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By L. S. Darken, H. A. Wriedt

THE constitution diagram of the iron-copper system derived by Daniloff' exhibits, at the iron-rich end, phase fields similar to those of the iron-carbon diagram. At 1484° 1094°, and 850°C there are, respectively, a 6-y-L peritectic, a y-E-Lperitectic, and a a-y-E eutectoid. The phase designated E is copper-rich, containing 4 pct Fe or less according to the temperature. The composition of copper-saturated ferrite (a-solid solution) has been determined previously only twice as a function of temperature. By electrical conductivity measurements, Buchholtz and Köster2 found 3.4 pct Cu in ferrite at a eutectoid temperature of 810°C. They represented the composition of saturated ferrite by the equation, log (%Cu) = 4.32-4125 (1/T) Gregg and Daniloff3 reported that Köster later modified his opinion, raising the indicated eutectoid temperature to 833 °C and the copper content of eutectoid ferrite to 3.7 pct. The literature contains several indications4-7 that the work of Köster and his co-workers is not reliable. Norton,8 using an X-ray method, found that 1.4 pct Cu dissolved in ferrite at the approximate eutectoid temperature of 850°C and that the solubility decreased to about 0.3 pct at 700°C. Below 700°C his experimental data show almost no change in solubility. These findings, although inconsistent with the work of Ruer and Goerens4 and of Smith and Palmer,7 have been used generally since their publication. In investigations involving the observation of arrests in temperature during continuous heating or cooling the precise location of the eutectoid temperature has been obscured by a large hysteresis. The more reliable work 579 where the results are not effected by this hysteresis indicates a eutectoid temperature between 840° and 850°C. The foregoing discrepancies, along with a few observations in this Laboratory relating to the precipitation of copper from ferrite, prompted us to rein-vestigate the lower temperature portion of the Fe-Cu system. In this investigation the solubility of copper in ferrite was obtained by the chemical analysis of high-purity iron equilibrated with copper-silver alloys. This method eliminated the necessity for retaining by a quench the physical state of the specimen existing at the equilibration temperature. EXPERIMENTAL The reaction of the iron with the copper alloy was

Jan 1, 1961

By Richard Kunter

INTRODUCTION Additional work has been done on the CIP circuit at Creede, and a brief description of this work is presented in this paper. DREDGE The original dredge for the Bulldog was built by Al Hack, Inc. of Denver. The dredge cutter head is mounted on a boom made of 6-inch diameter pipe which is raised and lowered by a cable-pulley system. Maximum cutting depth is 8 feet. Slurry from the dredge flows through a floating 6-inch diameter pipe supported on 55-gallon drums which runs from the dredge to the shore and then to a trash screen and pumping system. See Figures 1 and 2. The cutter head, suction pump, winches for dredge movement, and all other operations are controlled from a small operations house located toward the rear of the dredge. All of the basic dredge equipment is mounted on a chassis about 8 ft x 16 ft in size. Additional buoyancy was originally provided by sealed 55-gallon drums supported along the sides of the chassis by a small wooden framework. Additional framework and barrels on the front of the chassis on either side of the cutter boom provided additional stability, particularly when digging in hard material. The dredge was quite stable, but two problems were apparent. For one, it could have been sunk by someone from the shore firing a rifle into all of the barrels. In prime deer-hunting and sportsman country

Jan 1, 1983

By L. F. Reinartz

ANOTHER year has rolled by. We are twelve months further away from the start of the depression and. therefore that much nearer to recovery. The accumulated needs and wants 'of our lame, virile population are ready to burst their bonds as soon as confidence returns and credit is stabilized. The steel industry has been harassed by uncertainty of the Government's attitude toward organized labor's de¬mands, and irregularity in volume of production. Steel labor, if left to its own devices, would in most instances, march shoulder to shoulder with the management of steel plants in their effort to pull the industry nut of the ?red.? Cooperation between management and men has improved considerably during; the year.

