasmuch as it is seen in operation to be a result dependent on the actions and virtues of fires, I should not pass by in silence without speaking at all of this art here, nor would I wish to do so, especially since I think that you do not really know what it is except in so far as common report is heard everywhere to the effect that whoever carries it to completion makes silver and gold with it. Because of this belief, many seek it with much time, labor, and expense, as I know you have often heard related, if not elsewhere, by me in the chapter on gold that I have written in this volume. Now do not think that I wish to teach you this art here, for I am one of those who do not know it. Therefore I shall tell you here, so that you may know more, only. that those workers who so eagerly follow after and seek it proceed by just two pathways. One is that which takes its enlightenment from the words of the wise philosophers, by means of which they think to attain it. This they call the just, holy, and good way, and they, say that in this they are but imitators and assistants of Nature, indeed, manipulators and true physicians-of .mineral bodies, purging them of superfluities and assisting them by augmenting their virtue and freeing them from their defects. In this way they sometimes proceed to corrupt these bodies in order to be able to separate the elements they contain so as to reduce them, if possible, to their primary materials, as they call them, or sometimes they convert them into new substances by means of this art or by adding another spirit different from the first one. Thus they seek in this way to bring these materials to a certain point of corruption or to a separation of elements, or to remove or add spirits to things, or to make coarse materials subtle and sometimes to make subtle materials coarse. Therefore, as you can understand, these persons, with bridle broken, run a circular track night and day, without ever having rest; and surely I do not know whether anyone has ever arrived at the desired goal. Nevertheless, even though the goal of this art were emptiness, as many

Jan 1, 1942

By Anthony Folger, Howard R. Lowe, J. F. Dougherty, E. G. Trostel, Joffre Meyer

The status of the natural gas industry in Alberta, Canada, is described with particular reference to the current extent of natural gas reserves and possibilities for additional development. Certain major fields are discussed as representative of the types of gas accumulations within various broad geographical divisions of the provinces. The estimation of the future performance of a gas reservoir is discussed as the basis for an estimate of the future availability of natural gas from presently known reserves. The future availability of the provincial reserves and the estimated future demand for gas within the province are described. INTRODUCTION This paper is a condensation of a detailed study of the natural gas reserves and the future availability of pipeline gas in the province of Alberta as prepared for Trans-Canada Pipe Lines Limited and presented in public hearings at Edmonton and Calgary before the Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board of the Province of Alberta. The study began in October, 1950, and resulted in the preparation of five volumes of data at the expenditure of more than 20,000 man-hours. This paper is designed to afford a broad picture with detail limited to a type example of both natural ga-accumulation and future availability of gas supply. The province of Alberta has an area of 255.285 square miles which, for sake of comparison. is 8,359 square miles smaller than the state of Texas. Natural gas was first discovered in 1883 at the now abandoned Alderson well located some 20 miles southeast of the town of Princess. The first gas in commercial quantities was found at Medicine Hat in 1890. During the last 68 years. 187 localities have been discovered which are capable of gas production, and 73 per cent of these have been found since 1945. Sixty fields currently are producing gas, including 22 non-associated gas accumulations. Location of the oil and gas fields and prospects in the province of Alberta is shown in Fig. 1, together with a list of the localities of measurable gas, Fig. 1A. The estimated total provincial gas reserve as of Jan. 1, 1952, for the 104 fields estimated, is 11.7 trillion cu ft proved and probable, and for the 187 known areas capable of production is in excess of 16 trillion cu ft on a total proved, probable, and possible basis. Five fields (Pincher Creek, Leduc-Woodbend, Viking-Kinsella, Cessford and Medicine Hat) are estimated to have recoverable reserves of more than one trillion cu ft each. A sixth field, Turner Valley, was initially in this group, but its reserves have been depleted substantially. Twenty-four fields, of which the above mentioned six fields are a part, have estimated gas reserves (including the possible category) in excess of 100 billion cu ft. These 24 fields account for 79 per cent of the total provincial reserves. Comparative systemic analyses reflect that 56 per cant of Alberta's gas reserves are contained in sediments of Cretaceous age; 30 per cent in sediments of Mississippian age; 10 per cent in sediments of Devonian age; three per cent in sediments of Triassic age; and the remaining one per cent in Jurassic and Permo-Pennsylvanian sediments. It is expected that the relative importance of the Mississippian, Devonian, and Triassic sediments will be increased as exploration progresses. GENERAL GEOLOGY The western Canada basin comprises the sedimentary area between the Canadian Shield and the Rocky Mountain Front Range, the Arctic Ocean, and the International Boundary. The basin has an approximate area of 765,000 square miles and embraces parts of the provinces of Manitoba. Saskatchewan. Alberta, British Columbia and the Northwest Territories. Generalized columnar sections for the Province of Alberta are shown in Fig. 2. Substantially all of Alberta, except its northeast corner, has sedimentary cover. Sediments of all the geologic systems are represented. except those of Silurian age.

