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By L. J. Howell, H. H. Kellogg

AN a previous paper' the phase diagram and vapor pressure of melts in the systems NaC1-ZrCl,, KC1-ZrCl,, and NaC1-KC1 (1:1 molar)-ZrC1, were reported. This note supplements the earlier paper with the results of electrical conductivity measurements on NaC1-ZrC1,and NaC1-KC1 (1:l molar)-ZrC1, melts. The design of the conductivity cell is shown in Fig. 1. Tungsten electrodes, A, were sealed into the Pyrex cell, C. That portion of the electrodes in contact with the melt was covered with a tight-fitting platinum cap. The electrodes were sur-

Jan 1, 1960

By D. K. Das, P. A. Beck, S. P. Rideout

IN a previous publication1 1200°C isothermal phase diagram sections were given for the Cr-CO-Ni, Cr-Co-Fe, Cr-Co-Mo, and Cr-Ni-Mo ternary systems, in which the a phase formed narrow, elongated solid solution fields. The present investigation is concerned with the 1200°C isothermal sections of the Co-Ni-Mo, Co-Fe-Mo, and Ni-Fe-Mo ternary systems. A prominent feature of these systems is the presence of narrow, elongated µ phase fields. The crystal structure of the phase designated as µ both here and in the previous publication1 was determined by Arnfelt and Westgren.2 For the (CO, W)µ phase, named by them Co,W, (and also frequently designated as a), these authors found that the crystal system is hexagonal-rhombohedra1 and the space group is D53d — R3,. Westgren and Mag-neli3 later found that isomorphous phases exist in the Fe-W and the Fe-Mo systems (these phases are often referred to as < and E, respectively). Henglein and Kohsok4 stated that the phase described by them as Co7Mo,; (otherwise frequently designated as c) is also isomorphous with the above three. The Co-Fe-Mo system was investigated at 1300°C by Koester and Tonn,5 who found a continuous series of solid solutions between (Co, MO)µ and (Fe, MO)µ Koester6 also indicated similar uninterrupted solid solutions in the Ni-Fe-Mo system. However, since the Ni-Mo binary system does not have a phase isomorphous with F, Koester&apos;s diagram is expected to be erroneous. No data appear to be available in the literature concerning the Co-Ni-Mo system. The face-centered cubic (austenitic) solid solut,ions of iron, nickel, and cobalt, which are quite extensive in all three systems at 1200°C, are here designated as the a phase. The body-centered cubic (ferritic) solid solutions, based on iron, are designated in this report as the ? phase, in conformity with the nomenclature used previously.&apos; Experimental Procedure The alloys were prepared by vacuum induction melting in zirconia and alumina crucibles. The lot analyses for the metals used have been given.&apos; The number of alloys prepared was 46 for the Co-Ni-Mo system, 65 for the Co-Fe-Mo system, and 113 for the Ni-Fe-Mo system. The compositions of these alloys were selected with due regard to maximum usefulness in locating phase boundaries. The alloy specimens were annealed at 1200°C in an atmosphere of purified 92 pct helium and 8 pct hydrogen mixture. Alloys consisting almost entirely of the face-centered cubic austenitic a phase, or of the body-centered cubic ferritic c phase were double-forged with intermediate annealing. The double-forged specimens were then final annealed for 90 hr at 1200 °C and quenched in cold water. Alloys containing considerable amounts of any of the other phases could not be forged. Such specimens were annealed for 150 hr at 1200°C and quenched. Microscopic specimens of all alloys were prepared by mechanical polishing, in many cases followed by electrolytic polishing. Description of the polishing and etching procedures used and tabulation of the intended compositions of the alloys prepared are being published in two N.A.C.A. Technical Notes.7,8 , Many of the alloys were analyzed chemically and, in general, the results are in excellent agreement with the intended compositions. X-ray diffraction samples were prepared by filing or crushing homogenized alloy specimens and by reannealing the obtained powders in evacuated and sealed quartz tubes. After annealing for 30 min at 1200°C the tubes were quenched into cold water. X-ray diffraction patterns were made with unfiltered chromium radiation at 30 kv, using an asymmetrical focusing camera of high dispersion. X-ray diffraction and microscopic methods were used jointly to identify the phases present in each specimen. The amounts of the phases in each alloy were estimated microscopically. The phase boundaries were located by the disappearing phase method. The results were used to construct 1200°C isothermal sections for the three ternary phase diagrams. The accuracy of the location of the phase boundaries determined in this manner is estimated to approximately ±1 pct of each component. The portion of the three phase diagrams lying between the µ, P, and 6 phases on the one hand, and the molybdenum corner on the other, has not been investigated. Recently Metcalfe reported0 a high temperature allotropic form of cobalt on the basis of dilatometric results and of cooling curves. In the present work no attempt was made to search for the new phase in the cobalt corner of the Co-Fe-Mo and Co-Ni-Mo systems. No alloy was prepared with more than 80 pct Co; the alloys used were intended to locate the boundary of the a phase saturated with cL. The microstructures of the quenched a alloys near the cobalt COrner gave no suggestion of an in-suppressible transformation On quenching. The location of the boundaries of the a + ? two-phase fields in the Fe-Ni-Mo and Fe-CO-MO systems was determined entirely by the microscopic method. The face-centered cubic a alloys near the ? field transform partially or wholly into the body-centered cubic ? phase on quenching from 1200°C to room temperature. The ? formed in this manner has an