Jan 1, 1935

By DAVID F. McFARLAND

THE making of courses of study and curricula has long held first place as the favorite pastime of educators. As a game, this activity is as fascinating to some as golf or bridge, 'and the golfer's hope of a low score is matched by the teacher's ambition to some day evolve a sequence of studies that shall prove the ideal preparation for a life of maximum service and, profit. There are few in, this gathering who have not tried their skill at this game and still fewer are those who have been long satisfied by the product of their efforts. A curriculum is hardly printed in the college catalog before conditions arise which seem to make changes desirable, and strong will power is needed to maintain the program long enough to give it a fair trial. Metallurgical curricula are not less subject to change than others, 'and; indeed they have seemed, at times, to change more rapidly than other curricula because of the changing 'needs of the industries and the demand that the graduate be trained to meet the new conditions. Metallurgical practice is constantly proving that "time makes ancient good uncouth," and the graduate metallurgist is required to adapt himself to newer and

Jan 1, 1930

By Kefton H. Teague

Attempts to locate domestic supplies of sillimanite have been unsuccessful until recently. This paper describes recent discoveries of sillimanite-bearing schists in the Southeastern States, with emphasis on geology of the deposits, mineral composition, origin, and reserves. Statements concerning possible methods of mining, milling, and utilization of sillimanite are given. Results from refractory tests on a laboratory scale are summarized.

Jan 1, 1950

By W. C. Elli, M. E. Fine

YOUNG'S modulus of elasticity in metals ordinarily decreases with rising temperature. The range of the thermoelastic coefficient at room tem- 1/E dE/dT perature (temperature coefficient of modulus, is illustrated1 by the values for tungsten and hard-drawn aluminum, —95 and —1220x10-6 eg C-1. However, a nearly zero thermoelastic coefficient is observed in some ferromagnetic alloys over a limited temperature range. In these alloys, as the temperature is raised, an increase in modulus arising from loss of ferromagnetism compensates the normal decrease. Iron-nickel alloys containing 36 to 52 pct Ni behave in this manner. In the present investiga- tion, the dependence of the modulus and thermo-elastic coefficient on cold working and annealing were studied in iron-nickel alloys in this range of nickel. Although these alloys, when fully annealed, have a coefficient near zero over a very small temperature interval, the temperature range of low coefficient can be extended greatly by straining and then stress-relief annealing. The modulus of face-centered cubic iron-nickel alloys annealed at 1000°C does not vary linearly with composition at room temperature but, as shown by the solid line of fig. 1, from Koster,' is minimum at 40 pct Ni and maximum at 87 pct Ni. The modulus increases with applied magnetic field but retains the minimum near 40 pct Ni. Schematic change of modulus with temperature for three compositions is shown in fig. 2.'. ' With increasing temperature, the slope becomes less negative, goes through zero (temperature of minimum modulus for the alloy), becomes positive, and resumes its normal negative value above the Curie

Jan 1, 1951

By Frank V. Hicks

THE following paper-in no sense a technical paper-is a summary of a safety campaign instituted by a coal-mining company to improve an unfortunate safety record. The experience should be suggestive equally to coal and metal-mining companies. With few precedents to follow in the beginning, the course was charted by trial and error. The endeavor, often disheartening, finally resulted in the capture of the most coveted safety trophy in the mining industry, "The Sentinels of Safety," awarded by the Hercules Powder Co. of Wilmington, Del., through the U. S. Bureau of Mines. The period described covers the 10-year interval, 1924 to 1933, the year 1933 being that for which the award was made. The coal company considered has produced annually for a number of years an average of 2,750,000 tons of coal, employing at various times from 1.800 to 3000 men. Prior to 1924, the

Jan 1, 1935

By T. Lane Carter

BEFORE describing the experience with the Chinese on the Rand and the work they have accomplished, it will be necessary, sary, first, to give a brief account of labor-conditions in the Transvaal since the war, and then to show how the necessity of importation of labor arose. As is well known, the Transvaal mines are run on the dual system of labor-that is, the rough work is done by colored laborers under the superintendence of white men. From the start of mining operations in South Africa there has been the cry of shortness of native labor, due in great measure to the failure of Kaffirs to work continuously in the mines. While he works, the Kaffir is a satisfactory laborer, but his period of service is short, averaging about nine months. People unacquainted with the Kaffir have maintained that, by offering a higher wage and better accommodation, better results would be obtained from the native workers, but an increased wage simply aggravates the trouble. The Kaffir's wants are few. While at work he spends little of his money, and before long has sufficient capital with which to buy wives and become a gentleman of leisure. Doubling the wage of the Kaffir means that he acquires a competency in half the time, so that his period of service is correspondingly reduced. In 1899, before the war, there was always a cry about the scarcity of Kaffir labor. The highest number of natives at work was in July and August, 1899, when nearly 100,000 were employed. At the outbreak of hostilities the Kaffirs were scattered far and near, many doing well during the war by working for the military authorities. On the, resumption of mining operations on the Rand a serious mistake was made. Based on past experience, it was argued that if the whole industry decided to start anew with

