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By H. R. Tunnell

Every one connected with a mine knows that it is hard to keep down the costs of moving ore from the place where it is broken to the shaft or portal. Considered broadly, the subject of handling would cover all work done in a mine, but here it has been limited to handling ore in stopes and drifts, through chutes, and on levels. Good ventilation and a strict enforcement of rules for the prevention of dust safeguard the health of the men and lower transportation costs. Handling ORe in Stopes and Drifts The object of all stoping is to mine ore of good grade at low cost. In Butte, most of the ore is mined, from veins dipping from 60° to the horizontal to those which are vertical, by means of square-set, rill, timbered-rill, and back-filling stopes. When blasted, a part of the rock is carried by gravity to the grizzlies over the chutes, the rest is shoveled. Rock, when broken in a stope, may be deflected by inclined floors or slides toward the top of a chute leading to the level below. Ore broken clean enough to ship should be carried, by the force of its fall, into a chute or.as nearly into that chute as the safety of the stope and the men permits. Ore that requires sorting, about 80 per cent. of all ore mined, is caught on a grizzly and the waste picked out. Waste rock broken in a stope is used to fill that stope and should be blasted into the gob with as little handling as possible. About two-thirds of all the ore mined in Butte comes from square-set stopes; this method was used in nearly all cases until 1912, when the rill method of stoping was introduced in the Tramway mine, of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. The shoveling and timbering costs in square-set stopes are high when compared with the costs in the rill stopes. All the ore cannot be carried to the chute, in falling from place, unless the chutes are very close together or the distance from the back of the stope to the top of the chute is sufficient to slide all the ore broken. The number of chutes is limited by the tendency of the ground to cave; if carried too close together the stope is weakened. Small stopes, or blocks,

Jan 1, 1923

By H. R. Tunnell

Every one connected with a mine knows that it is hard to keep down the costs of moving ore from the place where it is broken to the shaft or portal. Considered broadly, the subject of handling would cover all work done in a mine, but here it has been limited to handling ore in stopes and drifts, through chutes, and on levels. Good ventilation and a strict enforcement of rules for the prevention of dust safeguard the health of the men and lower transportation costs. Handling ORe in Stopes and Drifts The object of all stoping is to mine ore of good grade at low cost. In Butte, most of the ore is mined, from veins dipping from 60° to the horizontal to those which are vertical, by means of square-set, rill, timbered-rill, and back-filling stopes. When blasted, a part of the rock is carried by gravity to the grizzlies over the chutes, the rest is shoveled. Rock, when broken in a stope, may be deflected by inclined floors or slides toward the top of a chute leading to the level below. Ore broken clean enough to ship should be carried, by the force of its fall, into a chute or.as nearly into that chute as the safety of the stope and the men permits. Ore that requires sorting, about 80 per cent. of all ore mined, is caught on a grizzly and the waste picked out. Waste rock broken in a stope is used to fill that stope and should be blasted into the gob with as little handling as possible. About two-thirds of all the ore mined in Butte comes from square-set stopes; this method was used in nearly all cases until 1912, when the rill method of stoping was introduced in the Tramway mine, of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. The shoveling and timbering costs in square-set stopes are high when compared with the costs in the rill stopes. All the ore cannot be carried to the chute, in falling from place, unless the chutes are very close together or the distance from the back of the stope to the top of the chute is sufficient to slide all the ore broken. The number of chutes is limited by the tendency of the ground to cave; if carried too close together the stope is weakened. Small stopes, or blocks,