Jan 1, 1953

By L. L. Wyman

Previous studies1 by the writer dealing with the embrittlement of copper have been concerned with the behavior of various pure and deoxidized coppers when exposed to an oxidation-reduction cycle, and the consequent evaluation of these materials on the basis of their resistance to this action. No attention was devoted to the variations in penetration of embrittlement with time, when these copper materials are exposed to a strong reducing gas, such as hydrogen, nor to the variations in oxygen penetration, with time and temperature, into the "pure" coppers. The cause of the embrittlement is the reduction of the oxygen in the copper by the hot reducing gas, so that a consideration of time, temperature, the occurrence of hydrogen and oxygen must be given. For the purpose of differentiating some of the involved factors, the present work may be divided into two separate series of experiments. The first of these deals with the oxidation of purified coppers under various conditions and then the subjection of these to a standard hydrogen treatment. The second series concerns the reduction, under different conditions, of tough-pitch coppers of several oxygen contents. The resulting data will give the rates of oxidation, and of reduction, for the materials involved. The first series of experiments will reveal how rapidly copper may become oxidized, while the second series will indicate how rapidly embrittlement will penetrate into an oxygen-containing copper when it is exposed to hydrogen at different temperatures. Materials For the purpose of determining these variables, three types of material were selected, to cover the extremes in the ranges of materials commercially obtainable. The first class of materials is represented by an oxygen-free copper, as well as the high-purity vacuum-melted copper2 used in previous work. These materials were selected to determine the variation of oxidation with time and temperature, by oxidizing these coppers under various combinations of these factors, and noting the effect as indicated by a

Jan 1, 1934

By E. W. Stewart, G. P. Conard, J. F. Libsch

The effects of several additives upon the reduction characteristics of hydrogen-reduced ferrous formate are described. The various additives inhibit sintering of the reduced iron particles by apparently different mechanisms. The magnetic properties of the low density compacts produced from the resulting ultra-fine iron powders were improved markedly. THE permanent magnetic characteristics of ultra-fine iron powder prepared by various means have been a subject of considerable interest and experimentation in the past few years. When such particles are small enough to show single domain behavior, they possess&apos; 1—permanent saturation magnetization, and 2—high coercive force. In the absence of domain boundaries, the only magnetization changes in a particle occur through spin rotation which is opposed by relatively large anisotropy forces. With decreasing particle size, the coercive force tends to increase to a maximum and then decrease because of the instability in magnetization associated with thermal fluctuations. Kittel&apos; has calculated the critical diameter at which a spherical particle of iron can no longer sustain domain boundaries or walls to be approximately 1.5x10-&apos; cm. Stoner and Wohlfarthr in England and Neel4,6 in France have shown from purely theoretical calculations that the high coercive force expected from single domain particles is dependent upon crystal anisotropy, shape anisotropy, or strain anisotropy contributions. Further work by Weil, Bertaut,&apos; and many others has contributed much to the understanding of fine particle theory. Neel and Meikeljohn" have demonstrated that a decrease in particle size below a critical value of approximately 160A leads to a quite rapid decrease in coercive force because of the prevention of stable magnetization by thermal agitation. Lih1, working with powders prepared by the reduction of formate and oxalate salts of iron, has shown the marked influence of powder purity upon magnetic properties. Maximum coercive force was obtained in powders of approximately 65 pct metallic iron content while the maximum energy product, (BxH) occurred in powders of 85 pct metallic iron content. Careful consideration of the preceding theoretical considerations and experimental results has led to the manufacture of permanent magnets from ultra-fine ferromagnetic powders by powder metallurgy techniques. Such work has been done by Dean and Davis," the Ugine Co. of France, and Kopelman." The aforementioned work of Kopelman and the Ugine Co. was concerned somewhat with the effect of various additives upon the properties of hydrogen-reduced ferrous formate. Virtually no work, however, has been published on the effects of additives on the reduction rates of metal formates, although unpublished work by Ananthanarayanan16 howed promise of improved energy product in ultra-fine iron compacts prepared by the hydrogen reduction of a coprecipitated mixture of magnesium and ferrous formate. After consideration of the preceding information, it was hoped that a better balance between the metallic iron content and particle size of the reduced iron powder could be accomplished by a prevention of the attendant sintering of the partially reduced iron powder during the reduction reaction. It appeared possible that magnesium oxide might interpose a mechanical barrier between adjacent iron particles and prevent their sintering together, while metallic cadmium and metallic tin would interpose a liquid barrier which might accomplish the same purpose. The degree to which these materials were effective in accomplishing the foregoing objective and the experimental details associated with the work are reported in the following sections of this paper. Experimental Procedure Preparation of Formate and Oxide Mixtures: To obtain ferrous formate of reproducible reduction characteristics, a slight modification&apos; was made in the technique of Fraioli and Rhoda." A supersaturated solution of ferrous formate was mixed with an equal volume of 95 pct ethyl alcohol and the formate crystals precipitated by stirring and screened to —325 mesh. These crystals were in the shape of elongated hexagons, approximately 4x10 micron in dimension. Various preparations of such ferrous formate, designated as lot 111, were reduced for 2 hr, yielding ultra-fine iron particles of exceedingly reproducible size, metallic iron content, and magnetic properties. The magnesium and cadmium formates were prepared by the reaction of dilute formic acid with their respective carbonates, while the tin formate was prepared by the reaction of dilute formic acid with stannous hydroxide. To evaluate the effect of metallic formate additives in intimate mixture with the ferrous formate, varying amounts of magnesium, cadmium, and tin formates were coprecipitated with the latter. The designations of these materials and their chemical compositions are given in Table I. Due to the differing solubilities of the various formates in aqueous media,