Sep 1, 1908

By Dick Whittington, W. R. Taylor

GENERAL In mid-1974, a representative of ARCO Petroleum Company walked into our Austin offices and asked for a permit for ARCO's first Clay West Mine site. This was the first in situ uranium mining permit issued in the United States. That initial permit, issued in January 1975, was for three acres. The four years since have been characterized by growth and change. Today there are 16 permits approved for approximately 1,540 production acres issued to five companies at eight sites in four counties. There are approximately seven additional permit applications being processed or on the verge of being submitted for an estimated 2,000 additional acres of production. As a rough gauge of the financial scope of this activity, at the typical 40 production wells per acre and an estimated $2,000/well, operators hale installed or committed $122 million for production wells. This does not account for the exploration and development wells installed to delineate the ore or the cost of processing facilities for extracting the uranium. HISTORY OF URANIUM MINING IN TEXAS Information I have concerning early in situ uranium mining activities is "sketchy" but the apparent first on-site test of in situ uranium mining was conducted between 1967 and 1971 at the Dueterstat site, north of Yorktown in Gonzales County, by City Service. Others ran tests at the Bruni site in Webb County and the Burns and Clay West sites in Live Oak County in the mid-70's. During this period, Texas Water Quality Board personnel in the central and district offices maintained a general surveillance of these various test activities. Regulation of in situ uranium mining was formalized with the issuance of a permit in January 1975 with the advent of ARCO's initial production scale (3 acre) effort in the Clay West area at the Moser mine site. Since 1975, the accelerating rate of mining and exploration activity is noticeable. There were 16 exploratory rigs operating early in 1977. This year, the rig count is averaging 46--a 287% increase. HISTORY OF LEGISLATION Paralleling this mining activity was state and federal legislation which subjected in situ mining to environmental regulation. The following is a brief chronology of the legislation that is directly or indirectly related to uranium mining. As most of you know, disposal wells are an integral part of most in situ uranium mines operating in Texas. They are used both during production and during aquifer restoration following production. The wells are regulated by the Texas Injection Well Act, enacted in 1961 by the Texas Legislature. In 1967, the Water Quality Act established the Texas Water Quality Board, and provided for the regulation of water quality by the so-called permit system. In 1969, the Solid Waste Act was enacted by the Texas Legislature. The legislation provides for control of wastes from manufacturing, mining, and agriculture. This Act regulated uranium surface mining activities until 1975 when the Texas Surface and Mining Reclamation Act placed responsibility with the Railroad Commission for uranium open-pit mining and surface mining of coal and lignite. In 1972, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Public Law 92-500) was passed. This legislation forms the legal base for the NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System) and the subsequent point source effluent guidelines and standards. The November 6, 1975 issue of the Federal Register published interim final rules for Best Practical Treatment levels for effluent discharges from ore mining and dressing operations. Litigation was immediately initiated by eleven companies against these proposed rules, and they are currently being reconsidered for reissuance in 1979. In 1974, the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act (Public Law 93-523) was enacted. A part of this legislation is the Underground Injection Congrol Program. The regulations implementing this program have undergone various public hearings and it is expected that they will be published in the Federal Register before the end of 1978. In 1975, the Texas Surface Mining and Reclamation Act (Senate Bill 55), providing for the Railroad Commission's authority to require reclamation of surface mines, was passed. In 1977, an amendment to Senate Bill 55 was introduced that proposed to place regulation of in situ mining of coal, lignite, and