Jan 1, 1952

By M. J. Humenick, K. Garwacka

A laboratory experimental research project was conducted to evaluate the use of chlorine for the oxidative destruction of residual ammonia that may remain in ground water after in-situ uranium solution mining operations. The work tested the idea of injecting high strength calcium hypochlorite solution into the mining zone to convert ammonia to nitrogen gas as a final cleanup process for ammonia removal from the ground water system. This paper details ammonia removal efficiency as a function of chlorine dose, reactant, and product material balances, and how the concept may be used as a final ground water restoration process.

Jan 1, 1985

By R. F. Nielsen, R. G. Bentsen

Jan 1, 1966

By K. M. Weigert

The position of the three-phase field between the alpha and the beta phases was established. The exact location differs from previous assumptions. The extremely high strength and hardness values were found near the phase boundaries of the ternary compositions. IN 1929, UenoL investigated vertical sections of the Ag-Cu-Zn diagram at constant silver and zinc values. From the evaluation of cooling curves and microscopic studies, he concluded that there was no evidence of a three-phase field in the solid state between the a and ,8 fields. The failure to find evidence for this field was due to the fact that it exists only in a very narrow range of compositions and requires special methods of heat treatment to establish phase equilibrium. In a later publication on the same subject Keinert2 rearranged Ueno's diagrams to conform with the basic phase rules. The existence of a three-phase field was postulated in the solid state between the a phases and the homogeneous ,9 phase between the Cu-Zn and the Ag-Zn binary border systems. The approximate location was based on a few microscopic observations of the structure and it was pointed out that the exact position could be determined only by a larger number of experiments. In the twenty years following these investigations alloys of Ag-Cu-Zn have become of general interest due to various technical applications, principally for brazing. In the course of an overall investigation of the physical properties of ternary Ag-Cu-Zn alloys the author found extremely high values of hardness and strength in alloys of compositions between the a and the yS fields. The exact location of the intermediate phase fields was established by the evaluation of more than a hundred cooling curves and microscopic mountings. Experimental Procedures Preparation of Test Samples: At the beginning of the investigation samples were chillcast into Vi in. diameter iron molds to determine hardness, strength, and the mechanism of primary crystallization. These

Jan 1, 1955

This story of the salting of a supposed diamond mine is a part of our Western history and deserves to be recorded in this book. It was more than a local affair, because it was concerned with persons in London and New York, as well as San Francisco. Part of the story has been told by Asbury Harpending in a little book published 12 years ago. Harpending (who died at New York in 1923) was in London in March, 1872, when he received a cable dispatch from William C. Ralston, the president of the Bank of California, stating that "a vast diamond field" had been discovered "in a remote section of the United States". Before starting for San Francisco, Harpending had an interview with Baron Rothschild, who showed a lively interest in the story, which was as follows: two weather-beaten prospectors went to the Bank of California and deposited some uncut diamonds and rubies for safe keeping; these precious stones were estimated to be worth $125,000. The men said that they had found the gems in "a desert portion of the West". They departed quietly, but the story was told in business circles; whereupon George D. Roberts, a mining engineer of wide experience and an associate of Ralston, sought an interview with the prospectors. One of them proved to be a man that had been in the employ of Roberts. Both prospectors, named Slack and Arnold, appeared "coy and cautious"; they were "simpleminded fellows", and were "afraid to trust anyone with the momentous secret ". They refused to divulge the place of discovery and declined "to part with their rights", but later "they became more amenable to reason" and expressed willingness to sell a half interest to