Jan 1, 1956

By S. Pearson, L. Rotherham

Measurements have been made of the variation of internal friction with temperature for spectroscopically pure silver, and for o series of solid solutions of silver with cadmium, indium, and tin, using a Ke-type torsion pendulum apparatus. Some experiments have also been made to investigate the effect of nonmetallic impurity on grain boundary relaxation in silver. The effect of the alloying elements is to increase the grain boundary viscosity, and to raise the activation energy for grain boundary relaxation from 22,000 cal per mol for pure silver to 43,000 cal per mol for the solid solutions; the same value being obtained, within the limits of experimental error, for all the alloying elements and solute concentrations investigated. Results of the experiments show exactly the same trend as those obtained previously for a similar series of copper solid solutions. They are in agreement with the general theory of grain boundary relaxation developed by Zener and Ke, but do not seem to be in agreement with either of the mechanisms so far put forward to explain grain boundary slip. EXPERIMENTS described in this paper were made as part of an investigation into the effect of alloying elements in substitutional solid solution on grain boundary viscosity, measured by the internal friction method developed by Ke.&apos; The apparatus and experimental procedure have already been described.&apos; Preliminary work was done with spectro-scopically pure silver. Experimental Work Materials Used—All the materials were supplied in the form of % mm diam wire by Messrs. Johnson Matthey and Co. Ltd. The silver and all the alloying elements used were spectroscopically pure. Composition of the alloys is given in Table I. They were all melted and chill cast under the same conditions as the copper alloys. The ingots were rolled to 1/4 in. sq rod with intermediate annealing at 600°C in an atmosphere of cracked ammonia when necessary. These rods were then drawn to wire by standard procedure with intermediate bright anneals at suitable steps in the drawing operations. Specimens from the annealed wires were sectioned longitudinally. mechanically polished, and examined under the microscope. They were then etched and reexamined. Grain sizes were reasonably uniform for all wires, and no traces of a second constituent were observed. The wires were weighed before and after testing so as to measure any loss of the alloying element due to evaporation. The loss was less than the accuracy of measurement—< 0.1 pct of the total weight— for the Ag-In and Ag-Sn alloys, but appreciable loss of weight occurred in the case of the Ag-Cd alloys. The percentage loss is given in Table 11. X-ray diffraction photographs were taken of all thc wires after test to determine whether there was any marked preferred orientation. Results of the examination are given in Table 111. Experiments on Spectroscopically Pure Silver-— Experiments were made on specimens in which the grain diameter was small relative to that of the wire, and on one specimen in which the grains were grown by the usual strain-anneal method to extend across the full diameter of the wire. These large grained specimens will be referred to as single crystal specimens. The wires were annealed for 11/2 hr at 700°C, and experiments were made at two frequencies of vibration, 1.5 and 0.4 vibrations per sec. The variation of internal friction with temperature is shown in Fig. 1. Experiments on a second small grain specimen gave approximately the same results as for the first wire. It will be seen from Fig. 1 that the peak in the curve for the small grained wire, which is presum-

Jan 1, 1957

By A. R. Kinkel

Robert T. Walker and Woodville J. Walker (Walker Engineering Corp., Salt Lake City)—Mr. Kinkel&apos;s article embodies, in condensed form, the results of the first detailed and complete geological survey that has ever been made of the long neglected but potentially very important West Shasta Copper-Zinc district, in Shasta County, California. In view of the difficulties of the terrain and the complexity of the geological structure, this represents a notable achievement, and it is with regret, therefore, that the writers find it necessary to differ from Mr. Kinkel&apos;s conclusions on two important points. The first has to do with the interpretation of two members of the stratigraphic column of formations in the district; for purposes of comparison, the description of these two members according to Mr. Kinkel is shown parallel to the description of these members according to the writers, see Fig. 14, Mr. Kinkel&apos;s nomenclature being used. The first member, which Mr. Kinkel terms the upper unit of the Balaklala rhyolite, consists of a single, massive, homogenous body of very silicious igneous rock, consisting almost wholly of quartz and albite, and averaging about 80 pct silica. Most geologists of the U. S. Geological Survey who have previously inspected the district have called it an alaskite. It is not a pile of several members, but is a single unit, without internal subdivisions. It has the form of a recumbent lens, approximately flat on the bottom and arched on top, several miles in diameter, and attaining a maximum thickness of 1000 to 1200 ft. It varies in texture from porphyritic to holocrystalline, and contains unusually large quartz phenocrysts up to 4 mm diam. Mr. Kinkel considers this formation to be a thick lava flow that is older than the overlying Kennett shale, while the writers interpret it as being intrusive, constituting a domed sill or laccolith that is younger than the Kennett shale. Their reasons are as follows: 1) This formation shows none of the features which within the writers&apos; experience invariably accompany very silicious lava flows. Nowhere is it vesicular; nowhere does it contain any glass or its devitrified equivalent; nowhere does it contain flow breccia; and nowhere has it a ragged top, in spite of the fact that there is no evidence of surface erosion, which might have removed such a top.