Jan 1, 1979

By R. W. Guard

ALTHOUGH etching techniques have been developed for revealing dislocation sites in several metals and ionic crystals,h t is valuable to extend the technique to new metals. An etch pit method for nickel has been developed on the basis some suggestions of Dr. John R. Cuthill of the National Bureau of Standards who had observed etch pits in creep specimens of nickel. The etchant used was proposed first by wensch2 for revealing grain size in nickel. The present paper describes the evidence that the technique can be used to reveal dislocations and gives the conditions under which etching can be carried out. The specimens examined were vacuum melted high-purity Ni (99.985 pct Ni) and commercial "A" nickel (99.8 pct Ni). Both materials contained greater than 0.008 pet C and had been annealed in nitrogen or dry hydrogen at 1100o to 1200°C. This gave a grain size of 1.5 mm in the high-purity nickel and 0.050 mm in "A" nickel. Tensile specimens (0.254 in. diam) were deformed from 0.25 to 10 pct at room temperature and then heated for 1/2 hr at different temperatures from 400" to 900°C. The specimens were sectioned longitudinally then polished electrolytically in 60 pct H2SO4 and etched in 35 pct H3PO4 solution at 0.2 to 0.4 v for 30 sec to 3 min. The best method for setting the proper voltage for etching is to increase the voltage until gas bubbles are evolved vigorously from the specimen and then cut it back by 10 pct. It is necessary to heat the specimen above 500°C after deformation in order that etch pits will be formed. This "decoration" treatment permits carbon to segregate to the dislocation rendering them sensitive to etching. It was demonstrated that carbon was the decorating impurity by decarburizing some specimens in wet H2 at 1200°C. The susceptibility to etch pitting was lost following this treatment but could be restored by carburizing in contact with graphite. Some rearrangement of the dislocations in the as-deformed structure occurs on heating at 500oC and above so that the technique can not be used to study the nature of dislocation patterns in deformed specimens. Extended etching does not change the number of pits although the background becomes rough and the pits quite large. The polycrystalline specimens with various strains were examined after annealing at different temperatures. Typical patterns are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In the unstrained specimen, Fig. 1, the density of pits is 2.5 X 10' per sq cm. All grains show pits regardless of their orientation although there is a

Jan 1, 1961

THIS chapter and the one following deal with the heat quantities involved in open-hearth steelmaking, including the thermal efficiency of the furnace as a generator of high-temperature heat, the heat storage in the steel and slag produced and in the furnace walls, and the heats of the various chemical reactions involved in combustion, in the formation of slag, and the refining of steel. The fundamental laws to be considered are the simplification of the first two ' laws of thermodynamics as applied to problems involving sensible and potential (or latent) heat only 1. Heat input equals heat outflow plus storage. 2. Heat may be transferred only from a hotter body to a colder one. The first of these laws relates to the various heat quantities or the "heat balance" of the process. No one has as yet made an open-hearth heat balance that came out almost exactly balanced, and we assume that the cause lies in the difficulties of accurate temperature and flow-rate measurements at the high temperatures involved and the inherent complexities of flow distribution, air leakage, etc., present in any real, open-hearth furnace system. Some idea of the magnitude of the heat quantities involved can be obtained- by a brief, crude outline of the heat balance of a 90-ton heat of steel. We will assume a 60 to 70 per cent hot-metal charge in a fairly fast working and only moderately efficient furnace, burning fuel oil, with a fuel consumption of around 4 million B.t.u. per net ton. of ingots produced. The time from start of charge to tap is 9 hr. During this period, the oil burned represents 360 million B.t.u., and the sensible heat in the preheated air at the port ends is 117 million B.t.u. so that the total heat input at the ports is 477 million B.t.u. Heat stored in the steel and slag at the end of the heat, plus the various amounts absorbed by certain bath reactions, amounts to a total of 195 million B.t.u., but 120 million of this is supplied by the heat in the hot metal and by various heat--evolving reactions in the bath, so that only 75 million B.t.u. need be supplied to the bath by the flame.