Jan 1, 1923

By Dorsey Hager

North Central Texas has recently become a center of interest for the oil men of America. The bringing in of the McClosky well at Ranger, Eastland County, and the shallow pool at Brownwood, Brown County, in 1917, has stimulated interest in this area to fever pitch. Oil men from all over the United States are now investing there. The area of present interest is shown by the accompanying map (Fig. 1). The money spent in leases runs into millions of dollars. It is no exaggeration to say that a strip of country 200 miles (321 km.) long and 125 miles (201 km.) wide, comprising some 15,000,000 acres (6,070,310 ha.), has been leased practically solid at a cost for rentals and bonuses of at least $1 per acre. The test holes contracted for will certainly number 400, at a cost of at least $5,000,000. From what has been done in the past six months, $20,000,000 at least will be spent. To pay returns on this amount of money, new production to the extent of at least 12,000,000 bbl. must be obtained. At present, the production from new fields will not average over 5000 bbl. per day; three wells at Ranger are producing 3000 bbl.; 250 wells at Brownwood produce 1000 bbl.; and the Gray well, Coleman County, is as yet an unknown factor. However, at Ranger there is every indication of developing a good pool covering from 1500 to 2000 acres (607 to 809 ha.), more or less, but the wells are deep, 3400 to 3800 ft. (1036 to 1158 m.), and cost $35,000 to $40,000 to drill. Large wells are necessary to pay for such expensive holes. As new wells are drilled, the gas pressure will be lowered rapidly, and large production need not be expected. For those oil men who expect a second Cushing or an Eldorado, Ranger holds little of promise. At Brownwood, Brown County, there are some 250 shallow wells (depths from 200 to 350 ft.) averaging 4 to 7 bbl. per day. There is a chance of an extensive producing area for these shallow sands to the southwest, and the opening of several thousand acres of shallow oil territory, and also some promise of deeper oil horizons in the Ranger horizon, but probably all under 2500 ft. At present, the lease brokers and speculators, and only a handful of oil men, have made any money. More fields must be developed, and it is more particularly with these possibilities that this paper deals. Lack of water for drilling purposes has undoubtedly held back development so far this year; this part of Texas has had a drouth for two years and there is an actual scarcity of water. Geological investigations so far undertaken cover nearly all the area outlined, and while pakt of the

Jan 1, 1920

By C. P. Proctor, J. T. Crawford, John Griffen

TROUGH washers were among the earliest methods used for concentrating ores; they are referred to by Agricola about the middle of the sixteenth century as already being used while the hand- operated jigging sieve had only recently come into use. For cleaning coal the trough washer apparently was first used in France and Belgium about 184.1. The early trough washers were intermittent and the refuse at least was shoveled out by hand. The invention of a continuous jig washer, by a Frenchman, Berard, in 1848, acted as a stimulus to coal washings in jigs and retarded progress in trough washing in the nineteenth century. Chapman and Mott 1 describe a number of trough washers developed in England and on the Continent from 1850 to 1900, such as the Bell and Ramsay, Ramsay, Bell and Green, Wunderlich, Scaife, McLellan, Lodge, Elliott, Blackett, and Murton. The later of these removed the refuse mechanically, either intermittently or continuously, but in ways that interfered with stratification. THE RHEOLAVEUR A Belgian engineer, Antoine France, is responsible for the development of means to remove refuse materials continuously from a trough washer, while preserving stratification and preventing the loss of coal with the refuse. The methods and equipment devised, which have become known throughout the world as rheolaveur, were initiated at the St. Nicholas mine near Liége, Belgium, about 1912. This installation consisted of two units to wash 20 to 8-mill. (3/16 to 5/16-in.) and 8-mm. to 0 (5/16-in. to 0), each having only two superimposed inclined troughs. The first few "Rheo" boxes on the top trough removed refuse directly and the remaining Rheo boxes discharged impure refuse to the lower trough for rewashing. On the lower trough the first few boxes removed refuse and the following boxes removed a middling product used for boiler fuel or other purposes. The overflow of both troughs was joined to form the washed coal product.

Jan 1, 1950

By C. K. Rose, J. H. East

Proved oil shale reserves in the Green River formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming dwarf present U. S. petroleum resources. Indications are that the appetite for petroleum products will continue to grow and that this potential source of liquid fuels and related byproducts cannot be disregarded. As a part of its synthetic fuels program, the U. S. Bureau of Mines has opened a mine in the richer beds on the naval oil shale reserves. In addition to supplying material for retorting and refining studies, the development of methods, procedures, and equipment for mining oil shale on a large-scale commercial basis is of the greatest importance.