Jan 1, 1957

By Alexander Anderson

In many oil fields a great variation in the production of adjoining wells has long been observed, and a certain proportion of dry holes, situated between prolific producers, has been regarded as normal without thorough investigation as to cause. Similarly, an occasional prolific producer has been found in a part of a field where all other holes have proven disappointing. Adjoining wells which showed an unreasonable difference in production have been surveyed, and the bottom of the poorest producer has been found to have lost sufficient vertical depth, through its drift, to diminish seriously its penetration in the oil zone. Again, the bottom of the good producer has been found to he more favorably situated by its migration up structure. Surveying of wells in California fields has shown many instances where the dry hole has drifted far off the structure to such a degree that no amount of deepening could ever convert it into an oil well. In other cases, edge wells have been found to drift into the field. At this time, in California, the surveying of oil wells is beginning to he accepted as a routine part of operating procedure. Some operators are surveying all of their new wells and, in some of the recently discovered fields, this practice is providing invaluable assistance in methodical development. The information that has been obtained from the surveying of many wells has convinced most operators that it pays to give careful attention to the drilling of wells. Chews are now usually cautioned to avoid reckless competition with each other. Whereas, formerly, certain companies demanded a large footage from their drillers, they now issue orders that a very moderate speed in drilling shall he maintained and that every care be taken to avoid practices likely to cause excessive deviation of the hole frorn vertical. As a result of these new instructions to drilling crews, a distinct decline in the average drift of the wells drilled by these operators has taken place and fewer dry holes are being drilled from good locations. To the petroleum engineer and the geologist, oil-well surveys provide the necessary data required for the construction of the correct cross-

Jan 1, 1929

By H. B. Aaron

DIFFRACTION micrography provides a useful tool for studying complex strain fields. Newkirk1 observed an X-ray diffraction effect due to strain interactions at the intersection of slip lines in LiF and attributed this effect to a reduction of primary extinction due to strain-gradients. It is the object of the current study to correlate the observations and rationalize the appearance of the strain fields around intersecting slip planes in x-ray extinction contrast studies by a semiempirical method. Fig. 1 shows typical strain patterns observed by Newkirk on (200) reflections in LiF using chromium radiation and a variation of the Berg-Barrett (B-B) technique. In other reflections (e.g., {220}) the strain patterns are absent. If one defines a vector 3 along the striations from the more to the less dense portion, and a vector v in the direction of the X-ray beam parallel to the reflecting plane, such that both 3 and v lie in the reflecting plane of the crystal, Fig. 1, then the positions of the striations on (200) reflections appear to be confined such that where is the angle between v and 3, Fig. 1. It will be seen later that 3 is the projection of Sb on the reflecting planes. In some instances the strain effects are observed only above the slip plane, Fig. l(C), in others only below, Fig. l(D). Where the strains appear to be both above and below the slip line, Fig. l(E), one sees that there are actually two slip lines present, Fig. 1(F) and (G). Furthermore, the strain patterns are observed in the vicinity of the intersection of emergent edge dislocations (diagonal lines on the micrograph) with emergent screw dislocations (horizontal lines on the micrograph), e.g., Fig. l(HJ) and (MN), but not in the vicinity of the intersection of two emergent edge dislocation arrays, Fig. l(HJ) and (KL). However, in the latter case the contrast of the dislocation array itself is reduced along (KL) and increased along (HJ). Line (AB) in Fig. 1 is the edge of the crystal, and the material to the left of (AB) is the side of the sample. Any empirical correlation will have to include most, if not all of the aforementioned observations. Lang2 and Newkirk1 determined that the condition for contrast is given by g-b#0 [2] where b is the Burgers&apos; vector and g the diffraction vector (normal to the reflecting planes). If one assumes that the direction of the observed strain fields is given by the vector sum of the slip vectors (Sb1) of the intersecting slip planes, then Eq. [2] may be generalized to g-S#0 [3]

Jan 1, 1963

The Institute conducts jointly with the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers and American Institute of Electrical Engineers, certain activities as listed below, and is joint owner with them of certain properties. United Engineering Trustees, Inc. When Mr. Carnegie made his gift which made possible a home for the engineering societies, a separate corporation was organized to act as a holding company and to manage the common property. This was long known as the United Engineering Society, but the name has now been changed to one which more nearly reflects the real function of the corporation. It holds title to the Engineering Societies Building and to various funds placed in its charge and is managed by a Board of Trustees, of which three are chosen by each of the four societies, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Institute of Electrical Engineers and American Society of Civil Engineers, which have equal and undivided interests in the property. The land and building cost two million dollars. During the year 1934, the Constitution and Bylaws of The United Engineering Trustees, Inc., were thoroughly revised and a better organization of its functions was effected: The Engineering Foundation and the Engineering Societies Library were made "departments" of the United Engineering Trustees. The Founders Societies share in the property which it holds, and estimated at the present time, as follows: Real estate, $1,993,793; Depreciation and Renewal Fund, $415,225. The U.E.T. has endowment funds amounting to $1,203,740. The A.I.M.E. trustees are W. D. B. Motter, Jr., A. L. Queneau and Albert Roberts.