Jan 1, 1932

By R. L. Moment

The anisotropic elastic behavior of rolled beryllium sheet has been measured, using a pulse echo technique, and compared with X-ray diffraction data. Calculated elastic stiffness constants compared favorably with published values for beryllium single crystals which were attributed to the strong (0002) rolling plane texture. Variations of Young's modulus in the yolling plane could be associated with the velative distribution of (0002) planes out of their ideal position in the rollitzg pkule. WHEN a metal is subjected to cold working such as drawing, forming, or rolling, a crystallographic texture develops which can significantly alter its physical properties. One method for detecting this texture is X-ray diffraction, but Alers and Liu' have recently pointed out how the prediction of anisotropic physical properties from pole figures alone is not always accurate due to differences in interpretation. Variations in Young's modulus with orientation or, more completely, the values of the effective elastic constants of the worked metal, also serve to indicate the presence of a texture. In fact, as Alers and Liu' pointed out, calculated variations in Young's modulus for assumed orientations, when compared with experimental data, can be used to eliminate some of the uncertainty in interpretation of X-ray pole figures. Thus, elasticity measurements can serve not only to clarify any unusual elastic behavior of worked metal, but also to detect and in part determine the nature of its texture. X-ray determination of the texture of rolled beryllium has been reported by Smigelskas and Barrett,2 who found a strong texture of (0002) in the rolling plane with (1070) planes normal to the rolling direction. In the case of metal rolled at room temperature, they reported that [1010] directions also appeared at positions 60 and 120 deg from the rolling direction in the rolling plane, while in more recent work Keeler3 found these directions were also tilted towards the rolling plane. The texture for beryllium rolled at 80O0C, however, only showed (1010) planes normal to the rolling direction and the spread of (0002) planes out of the rolling plane was less. In looking for elastic anisotropy one might consider unidirectional rolling of a metal as introducing an or-thorhombic symmetry through reorientation of the grains, since the three deformations, compression, extension in the rolling direction, and extension in the cross direction, are orthogonal to each other and unequal in magnitude. Thus the rolled sheet could be treated like an orthorhombic single crystal and the nine stiffness constants of the elasticity tensor used to calculate the anisotropy of Young's modulus, the shear modulus and Poisson's ratio. In this case we could write: which is symmetric about its diagonal. Borik and Alers4 have recently used this approach on rolled die steel with very good results. They found, however, that instead of displaying orthorhombic elastic symmetry their specimens could be considered tetragonal in which case Cr1 = c22, c13 = Ca, and c44 =cjj. This conclusion was made solely on the basis of the measured tensor elements, and serves to point out the advantage of this method for studying the anisotropy of rolled metals. Their calculated values for Young's modulus as a function of angle in the rolling plane also checked very well with direct measurements made on different specimens using the resonance technique. In the present study, cross-rolled beryllium was used which had been unidirectionally rolled about 11 pct for the final reduction. This imparted a slight anisotropy in the rolling plane which was detected both by X-ray techniques and elasticity measurements. For purposes of discussion in this paper, the rolling direction is that direction in which the most reduction passes were made and cross direction is the normal to the rolling direction in the rolling plane. It was also decided to consider the rolled sheet as displaying orthorhombic symmetry for the purpose of obtaining elasticity samples with the direction defined as in Table I. Any change in the final symmetry attributed to the sheet would then be made on the basis of the measured elastic stiffnesses. The final data would then be compared with that expected from the X-ray study and that reported for beryllium single crystals. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Rolling Schedule. The samples used in this study were taken from a large sheet which, because of its size, had to be unidirectionally rolled for the final reduction. The resulting texture was that of cross-rolled metal with a slight unidirectional texture superimposed. A cast beryllium ingot, 9.500 in. sq by 3.325 in. thick, was cross-rolled to 81 pct reduction followed by unidirectional rolling for an additional 11 pct to give a total reduction of 92 pct. The thickness of the final sheet ranged from 0.265 to 0.280 in. Reduction up to 67 pct was done at 980°C and the final 25 pct at 870°C. Analysis for metallic impurities showed aluminum 0.06 pct, iron 0.19 pct, and silicon 0.11 pct, giving a beryllium purity of 99.64 pct.

Jan 1, 1968

Discussion of the paper of C. W. WASHBURNE, presented at the Pittsburgh meeting, October, 1914, and printed in Bulletin No. 93,. September, 1914, pp. 2365 to 2378. ROSWELL H. JOHNSON, Pittsburgh, Pa.-It seems to me rather important to bear in mind one thing which is sometimes lost sight of, that the marine sedimentary rocks are laid down in water. We have to start with an initial charge of water. That being so, and the surface tension between the water and the -oil being as slight as it is, as referred to by Mr. Washburne,. the phenomena of capillarity are bound to be most important as between the liquid surface and the gas surface. So far as the liquid-gas surface is concerned, capillarity, in my opinion, is of the utmost importance, and it seems to me this paper of Mr. Washburne's is of great value to us for that reason. Starting out as we have, with our attention concentrated upon gravitational sorting, we have had to wait for the discussion of movement furnished by Munn, and this discussion of capillarity by Washburne, for a more balanced view of the situation. It seems to me that in the accumulation of oil and gas we have a problem of the interworking of gravitational sorting, capillarity, viscosity, immiscibility, and movement. All five things seem to me to be important. I would have expected Mr. Washburne to have given a fuller treatment of the relation of movement to capillarity. In my own experiments I find that gravitation and capillarity alone seem remarkably impotent when everything is at rest, but if I furnish a little movement, gravitation and capillarity step in and accomplish a great many results that one would not expect. Take a horizontal tube and fill a portion at the middle with an ordinary sand saturated with oil, and then put water and sand in each end, and the tube may remain at rest a very long time without that oil distributing itself along the top of the tube. But with a little motion that oil will gradually work up to the upper side. So gravitation and capillarity alone are rather impotent unless they get this element of movement. It would not be necessary to have very extensive movement, but some degree of movement is essential. Now if natural gas, in addition to the method of origin by the action of bacteria on organic matter in mud, may also arise by pressure at great depth, as the overburden is added, a great deal of motion may result. I think more motion is produced in this way than by the descent of meteoric waters.