Oct 1, 1955

By Earl Oliver

Superficial observation of the petroleum stabilization movement in 1932 is disappointing. Threatened overproduction persisted; waste continued; proration was violated; gasoline taxes were evaded; and, as a consequence, chaos threatened the industry as the year drew to a close. However, comparison of the movement in 1932 with its beginning a few years ago, and analyses of those influences that promote its growth as well as those which retard it, disclose some reasons for encouragement. Stabilization, as we see it, is not merely a mechanical engineering problem. It involves social engineering. By which we do not mean it is possible, or even desirable, to change the nature of men, but rather that it is possible to set up procedure that will avoid causing them to clash. It comprehends consideration of physical objects that is clearly within the field of the engineer, but it considers them only in relation to their distribution, utilization and control in harmony with philosophies that motivate men and shape current conceptions of right and wrong, or of justice and injustice if those terms be deemed more acceptable. Stabilization cannot be effected without utilizing the knowledge of the engineer, but neither can it be effected without utilizing more than comes within his traditional field of activity. In discussing the problem herein we shall endeavor to treat it briefly from that consolidated viewpoint. Rapid fluctuations in supply have characterized the oil industry from its beginning; yet only within the past ten years has an understanding begun to develop regarding the extent of waste—the degree of dissipation of natural resources—that attends the operation of the industry under the practices and laws which control it in the United States. The extent and regrettable consequences of those wastes, their underlying causes and the ease with which they could be prevented are not yet generally understood even within the industry. Producing TomoRRow' s Oil Today The interests detrimentally affected by these economic evils are vastly greater than the mere welfare of the oil industry. The problem involves the nation's supply of gasoline and other petroleum products at

Jan 1, 1933

By Spruille Braden

My attendance at this seventy-fifth Anniversary banquet of the A I M E is for me a homecoming, It means renewing associations with old friends, breathing again 'the invigorating mining atmosphere in which I was born and reared, and being among those who remember with affection and esteem the man from whom I inherited a name so intimately linked to-the mining profession Tonight, like a prodigal son strayed from mining into the far countries of diplomacy, I return, to eat and be merry over the fatted calf on this pleasurable occasion , While there is no riotous living in modern diplomacy, you are no doubt convinced that neither did I suffer a mighty famine in those far lands When I entered the Foreign Service, a few mining friends, viewing diplomats as sartorial perfectionists, or "striped pantsers" preoccupied with the art of cookie pushing, no doubt thought me a lost soul Conversely, some of my new colleagues at first looked upon me captiously and later as a reformed character, because they believed all miners to be rough customers, attired in muddy boots and given to direct action and equally direct or even explosive speech In point of fact, these two professions have much in common I do not have in mind the parallel cynicisms that "a miner is a liar with a hole in the ground" and "a diplomat a man sent abroad to lie for his country " I do

Jan 1, 1947

By J. M. Kane

IN all probability the mining and metallurgical industry as a whole can demonstrate a larger economic return from installation of dust-control equipment than any other major industrial group. This fact has partially accounted for the marked increase of dust-control installations made during the past decade. While the primary objectives for installation of dust-collecting systems are improved working and operating conditions for men and equipment, the fact that an economic return can be anticipated on salvageable materials is an added advantage which shows in partial or complete equipment write-off. The conditions apply to most phases of the mining, milling, and smelting industry, both non-metallic and metallic.