Jan 1, 1940

The Institute conducts jointly with the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers and American Institute of Electrical Engineers, certain activities as listed below, and is joint owner with them of certain properties. United Engineering Trustees, Inc. When Mr. Carnegie made his gift which made possible a home for the engineering societies, a separate corporation was organized to act as a holding company and to manage the common property. This was long known as the United Engineering Society, but the name has now been changed to one which more nearly reflects the real function of the corporation. It holds title to . the Engineering Societies Building and to various funds placed in its charge and is managed by a Board of Trustees, of which three are chosen by each of the four societies, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Institute of Electrical Engineers and American Society of Civil Engineers, which have equal and undivided interests in the property. The land and building cost two million dollars. During the year 1934, the Constitution and Bylaws of The United Engineering Trustees, Inc., were thoroughly revised and a better organization of its functions was affected: The Engineering Foundation and the Engineering Societies Library were made "departments" of the United Engineering Trustees. The Founders Societies share in the property which it holds, and estimated at the present time, as follows: Real estate, $1,987,793; Depreciation and Renewal Fund, $336,992. The U.E.T. has endowment funds-&apos; amounting to $1,107,677. The A.I.M.E. trustees are W. D. B. Motter, Jr., A. L. .Queneau and Albert Roberts.

Jan 1, 1937

The Institute conducts jointly with the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers and American Institute of Electrical Engineers, certain activities as listed below, and is joint owner with them of certain properties. United Engineering Trustees, Inc. When Mr. Carnegie made. his gift which made possible a home for the engineering societies, a separate corporation was organized to act as a holding company and to manage the common property. This was long known as the United Engineering Society, but the name has now been changed to one which more nearly reflects the real function of the corporation. It holds title to the Engineering Societies Building and to various funds placed in its charge and is managed by a Board of Trustees, of which three are chosen by each of the four societies, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Institute of Electrical Engineers and American Society of Civil Engineers, which have equal and undivided interests in the property. The land and building cost two million dollars. During the year 1934, the Constitution and Bylaws of The United Engineering Trustees, Inc., were thoroughly revised and a better organization of its functions was effected: The Engineering Foundation and the Engineering Societies Library were made "departments" of the United Engineering Trustees. The Founders Societies share in the property which it holds, and estimated at the present time, as follows: Real estate,. $1,993,793; Depreciation and Renewal Fund, $401,000. The U.E.T. has endowment funds amounting to $1,086,893. The A.I.M.E. trustees are W. D. B. Matter, Jr., A. L. Queneau and Albert Roberts.

Jan 1, 1939

By R. V. Norris

IRving Ariel Stearns died at his home, 60 South River St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa., on Tuesday morning, Oct. 5, 1920, of pneumonia, after an illness of about a month. In his death, the Wyoming Valley loses one oflits most eminent and best loved citizens, and the loss of so strong a participant in the activities of the Valley will leave a gap most difficult to fill. Despite his more than three score and fifteen years, Mr. Stearns, at the time of his death, was president of the Wilkes-Barre City Hospital, Wyoming National Bank, and the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, chairman of the Board of the Vulcan Iron Works, and a director of the Spring Brook Water Supply Co., and of the Wilkes-Barre Lace Manufacturing Co. Mr. Stearns came of New England stock, a descendant in the eighth generation of Charles Stearns who was admitted freeman in Watertown in 1646. Irving Ariel Stearns was born Sept. 12, 1845, in Rushville, N. Y., a son of George W. and Miranda (Tufts) Stearns. He was graduated from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, N. Y., in the celebrated Class of 1868. After graduation, he was assistant professor of chemistry in charge of the analytical laboratory for a year, then went to Wilkes-Barre in 1869, as engineer in the office of R. P. Rothwell, at that time the leading mining engineer of the region. From 1871 to 1872, he was superintendent of the McNeal Coal & Iron Co. of Schuylkill County, Pa. and in 1872 succeeded to Mr. Rothwell&apos;s business when the latter became editor of the Engineering & Mining Journal of New York. From 1872 to 1885, Mr. stearns was in private practice as a mining engineer, handling a great amount of business in the anthracite region, including the building of the bridges at Shickshinny and Pittston, and the surveying and mapping of many of the individually operated mines. His practice extended throughout the country, with numerous examinations and reports upon mining properties in Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Arkansas, Colorado, California, Wyoming, Idaho and Utah; he was responsible for the design and execution of the Lehigh Valley Railroad Co.&apos;s great Tifft Farm improvements at Buffalo, N. Y. including canals, docks, coal stocking plant, etc. He was commissioned Quartermaster of the Ninth Regiment, N. G. P., March 29, 1880, was promoted to Major on May 15, 1884, and resigned Apr. 1, 1885. He always retained his interest in the National Guard and was trustee and president of the Ninth Regiment Armory Association.