Jan 4, 1915

By Frank Firmstone

SINCE the blast fired August 15th, 1878, which was described by Mr. Clark,* and up to November, 1881, we have fired three smaller blasts, one in the: southwest corner of the quarry and two in-the but-tress of rock Left standing by the first blast rear the mouth of the main gangway. We intended to keep an exact account of the stone thrown down by each blast, but the large quantity required by, the furnaces since the beginning of 1879, and the time taken up by more important matters, have caused this to he neglected, so that it is not possible to separate exactly the, cost and quantity of stone obtained during this time by the old method from that furnished by the large blasts; yet as the latter quantity has beet much greater than the former, some notion of the value of the Jarge-blast plan may be reached by comparing the figures from September, 1878, to November, 1881, with those for times when the old system was exclusively used. Since 1878 wages have been raised, lowered, and again raised, and to get a year of sufficiently large production for fair comparison it is necessary to go back to that ending April, 1872, when wages and supplies were different from present prices and from those of 1878. * Transactions, vol. vii, p. 266.

Jan 1, 1882

By Paul A. Bailly

“For innovative leadership in bringing about a quantitative rationality to mineral exploration; for the impact his efforts and wide respect have made on national mineral policy issues; for his effective managerial role in major mineral discoveries; and for his lecture, ‘Managing for Ore Discoveries.’”

Jan 1, 1980

THERE are, as I have heard, varying opinions among men experienced in minerals as to whether silver has its own mineral [i.e., occurs native] or not. Mineralogical reasons and the authority of the majority persuade me that it has, not only because I have seen the natural material separate but also because I know that in mines of gold, copper, lead, and other metals pieces of pure metal are found without admixture, and I have heard that pieces of silver, gold, and copper have been found that had been reduced to their ultimate purity by natural causes. This is also confirmed by a German, Georgius Agricola, who says* that in a mine in Saxony a piece of metallic silver was found so large that the Duke who was prince and patron of the place had a whole dining table of square German style made from it without its being enlarged or worked on by any human artifice except for the tripod legs, and he often boasted that in this he surpassed the greatness of the Emperor. In truth I have never seen any metal except copper that was brought out from the mine pure and without any mineral, but I think that such a thing is indeed possible, since I believe in the greatness and power of Nature, who strives toward no other goal than perfection and purity. Indeed most of the minerals that I have seen have not been without admixture, not only of their earth but also of other metals, and this is more true of that which I have heard called silver than of any of the others. I except the silver that is mined in Schio in the region of Vicenza. These doubts, therefore, are not born without some shadow of apparent reason. As I told you above I believe that silver may have and does have its own mineral, for every substance that is converted into metal can exist pure by itself in its own species, as it also exists separately even though it be mixed with others, since it is seen that in each ore its metal is generated in a single body. Therefore it happens many times that whoever speaks of the ore of silver in one breath, without distinction, speaks of that of all the other metals, because there are few ores that are not mixed. But because the most noble things always have the prerogative of including in their name that of the others, where there is gold or silver the ores are not called

Jan 1, 1942

By Bernard Amadei, Richard E. Goodman

A medium is anisotropic if its properties vary with direction. This is the general characteristic of many rocks, for example, schists, slates, gneisses, phyllites and other metamorphic rocks. Bedded and regularly jointed rocks also display anisotropic behavior. This paper is concerned with the influence of rock anisotropy on in-situ stress measurements. It is limited to stress measurements by overcoring techniques for which strains and displacements are recorded either on the walls of a pilot hole at the end of one or several boreholes or within instrumented solid or hollow inclusions perfectly bonded to the surface of the pilot hole. The rock is described as homogeneous, continuous, anisotropic and linearly elastic. The following questions are answered with special emphasis on rocks that can be classed as transversely isotropic or orthotropic: the number of independent measurements obtainable in a single borehole; the number of boreholes required to determine the in-situ stress field; the influence of rock anisotropy on these numbers; the influence of the anisotropy type and the error involved by neglecting rock anisotropy.

Jan 1, 1982

By Charles Fulton

The study of the condensation of zinc from its vapor was undertaken to shed light on certain problems encountered in large-scale electric zinc-furnace work recently conducted. It is a matter of common knowledge that one of the disadvantages of the arc type, electric zinc furnace, is the production of a large amount of blue powder and proportionately little liquid spelter, for, as stated by Stansfield,1 "A notable defect in the electric smelting of zinc ores is the difficulty experienced in obtaining the distilled zinc in the liquid state; when zinc ores are smelted electrically, very little liquid metal is commonly obtained, nearly all of the zinc being in the state of powder."

Jan 8, 1918