Jan 1, 1953

By P. E. Rider, K. A. Gschneidner, O. D. McMasters

The solid solubilities for thirteen rare-earth metals in gold were determined by using the X-ray parametric method. Solubilities ranged from 0.1 at. pct for lanthanum in gold up to 8.8 at. pct for scandium in gold. The solubilities from lanthanum to gadolinium were very small and essentially constant, but a sharp increase occurred from gadolinium to scandium. The large solubilities for the heavy rare-earth metals were not expected because of the large size and electrochemical differences between rare-earth atoms and the gold atom. Contributions from first- and second-order elasticity theory plus an electronic contribution were found to reasonably account for a more favorable size factor. Electron transfer from the rare-earth metal to the gold Is thought to occur such that the resultant rare-earth and gold electronegativities are favorable for solid-solution formation. It was also found that this mutual adjustment of size and electronegutivity does not occur if the pure-metal size factors are greater than a critical value of 25 pet. The eutectic temperatures for ten systems were determined and these remained fairly constant at approximately 809 "C for the lighter lanthanide metal-gold systems until the Er-Au system was reached, at which Point the eutectic temperature successively increased reaching a maximum of 1040°C in the Sc-Au system. This rise was correlated to the size factor becoming more favorable for solid-solution formation at erbium. The valence state of ytterbium was found to change from two in the pure metal to three when ytterbium is dissolved in the gold matrix. RECENT results1 reported concerning the solubility of holmium in copper, silver, and gold, showed that the solubility of holmium in gold was quite large, 4.0 at. pct, compared with 1.6 in silver and 0.02 in copper. The small solubilities of holmium in silver and copper are quite reasonable in view of the large size difference (22.2 and 38.2 pct, respectively), large electronegativity difference (0.59 for both systems), and possible unfavorable valency factor (assuming one for silver and copper and three for holmium). The large solubility in gold, however, is unexpected because these same factors are also unfavorable for holmium and gold (22.5 pct size difference and 0.69 electronegativity difference), and because the light rare-earth metals, lanthanum, cerium, and praseodymium, have negligible solid solubilities in gold.2 In view of this unexpected behavior, it was felt that a study of the solid solubilities of most of the rare-earth metals in gold would be desirable to better understand the factors involved in the formation of solid solutions. Of the rare-earth metals added to gold in this study, only ytterbium is divalent in the pure metallic state (the other rare-earth metals are all trivalent) and many of its physical properties (such as the metallic radius, electronegativity, and so forth) are much different from those of the normal trivalent rare-earth metals.' The properties of ytterbium are such that one would expect solid-solution formation to be less favorable for ytterbium in gold than for any of the normal trivalent rare-earth metals. But chemically ytterbium is known to possess a stable trivalent state, and it is quite possible that ytterbium may alloy as a trivalent metal under certain conditions rather than as a divalent metal. Because of the dual valency nature and because so little is known about the alloying behavior of ytterbium, the gold-rich ytterbium-gold alloys are of special interest. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Materials. The gold used in this investigation had a purity of 99.99 pct with respect to nongaseous impurities. In general the rare-earth metals were prepared by reduction of the corresponding fluoride by calcium metal.3 The impurity contents of the metals used in this study are given in Table I. Preparation of Alloys. Two- or 3-g alloy samples were prepared by arc melting. The samples, with the exception of some of the Er-Au alloys, had weight losses of 0.5 pct or less. All alloy concentrations noted in this paper are nominal compositions. After arc melting, the alloys were wrapped in tantalum foil, sealed off in quartz tubing under a partial atmosphere of argon, homogenized for approximately 200 hr at 780°C, and then quenched in cold water. X-Ray Methods. The X-ray parametric method was used in determining the solubility of the rare-earth metals in gold. filings were sealed in small tantalum tubes by welding under a helium atmosphere. The tantalum tubes were then sealed in quartz tubing under a partial argon atmosphere, and annealed for times ranging from 1/2 to 3 hr (the length of time was inversely proportional to the an-

Jan 1, 1965

There is mitigation for the sorrow of friends and the tragedy of sudden death when that death comes at the height of a successful career. It is not everyone's privilege to die, as has been the wish of many, in the harness—toiling, accomplishing, still necessary to the scheme of things. Nor is it everyone's privilege to leave a monument to his work. Dr. Fred Walter McNair died thus—in the midst of his work of educating, leaving along the path down the quarter century of his presidency of the Michigan College of Mines hundreds of men who, having come under his influence, have been successful in life.

Jan 1, 1924

E. D. WILLIAMSON,* Washington, D. C. (written discussion?).-The paper is interesting and suggestive and the work described should he carried to completion, as it presents points of interest quite apart from the immediate application in glass manufacture. It ought to help, for instance, in throwing light on the chemical nature of glasses and on all questions of viscous flow.