Jan 1, 1922

By R. V. Norris

IRving Ariel Stearns died at his home, 60 South River St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa., on Tuesday morning, Oct. 5, 1920, of pneumonia, after an illness of about a month. In his death, the Wyoming Valley loses one oflits most eminent and best loved citizens, and the loss of so strong a participant in the activities of the Valley will leave a gap most difficult to fill. Despite his more than three score and fifteen years, Mr. Stearns, at the time of his death, was president of the Wilkes-Barre City Hospital, Wyoming National Bank, and the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, chairman of the Board of the Vulcan Iron Works, and a director of the Spring Brook Water Supply Co., and of the Wilkes-Barre Lace Manufacturing Co. Mr. Stearns came of New England stock, a descendant in the eighth generation of Charles Stearns who was admitted freeman in Watertown in 1646. Irving Ariel Stearns was born Sept. 12, 1845, in Rushville, N. Y., a son of George W. and Miranda (Tufts) Stearns. He was graduated from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, N. Y., in the celebrated Class of 1868. After graduation, he was assistant professor of chemistry in charge of the analytical laboratory for a year, then went to Wilkes-Barre in 1869, as engineer in the office of R. P. Rothwell, at that time the leading mining engineer of the region. From 1871 to 1872, he was superintendent of the McNeal Coal & Iron Co. of Schuylkill County, Pa. and in 1872 succeeded to Mr. Rothwell&apos;s business when the latter became editor of the Engineering & Mining Journal of New York. From 1872 to 1885, Mr. stearns was in private practice as a mining engineer, handling a great amount of business in the anthracite region, including the building of the bridges at Shickshinny and Pittston, and the surveying and mapping of many of the individually operated mines. His practice extended throughout the country, with numerous examinations and reports upon mining properties in Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Arkansas, Colorado, California, Wyoming, Idaho and Utah; he was responsible for the design and execution of the Lehigh Valley Railroad Co.&apos;s great Tifft Farm improvements at Buffalo, N. Y. including canals, docks, coal stocking plant, etc. He was commissioned Quartermaster of the Ninth Regiment, N. G. P., March 29, 1880, was promoted to Major on May 15, 1884, and resigned Apr. 1, 1885. He always retained his interest in the National Guard and was trustee and president of the Ninth Regiment Armory Association.

Jan 1, 1922

By E. E. Anderson, R. L. Newacheck, J. Kohl

Radioactive materials were used underground before the advent of the nuclear reactor. Radium containing ores have been mixed with cements and other materials for later location in oil wells by gamma ray logging since 1940.1 Perforating bullets have been marked with radium salts,, and radioactive materials have been added to drilling muds to find the cause of "lost circulation."&apos; More recently colloidal suspensions of radioactive cobalt-60 and silver-1103 and solutions of 1-1314 have been used in waterflooding operatiorns to determine injection profiles, flow paths and water velocities. In this paper a recent and interesting underground tracer application is discussed. Development work and field engineering were carried out under the direction of Tracerlab, lnc., with assistance from personnel of the client. A gaseous tracer, argon-41, was used in an attempt to determine the cause of leakage from an underground gas storage reservoir. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM This gaseous tracer application was carried out for the Natural Gas Storage Co. of Illinois. This company has developed an underground gas storage field 1,750 ft below the surface of the earth near the village of Herscher, Ill., about 60 miles south of Chicago. The total volume of gas stored in the field was estimated to be about 13 billion cu ft in the spring of 1954. The field has a maximum estimated storage capacity of 90 billion cu ft. The gas is contained in the Galesville sandstone, previously a water bearing formation of about 25 per cent porosity. The water as it is pushed out by the gas forms a barrier for the gas around the edge of the reservoir. Over the top and beneath the bottom of the reservoir are located several layers of impervious rock, which barring cracks or unplugged and unknown wells should act as seals. Twenty-one injection and withdrawal wells were drilled into the Herscher reservoir and gas injection was begun during the summer of 1953. After a few weeks of gas injection, evidence of gas leakage was detected at the surface; water wells began bubbling and losing prime, and dry spots in the fields indicated gas leakage from uncharted oil wells. In every case, the leakage could not be traced back any further than the water bearing formations a few hundred feet below the surface. An extensive search was made to locate uncharted oil wells which were believed to be possible channels for the gas from the storage formation to the water containing formation. Long-time residents in the area assisted in the location of several abandoned oil wells. The wells when located were cleaned out and either used as vent wells to relieve the gas pressure in the water formations, or were plugged with cement. None of the wells even approached depths which would endanger the soundness of the storage reservoir. All of the injection wells were tested for leaks in the casings by conducting neutron surveys and by other techniques. To detect any leakage up through the cement-filled annulus surrounding the casing, a section of the casing wall in one well was milled out. Then, plugs were installed above and below the cut-out section and pressure applied to the annulus, which proved conclusively that the cement was sound in that well. The well was then plugged with cement and abandoned. In another well, ammonia was injected into the well and a temperature log was made. It was hoped that a leak would be re-