Jan 1, 1944

By Clyde E. Williams

THROUGHOUT its history the American iron and steel industry has constantly striven to improve the quality and reduce the cost of its products. No one needs to be told how well it has succeeded. Its success in making steel products at such a low cost has been achieved mainly through large-scale production. While costs have gone down as the rate of production and the degree of mechanization increased, quality of product has been actually improved. Thus high-tonnage records are important only in the light of high quality of the steel. Quality is the watchword! Continual improvement in quality has come as a result of research, not only in the laboratory but in the large commercial units in the plant. In fact, so many operations of the industry are on such a huge scale that experimental work must be done under commercial operating conditions so every progressive steel plant is a research laboratory.

Jan 1, 1938

By John Wellington Finch

THE- impression which the public has of northern Canada is that it is a' vast wilderness of forests; river's, and. lakes, sparsely inhabited by. a few Indians and `containing a few, scattered trading posts of the Hudson Bay Co. This is far from the facts. The building of the Canadian Pacific Railway led to the discovery, in 1883, of the nickel deposits of Sudbury, Ont.; these are the largest known nickel deposits in the world and produce about 90 per cent. of the world's output of nickel. The building of the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway north, from North Bay, to open up farming lands along Lake. Temiskaming, resulted in the discovery and development of the great silver deposits of the Cobalt area, Ontario. Since the discovery of these deposits in 1903 to Dec. 31, .1923, Cobalt has produced a total of ' 327,301,897 oz. of silver, valued at $212,668,434, and paid in. dividends $88,338,185. In 1923 the production of Cobalt amounted to 10,285,247 oz. of silver. Just south of Cobalt, in South Lorrain,. a. new silver district has recently been developed and mills have started production. These deposits are of such extent that 'a branch railroad is under construction from Cobalt to that area. Northwest of Cobalt is the Gowganda silver area which is also a producer of silver ore and is now attracting outside attention. This area is not connected by railroad.

Jan 1, 1924

By H. W. Gillett

BATTELLE Memorial Institute is an endowed in stitution for scientific research in metallurgy, fuels, and allied fields, established by the will of Gordon Battelle, 2nd, as a memorial to his father, Colonel John Gordon Battelle. Before I tell you more of what Battelle Memorial Institute is, I want to go back a bit and tell you why it is. Colonel Battelle began his services in the iron and steel industry in Wheeling in 1866 and in 1883 came to Ohio, where he successively engaged in the iron and steel industry in Cincinnati, Piqua and Columbus. The family had been prominent in Ohio affairs since 1788, when Gordon Battelle's great-great-grandfather came from New England to settle in Marietta. He was one of the pioneers and a member of the famous "Ohio Company."

Jan 1, 1929

By C. C. Whittier

CIVILIZATION'S PROGRESS, which has multiplied man's comforts, conveniences, a n d happiness, is based upon the extensive employment of natural minerals and sources of energy. Mineral resources are basic factors in modern economic development, machine industry, international trade and world power. A survey of mineral consumption shows that the United States leads the world in the production and consumption of energy materials, of metals, and of the large and diverse array of earth materials that fall in the nonmetallic mineral group. The use of nonrnetallic minerals exceeded both the metals and the fuels in the long period before the industrial age, but it is only in the last two decades that consumption of non- metals has kept pace with and approximated in value the output of metals. Although the data of production in the first half of the last century are meager and fragmentary, the record of the past fifty years-the period of most rapid growth-is available, and reveals an astounding growth.

Jan 1, 1933

By James Barr

The process of manufacturing ferrophosphorus lies not alone in smelting a mixture of phosphates, silica, iron ore, with coke as fuel, but upon smelting this mixture with coke and air as chemical agents as well as heat producers and in conjunction with extraordinary procedures and manipulations making the process continuous and profitable. For best results there must be cool top, limited fusion zone, hot bottom, good mechanical condition of stock and perfect distribution of gases; also minimum air supply, high heats and excess of coke or carbon. FERROPHOSPHORUS, an alloy of phosphorus and iron or perhaps a physical mixture of definite compounds of iron and phosphorus, has become of increasing importance as the use of the basic open hearth has extended. Commercial ferrophosphorus is a porous, brittle metal of crystalline structure and often with a bluish metallic luster. A typical analysis is as follows: PER CENT. Phosphorus 18.0 to 22.0 Iron 80.0 76.0 Oxygen 0.2 Sulfur : 0.3 Silicon 0.1 Carbon : 0.1 Manganese 0.2 This alloy was first made in an electric furnace, as it was thought that the high heat of the electric arc together with the reductive effect of carbon was necessary. About 1898, J. J. Gray, Jr., was producing a high-phosphorus pig iron in his furnace at Rockdale, Tenn., by using high-phosphorus, local iron ores. As these high-phosphorus ores were difficult to obtain, he conceived the idea of increasing the phosphorus content of the pig iron by the addition of phosphate rock to the furnace burden. When the phosphorus content of the pig was kept low and only small amounts of phosphate rock were added to the burden, no particular troubles were encountered, but when he increased the amount of phosphate rock to produce an 18 per cent. alloy, his furnace troubles rapidly multiplied.