Jan 11, 1919

By Paul A. Beck

IN several recent investigations1 ' considerable evidence was accumulated to show the predominance in various face-centered cubic metals of a certain relative orientation, corresponding to a rotation of 30" to, 40" around a [111] axis, between a matrix with a strong single orientation texture and grains growing in this matrix." This relative orientation was found to occur both in recrystallization and in coarsening, "secondary recrystallization", so that one is inclined to look for an explanation applicable in both cases. The abundance of growing grains in the described orientations proves that suitable "nuclei" are present in the matrix material and that they have the capacity to grow. The scarcity of growing grains in other orientations may be explained in one 'of two ways. Either the number of nuclei or the rate of growth must decrease strongly for orientations deviating from that predominating among the growing grains, Fig. 1. Both the "oriented nucleation" and the "oriented growth" theory found support in the literature. Because the frequency of nuclei as a function of orientation is in most instances not amenable to direct experimental investigation, a definitive decision is difficult to achieve. However, it is now known with great certainty that the rate of boundary migration is strongly dependent on the relative orientation of the two grains meeting at the boundary and that the orientation favored by high boundary mobility closely corresponds to that predominating in most cases of recrystallization and coarsening. Thus, it was found that, in general, the mobility is very low for boundaries between grains of nearly identical orientation, or for coherent twin boundaries. On the other hand, the boundaries between two grains of a relative orientation correspending to a [1111 rotation of 30" to 40" have the highest mobility in face-centered cubic metals. If a large variety of nucleus orientations are produced grow- by means of a highly inhomogeneous local deformation, nuclei close to the above orientation are found to grow fastest.z4 In view of this evidence and of the fact that the preferred orientation relationship is the same in recrystallization and in coarsening, the oriented growth theory appears by far the more promising one. Since the origin of nuclei in primary recrystallization is certainly different from that in coarsening, the occurrence of the same orientation relationship in the two processes would be difficult to explain on the basis of oriented nucleation. other advantages of the oriented growth theory are its capability of accounting for the often observed sharpening of the texture in coarsening, and its suitability for explaining the role in the formation of the ''cube texture,, of the most important variables, such as the degree of rolling, the penultimate grain size, and the time and temperature of the last anneal: No similarly consistent explanation of all these effects has ever been offered in terms of oriented nucleation. An important problem in connection with the oriented growth theory is the following: In the ce-c entered system there are four [111] axes and

Jan 1, 1952

By Charles Trotter

AN instrument has recently been developed for determining the inclination and azimuthal direction of boreholes. This instrument is known as the Tro-Pari Instrument and is the invention of C. Trotter and G. Pajari of Sudbury, Ontario. DESCRIPTION The instrument is characterized by a unit mounted in gimbals and provided with a clockwork mechanism to clamp a compass to indicate azimuthal direction and simultaneously to clamp the unit in its plumb position to indicate inclination (Fig I). By means of a timing ring suitably calibrated in 5-min divisions, the unit may be set to lock after a lapse of time sufficient to allow the placing of the instrument at the desired point in the drill hole where readings are to be taken. The maximum time lapse obtainable with the instrument designed for use in EX or AX size holes is 1 hr 30 min which is considered to be ample time to lower to the greatest depths that may be drilled with this size of equipment. Larger sizes could be developed for larger diameter holes such as BX and NX sizes or the larger oil-well sizes and a correspondingly greater time lapse could be provided for. Up to the present time only the EX-AX size has been built. OPERATION Assuming a borehole is to be surveyed at 1000-ft depth and assuming it will take 30 min to lower the instrument to this depth, the timing ring is rotated through seven divisions which represent a time lapse of 35 min (5-min leeway) and is then returned to its zero position. This operation imparts energy to a spring which drives the clockwork mechanism. Simultaneously the compass needle is freed to swing to its magnetic north-south position and the encased mechanism is freed to hang plumb within a semicircular portion of the frame which is graduated in degrees after the fashion of a protractor. This semicircular protractor portion has a V-shaped notch at each degree division of its inner periphery. The instrument, now in its free position, is inserted in a bronze container made to suit the size of hole to be surveyed (Fig 2). Soft rubber washers are provided within the container to prevent undue shock. The container is connected to the drill rods with three 5-ft lengths of brass or aluminum alloy rods separating it from the steel rods in order to prevent distortion of the magnetic field. The assembly is then lowered to the desired point where readings are to be taken and is allowed to remain at rest until a period of time has elapsed slightly in excess of the time for which the timing ring was set. In the example cited above, when the 35 min has elapsed the compass needle is locked in its north-south position and the protractor locking pin is extruded and locks in the V notch opposite its plumb position. The device may now be removed from the borehole and it will remain in this locked position in spite of jarring or shak-