Jan 1, 1956

By W. M. Weigel

The general term "sand" applies to a multitude of similar materials consisting of fine granular mineral. As usually understood, it means the ordinary natural product used for structural purposes and made up largely of grains of quartz. Quartz sand constitutes by far the greater bulk of the production, but there are other grades used for industrial purposes, such as molding sand, glass sand and many others, that may be grouped under the general name of special sands. Under this general group would fall filter sand, sand-blast sand, engine sand, potter&apos;s sand, abrasive sands of all kinds, sand for pulverizing, roofing sand, flooring sand, fire or furnace sand, standard sand, burnishing sand, sand for magnesium oxychloride cement-plasters and sand for chemical and metallurgical purposes. Sources of Supply Sand is a widely distributed natural product and even the better grades are low-priced commodities. For these reasons development has occurred near points of consumption where sand meeting the requirements is available. Some special grades, however, cannot be prepared from any sand bed and shipments are often made over considerable distances when the only developed deposit is remote from the consuming center. This is true of filter sand, sand-blast sand, sand for pulverizing and some of the others when chemical purity or grain size, coupled with the need of a properly equipped plant for preparation, are required. New Jersey is a large producer of filter, engine, sand-blast, fire, and pulverizing sand. Pennsylvania, and West Virginia produce special sands for pulverizing, fire sand, abrasive sand, engine sand and sand for chemical and metallurgical use. Ohio produces much sand-blast, fire and abrasive sand, and some filter sand. Illinois and Minnesota produce

Jan 1, 1926

By Milton Fies

ALTHOUGH pig iron from iron ore and red cedar charcoal preceded the mining of coal by many years, for tradition says that Alabama iron was used to shoe the horses of Andrew Jackson&apos;s soldiers, coal was not produced until 1830. In that year, coal was mined in Tuscaloosa County, in the vicinity of what is now the University of Alabama, and shipped on flat boats (obviously during the wet season, for there were many shoals) down the Warrior River to Mobile. About that time, the first railroad, the Decatur & Tecumseh, was being constructed in northern Alabama to overcome the obstructions to freight traffic caused by the now well-known Muscle Shoals in the Tennessee River. This railroad was patterned after a railroad at Mauch Chunk, Pa., which was used for hauling anthracite from the Panther Creek valley. The Alabama railroad, which required about four years to complete, was 46 miles long and was used solely for the transportation of cotton. Although it was a failure, it demonstrated the practicability of the undertaking, and the succeeding railroads, which were begun in 1834, 1848, 1852, and 1853, added immeasurably to the development of the coal resources of the state. Between the years 1830 and 1860, practically all the coal mined in the state was dug from the outcrop near the river or from the river beds, and shipped by boat to Mobile. Transporting coal down the Warrior River was one of great risk, required much skill, and frequently had heavy losses. It is recorded that this coal was sold to the gas company in Mobile in 1844; it was most likely mined from the Black Creek Seam. In 1914, on the completion of Lock 17, the Warrior River became a navigable stream from 9 miles above Cordova, Ala., to Mobile and offers a great opportunity for the future development of the coal resources of the state.

Jan 9, 1924

By T. C. Russell

The Conda phosphate mine, eight miles north of Soda Springs in Caribou County, Idaho, was opened up by the Anaconda Copper Mining CO. in 1920. Except for brief periods, during the 20&apos;s and early 30&apos;s, the mine has maintained a continuous production, and 2,100,000 short tons of phosphate rock have been shipped to the company&apos;s phosphate fertilizer manufacturing plant at Anaconda, Mont., or to independent processing plants on the Pacific Coast; a small tonnage of the rock has been shipped to the Hawaiian Islands. The Phosphoria formation on the Conda property consists of two, commercial-grade phosphate beds separated by 147 ft of black to brownish colored phosphatic calcareous shales interbedded with softer mudstones, clays, and occasional narrow seams of oolitic phosphate. The main lower phosphate bed in the series averaging 7.1 ft in thickness, is called the "foot-wall bed," which lies coriformably on the Wells limestone formation, the 1atter often containing irregular bands of chert. The upper or " hanging-wall bed" of phosphate rock averaging 7.2 ft in thickness, is overlaid by thick quartzite beds, locally called the " Rex chert" member in the upper portion of the Phosphoria formation. (Fig 1.) There are two anticlines on the property with axis striking approximately parallel to the mountain range beneath which extensive development on phosphate rock has been conducted in the past, and is now in progress. The phosphate beds have been eroded to a large extent from the tops of these anticlines, leaving at least three well-pronounced outcrops of the phosphate beds exposed within the boundaries of the Anaconda Copper Mining Cornpany&apos;s properties. At present, mining operations in the Conda No. 3 mine are confined to the two phosphate beds along the east flank of the easternmost anticline, where the dips on the beds vary from 50° to 60° east, thereby affording favorable conditions for the sublevel mining system now in use. Mining operations formerly were confined to the footwall or lower oolitic phosphate bed because of its higher phosphate and vanadium contents (32 pct P²O5 and 0.29 pct V2 O 5); this bed averages 7.1 ft in thickness. The oolitic portions of the upper bed were of satisfactory grade, but the shale and clay partings (Fig 2) diluted the mined rock and could not he separated economically by selective mining or by sorting. Experiments in beneficiating this rock were carried on for a number of years. Recently, a simple washing process was adopted, which gave a satisfactory grade of concentrates and a high recovery of P² O5. In 1947 it was decided to expand Anaconda&apos;s production of treble superphosphate and phosphoric acid by approximately 90 pct. This rock will be obtained from the footwall and hanging-wall beds, and the rock from the hanging-wall bed will be benefici-ated at -Anaconda.l In order to take advantage of the previous development on the 500 secondary haulage level, short crosscuts will be driven at approximately 950 ft intervals from the existing lateral drifts through the hanging-wall shale beds. From the inner end of each crosscut, short lateral drifts will he driven in both directions, so that four working raises can he put up on the dip of the phosphate bed at proper intervals along each of the lateral drifts. The mining operation on the footwall bed at Conda