Jan 10, 1924

By Francis A. Thomson

T HE engineer of today is by his training, by his traditions, and by the service which he must render, irrevocably committed to taking his part in public life along with the members of the older professions of ministry, medicine and law. Nevertheless, in comparison with these: three, so long recognized as the "learned professions-all three of which grew out of the functions of the priesthood-engineering in any modern sense of the word is a youthful profession indeed. So youthful is engineering in its present significance, that it may be said to date from the labors of John Smeaton, the lighthouse builder; of Simon Newcomen and James Watt, the inventors of the steam engine; and of George Stephenson, the inventor of the locomotive; at the dawn of the 19th century. Great works of an engineering character had, it is true, been executed long before this, but practically all of them had been rule-of-thumb enterprises, dependent upon a plethora of slave labor for their accomplishment. For illustration it is said that at Rio Tinto in the days of Hiram, king of Tyre, 40,000 men worked for a year to produce three tons of silver from the rich outcrop ore. Such an operation can scarcely be called an engineering enterprise, however, when we remember that a fourth of this number of men in these same mines, from which the richest ore was long ago extracted, produce at present over 100 tons of copper per day.

Jan 1, 1925

In uranium metallurgy, the main purpose is to obtain a product containing 80-85% U308 (yellowcake) from ores whose average grade is a mere 0.21% U30& Essentially, the task of extraction and concentration involves dissolving the ore's U308 values, followed by purification and concentration of the uranium-rich solution (using such operations as filtration, clarification, and ion-exchange), and then selectively precipitating and isolating U308. Leaching is First Step In yellowcake production mills, the first chemical change occurs by leaching the ore with either sulfuric acid-as done by Anaconda and Kerr-McGee-or with an alkaline solution of, say, sodium carbonate, as done by United Nuclear-Homestake Partners. The choice of either acid or alkaline leaching is not an arbitrary one: it depends on the chemical and physical characteristics of a particular ore. That is, on the presence of clays, organic compounds (usually of carbonaceous origin), and soluble impurities, as well as on the ore's wetness and grindability.

Jan 8, 1974

By Bedrand L. Johnson

THE phosphate-rock industry is built upon natural deposits of rocks and minerals in which the element phosphorus is present as a phoshate. The term ?phosphate rock? is a general one, applied to certain rocks of different degrees of consolidation and of diverese origin, charater and occurrence, composed of intimate mixtures of several phosphate minerals, largely submicrocrystalline, usually calcium phosphates, in commerical quantities, with various impurities. This term includes phosphatized limestones, sandstone, shales, and igneous rocks; nodular phosphates ; residual weathered phosphatic limestones ; vein phosphates ; and phosphatic sediments, both consolidated and unconsolidated.

Jan 1, 1944

By AIME AIME

OVER-ALL operations of the oil industry, as measured by production of crude oil and consumption of products, are almost exactly of the same magnitude as a year ago. Does this mean that the great oil industry has been undisturbed by the war? Has this industry, so vital to the prosecution of the war and to the maintenance of our way of life, been unaffected in its operations? No indeed - changes within the industry are great. It has been called upon to revamp its trans¬portation methods so as to move about one fourth of the total amount of crude and refined products by railroad tank car instead of by ocean-going tankers. Its fundamental internal economy, based on maximum gasoline yield from a barrel of crude, has been relegated to memories of the past. Rationing of oil products, which has been forced upon us in face of an abundant supply, is not only disagreeable medicine but is in itself completely disruptive to the marketing end of the-business.-

Jan 1, 1942