Jan 1, 1947

By Charles Trotter

An instrument has recently been developed for determining the inclination and azimuthal direction of boreholes. This instrument is known as the Tro-Pari Instrument and is the invention of C. Trotter and G. Pajari of Sudbury, Ontario. Description The instrument is characterized by a unit mounted in gimbals and provided with a clockwork mechanism to clamp a compass to indicate azimuthal direction and simultaneously to clamp the unit in its plumb position to indicate inclination (Fig I). By means of a timing ring suitably calibrated in 5-min divisions, the unit may be set to lock after a lapse of time sufficient to allow the placing of the instrument at the desired point in the drill hole where readings are to be taken. The maximum time Lapse obtainable with the instrument designed for use in EX or AX size holes is I hr 30 min which is considered to be ample time to lower to the greatest depths that may be drilled with this size of equipment. Larger sizes could be developed for larger diameter holes such as BX and NX sizes or the larger oil-well sizes and a correspondingly greater time lapse could be provided for. Up to the present time only the EX-AX size has been built. Operation Assuming a borehole is to be surveyed at 1000-ft depth and assuming it will take 30 min to lower the instrument to this depth, the timing ring is rotated through seven divisions which represent a time lapse of 35 min (5-min leeway) and is then returned to its zero position. This operation imparts energy to a spring which drives the clockwork mechanism. Simultaneously the compass needle is freed to swing to its magnetic north-south position and the encased mechanism is freed to hang plumb within a semicircular portion of the frame which is graduated in degrees after the fashion of a protractor. This semicircular protractor portion has a V-shaped notch at each degree division of its inner periphery. The instrument, now in its free position, is inserted in a bronze container made to suit the size of hole to be surveyed (Fig 2). Soft rubber washers are provided within the container to prevent undue shock. The container is connected to the drill rods with three 5-ft lengths of brass or aluminum alloy rods separating it from the steel rods in order to prevent distortion of the magnetic field. The assembly is then lowered to the desired point where readings are to be taken and is allowed to remain at rest until a period of time has elapsed slightly in excess of the time for which the timing ring was set. In the example cited above, when the 35 min has elapsed the compass needle is locked in its north-south position and the protractor locking pin is extruded and locks in the V notch opposite its plumb position. The device may now be removed from the borehole and it will remain in this locked position in spite of jarring or shak-