Jan 1, 1950

By Geoffrey Gilbert

The material that forms the basis of this paper was collected in the spring of 1922, during a ten-day visit to Ducktown by the writer in the company of Prof. L. C. Graton. The time available for the work was far too short to allow anything like a thorough study of the deposits, and structural and stratigraphic questions, though they have an important bearing on the origin of the primary ores, were necessarily left untouched. Attention was focussed on the zone of oxidation and enrichment; and by devoting most of our time to the upper levels, open pits, and old workings, and examining the deeper levels only thoroughly enough to obtain a fair idea of the nature of the primary sulfide ore, we were able to make a reasonably complete survey of the various orebodies. With this field work for a background, the writer later made a study, in the Harvard laboratories, of the specimens obtained during the visit. As some of the facts brought to light by this study appear to be new, it seems worth while to set forth the outstanding features and a proposed explanation of them. Much of the Ducktown material that is obviously of greatest significance, as regards oxidation and enrichment, is soft and crumbly. Notwithstanding the desirability of gaining from such material all possible information as to its mineral composition and textural relationships, but little has heretofore been learned regarding it; but, by suitable preparation of this material in connection with the present study, it has been possible to examine it under the microscope without any disturbance of its texture and about as satisfactorily as if it were hard, fresh ore. The information thus gained has contributed measurably to the results set forth in this paper.

Jan 1, 1924

The earliest U. S. patent on a crushing machine was issued in 1830. The device incorporated the drop hammer principle later used in the famous stamp mill, whose history is so intimately linked with that of the golden age of American Mining. Eli Blake invented the first successful mechanical rock-breaker --the Blake jaw crusher--patented in 1858. The idea of his mechanical principle, the powerful-toggle linkage, was so sound that today the Blake -type jaw crusher is the standard by which all jaw crushers are judged. In 1881, Philetus Gates was granted a patent on a machine which included in its design all the essential features of the modern gyra tory crusher. For some years after these pioneer machines were developed, crushing requirements were quite simple. All underground mining and open-pit quarrying was done by hand with tonnages and rock sizes generally small. In the milling of precious metal ores, stamp mills were popular as the final reduction machine. The stamps were fed with an ore size readily produced by one break through small gyratory or jaw crushers. Even in large underground mining operations, there was no demand for large crushers; and increasing tonnage requirements were met by duplicating the small units. The Homestake gold mine in South Dakota was a good example, where in 19 15 twenty -two small Gates gyratory crushers were used to prepare the ore for the batteries of 2,500 stamps. Open pit mines and the introduction of the steam shovel created a demand for larger crushers, which led to the development of a gyratory with an 18 in. (457 mm) receiving opening. Up to this time, the jaw crusher had kept pace with the gyratory, both from the standpoint of receiving opening and capacity; but now the gyratory stepped into a 15-year lead with larger and larger sizes. This trend toward large primary crushers started just before the turn of the century, and in 1910 crushers with 48 in. (1.22 m) receiving openings were being built. About this time, the jaw crusher was revived in a great contribution to primary crushing by the introduction of the 84 in. by 60 in. (2. 13 by 1. 52 m) machine. This crusher was usually followed by a 24 in. (6 10 mm) opening gyratory crusher for secondary breakage, a system which reawakened the industry to the use of the jaw crusher as a primary breaker. It is interesting that although his machines never came into general use, Thomas A. Edison ranks as a pioneer in the development of the large primary breaker. Edis on reasoned that the recoverable electrical energy

Jan 1, 1978

By John S. Johnson, Thomas Fraser

SIZING is the process of separating mixed particles into groups of particles all of the same size, or into groups in which all particles L range between certain definite maximum and minimum sizes. In coal preparation, sizing is generally accomplished by passing the coal over screens. Separation by differential settling in air or water currents has been adapted to the special field of separating very fine sizes, and these processes are in commercial use to a relatively small extent in the coal industry. Separation with screens is a very old industrial practice. Agricola 1 described the use of screens for ore treatment in the middle ages. In the literature of the British coal industry references were made to the screening of coal as early as 1589, but the practice of extensive sizing for the market did not become general until the last half of the nineteenth century. In America, the practice of sizing developed first in the Pennsylvania anthracite region, beginning with the use of rakes2 in the mine working places to recover coarse coal. This mining procedure left the fines in the mine. Preparation outside the mine started with the installation of stationary cast-iron plates with 4 to 6-in. square holes. The run-of-mine coal was dumped upon the platforms, the large pieces of rock were picked out by hand, and the large lumps of coal were broken with hammers. The term "breaker," which still applies to the anthracite-preparation plant, originated with this practice, but the term is no longer descriptive of the entire function of the plant. In 1884, the first power-operated anthracite coal breaker3 was erected by Gideon Bart at his colliery at Wolf Creek near Minersville, Pa. This plant utilized a system of rolls for breaking the coal and revolving screens for sizing. The plant was driven by a steam engine. It could handle

Jan 1, 1943