Jan 1, 1949

By Robert E. Green, Kenneth Reifsnider

A microscopic X-ray diffraction technique was employed for the simultaneous study of the behavior of several families of lattice planes, whose local orientatiotz changes are manufestations of internal distortions resulting from specimen deformation. Photographs taken using aluminum were single crystals 1/64 in. In diam are presented which illustrate the appearance of various types of deformation- or growth- induced structural variations. Slip and lattice bending were detected in tensile tests for strains as small as 0.1 pct. Evidence of deformation bands, lineage structure, and void formation wns also shown. AmONG the most important methods of studying internal stresses in metals is the utilization of various X-ray techniques. The general subject of X-ray metallography has been treated in a most excellent manner by Taylor,1 and the use of X-rays for the direct observation of imperfections in crystals has recently been reviewed in an article by Newkirk2 and in the book edited by Newkirk and Wernick.3 Since the inception of metallographic X-ray analysis, there have been numerous technological developments and refinements, each with its particular advantages and disadvantages and, acrording to these, its particular applications. X-ray diffraction techniques can be divided into two general categories, that of X-ray diffraction microscopy and that of X-ray diffraction macroscopy. In the former are included such methods as those of Berg-Barrett, Lang, and Schultz2,3 which are concerned with microscopic imperfections such as dislocations. The second category includes all work concerned with the study of the condition of a crystal lattice structure as indicated by the marroscopic detail in its diffraction patterns. An example of this is the study of the diffraction manifestations of inhomogeneous plastic deformation as manifested by formation of deformation bands and inhomogeneous lattice rotations. The method used in the present investigation was an X-ray diffraction macroscopy technique. The geometry and analytical aspects of the method were similar to those of Julien and Cullity.4,5 The source was collimated with a single slit in a manner simi- lar to the "parallel beam'' method of Barth and Hosemann6 except that a continuous spectrum of radiation was employed. The apparatus produced large-beam transmission Laue patterns of thin cylindrical aluminum-wire crystals, which were deformed either in tension or torsion. Although the conventional X-ray target and interposed slit were not capable of the high resolution obtainable with a fine-focus X-ray source as employed in a microfocus apparatus, resolution was a secondary consideration in our technique, and was sacrificed to obtain sufficient intensity along a sizable length of the specimen. By using a grid indexing technique similar to that of Barth,7 we were able to study several diffraction lines from various planes simultaneously. The results of these tests give additional information with regard to the inhomogeneous deformation of single crystals, and the indexing procedure used provides a correlation between portions of the test specimen and portions of a diffracted beam. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE The experimental arrangement used is shown schematically in Fig. 1. A source of continuous X radiation from a vertically mounted Machlett X-ray tube possessing a copper target and operated at 20 kv and 10 ma was passed down a horizontal lead tube 80 cm long which terminated in an adjustable vertical brass slit. The slit opening was adjusted to correspond with the diameter of the test specimen. In front of the brass slit it was possible to place a screen wire mesh, one horizontal strand of which was a lead wire which served as a fiduciary mark, the screen itself serving as an indexing system as will be described later. Behind the screen was the test specimen which consisted of an aluminum single crystal wire 1/64 in. in diameter and 3 in. long. These 3-in.-long crystals were cut from

Jan 1, 1965

By Ralph H. Sweetser

In these days of the almost exclusive use of byproduct coke as the blast-furnace fuel in this country, it may seem out of place, and smacking too much of reminiscing, to say anything about the use of anthracite coal for blast-furnace fuel. Viewed in the light of present day research and of developments in alloy steel, some observations seem appropriate regarding this raw material that played such an important part in the development of the iron and steel industry during 50 years of the past century. The research work of that period, in which the whole iron and steel industry was revolutionized, passing from wrought iron to steel and from charcoal to three new mineral fuels for blast furnaces, was done chiefly in the full-sized plants of that day; and it was done largely by the ironmasters themselves. The laboratory had not become a part of the ironworks, and scientific instruments were lacking around the blast furnaces; "rule o' thumb" and erroneous theories prevailed—and have not yet all been eliminated. The recent interest in meteoric iron in connection with nickel steels and other alloys proves that it is worth while to search for the reasons for excellence and the causes for failures in the metallurgy of bygone days. Turner1 gives the reasons why the blast furnace of Dr. F. W. Geissen-hainer on Silver Creek, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, about 10 miles northeast of Pottsville, was operated successfully with anthracite2 in August and September, 1836, and why several other attempts failed. It has taken a long time for us to find out that there are great differences in the behavior of anthracites from the several parts of the anthracite region, as well as differences in coking coals from the bituminous fields.

Jan 1, 1935

By Ralph H. Sweetser

In these days of the almost exclusive use of byproduct coke as the blast-furnace fuel in this country, it may seem out of place, and smacking too much of reminiscing, to say anything about the use of anthracite coal for blast-furnace fuel. Viewed in the light of present day research and of developments in alloy steel, some observations seem appropriate regarding this raw material that played such an important part in the development of the iron and steel industry during 50 years of the past century. The research work of that period, in which the whole iron and steel industry was revolutionized, passing from wrought iron to steel and from charcoal to three new mineral fuels for blast furnaces, was done chiefly in the full-sized plants of that day; and it was done largely by the ironmasters themselves. The laboratory had not become a part of the ironworks, and scientific instruments were lacking around the blast furnaces; "rule o' thumb" and erroneous theories prevailed—and have not yet all been eliminated. The recent interest in meteoric iron in connection with nickel steels and other alloys proves that it is worth while to search for the reasons for excellence and the causes for failures in the metallurgy of bygone days. Turner1 gives the reasons why the blast furnace of Dr. F. W. Geissen-hainer on Silver Creek, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, about 10 miles northeast of Pottsville, was operated successfully with anthracite2 in August and September, 1836, and why several other attempts failed. It has taken a long time for us to find out that there are great differences in the behavior of anthracites from the several parts of the anthracite region, as well as differences in coking coals from the bituminous fields.

Jan 1, 1935

By Ralph H. Sweetser

IN these days of the almost exclusive use of byproduct coke as the blast-furnace fuel in this country, it may seem out of place, and smacking too much of reminiscing, to say anything about the use of anthracite coal for blast-furnace fuel. Viewed in the light of present day research and of developments in alloy steel, some observations seem appropriate regarding this raw material that played such an important part in the development of the iron and steel industry during 50 years of the past century. The research work of that period, in which the whole iron and steel industry was revolutionized, passing from wrought iron to steel and from charcoal to three new mineral fuels for blast furnaces, was done chiefly in the full-sized plants of that day; and it was done largely by the ironmasters themselves. The laboratory had not become a part of the ironworks, and scientific instruments were lacking around the blast furnaces; "rule o' thumb" and erroneous theories prevailed-and have not yet all been eliminated. The recent interest in meteoric iron in connection with nickel steels and other alloys proves that it is worth while to search for the reasons for excellence and the causes for failures in the metallurgy of bygone days. Turner1 gives the reasons why the blast furnace of Dr. F. W. Geissenhainer on Silver Creek, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, about 10 miles northeast of Pottsville, was operated successfully with anthracite2 in August and September, 1836, and why several other attempts failed. It has taken a long time for us to find out that there are great differences in the behavior of anthracites from the several parts of the anthracite region, as well as differences in coking coals from the bituminous fields.

Jan 1, 1935

By Ralph Sweetser

IN these days of the almost exclusive use of byproduct coke as the blast-furnace fuel in this country, it may seem out of place, and smacking too much of reminiscing, to say anything about the use of anthracite coal for blast-furnace fuel. Viewed in the light of present day research and of developments in alloy steel, some observations seem appropri-ate regarding this raw material that played such an important part in the development of the iron and steel industry during 50 years of the past century. The research work of that period, in which the whole iron and steel industry was revolutionized, passing from wrought iron to steel and from charcoal to three new mineral fuels for blast furnaces, was done chiefly in the full-sized plants of that day; and it was done largely by the ironmasters themselves. The laboratory had not become a part of the ironworks, and scientific instruments were lacking around the blast fur-naces; "rule o' thumb" and erroneous theories prevailed-and have not yet all been eliminated. The recent interest in meteoric iron in connec-tion with nickel steels and other alloys proves that it is worth while to search for the reasons for excellence and the causes for failures in the metallurgy of bygone days. Turner1 gives the reasons why the blast furnace of Dr. F. W. Geissen-hainer on Silver Creek, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, about 10 miles northeast of Pottsville, was operated successfully with anthracite2 in August and September, 1836, and why several other attempts failed. It has taken a long time for us to find out that there are great differences in the behavior of anthracites from the several parts of the anthracite region, as well as differences in coking coals from the bituminous fields.

Jan 1, 1935

MELTING in a hearth and in a basket is almost the same thing; charcoal and bellows are used for both. These are made large or small according to the quantity that you wish to melt, and more or less force of the bellows is applied according to the need. The hearth, bowl, or refinery, as the masters call it, is made with bricks and clay like a forge; opposite the middle of the tuyère a round hole is made like a wash- basin, wide at the mouth and narrow at the bottom where there is a hole for emptying it. A little iron plug is put in this so that it may be closed when necessary, or a piece of brick that is cut and pointed. Now, when this has been well covered all over with ashes, and the tuyère has been arranged so that the wind strikes the center, it is first filled with charcoal and baked very well so that the metal may be kept hot once it has been melted. When it has been baked, it is again filled with charcoal, fire is applied, and it is left to inflame gradually by itself. Then put one or

Jan 1, 1942