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By Toshimitsu Kokubo, Yoshio Yamagata, Tadao Moro, Kenji Tomita

Owing to the traffic jam in collection, and transportation of wastes, the air- and water- pollution in incineration plants, and the sanitary trouble in reclaimed land, it seems that the defective existing system of the solid waste treatment in Japan can not follow the change in quality and the increase in quantity of solid wastes. Under these situations, the objective of the municipal solid waste treatment must be to actualize the pollution-free system for environmental protection and the resources recovery system for resource- and energy- saving. From this point of view, AIST of Japan is now engaged in the research and development of the resources recovery system from municipal solid wastes. This paper reports on the outline of the development of resources recovery technology in Japan, including the AIST's project on this matter.

Jan 1, 1976

By A. C. Milner

In a gold standard world which possesses insufficient metal to meet the every-day needs of all, confidence becomes the vital factor, the very foundation upon which the machinery for the expansion of gold into currency, and credit, rests. The gold supply, affected by many influences, moves constantly from one point to another, but not always to that point where it is most needed. In the period 1928-1930, the combined gold holdings of the United States and France increased $1,370,936,-000, and this with new gold adding only $600,000,000 to the monetary gold stock.Theref ore, the gold stocks of other countries must have been depleted during the period by $770,936,000. This uncontrolled shifting throws the delicately adjusted instrumentalities of both credit and commerce out of equilibrium. If a given nation's gold stock shifts so as to bring it substantially below the legal reserve ratio set up against it for currency issues, the effect can easily extend to the currency issues and banking credit volume of one or more nations which may have based their gold exchange standards upon the gold stock of such nation. Thus the substitution of paper based on gold in place of the actual gold is an inflation of the currency, which carries through into an uncontrolled pyramiding upon the entire machinery of credit based on gold. In 1929 Europe, South America, Africa and Asia had overissued currency based on gold. America, Oceanica and Japan, which have not overissued their gold currencies, would in normal times require their entire present gold stocks and, as Continental Asia is largely upon a silver credit basis, from a domestic standpoint, it would appear that the gold problem is not so much one of maldistribution, as it is one of inadequate supply. It would appear that some method of increasing greatly the velocity of gold, within the safe reserve point, should be devised, or that silver, of which estimates indicate that 7,000,000,000 oz. are available for

Jan 1, 1931

By L. L. Foley, C. V. Millikan

The discovery of Bromide production in the Fitts field, shallow production in Jackson County of Southwestern Oklahoma, abundant production in the Edmond field, and discovery of many small pools in all parts of the state, were the events that made petroleum history in Oklahoma in 1934. Wildcatting was much more active, as evidenced by a number of new discoveries. There was no important development in the older fields. The rapid decline of the potential of the Oklahoma City field was an important feature of the history of the year. The accompanying tabulation of oil fields (Table 1) is not complete. Many of the early records of operators and pipe line companies are lost and it will be impossible to work up complete statistics for a number of the older fields. The table includes most of the important fields of the state and includes fields of a number of different types. It is hoped that a great many additional fields may be worked up for next year's report. Fitts Pool.—The Fitts pool, in Pontotoc County, was discovered in 1933. Before the middle of 1934, the Pennsylvanian sands yielded -some oil at depths ranging from 1400 to 2800 ft. The Hunton series (Siluro-Devonian) produced most of the oil with considerable gas. In July, 1934, a well in sec. 25, T.2N., R.6E. was completed in the Bromide (Ordovician " Wilcox ") with an initial production of about 300 bbl. a day. Less than a month later a second Bromide sand well was completed in sec. 30, T.2N., R.7E., which made over 200 bbl. an hour. This started an active drilling campaign, which was accelerated when some of the major companies paid good prices for adjacent acreage. At the end of the year, 23 wells had been completed and the rate of development was increasing rapidly. It is a major oil field. The Fitts pool opened a new geological province for oil production. The structure is a faulted anticline in a graben. The producing formation (Bromide) and the Arbuckle lime below it crop out about 2 miles south of present production. The Hunton lime crops out about 2½ miles north. The field is in a sharply folded and faulted area on the northeast side of the Arbuckle uplift. Heretofore, it was generally considered not favorable for oil production, although some gas had been found in various places. The play has extended east into the McAlester coal basin, and southeast toward the

Jan 1, 1935

By Francis B. Foley

Fundamentally, slag control in acid open-hearth steelmaking cannot be considered from any different viewpoint than can that in basic open-hearth melting. The same laws of mass action and distribution apply in both cases, so that while most, if not all, of the recent intensive study of slag-metal reactions have been carried on in basic furnaces the principles evolved are nevertheless applicable to acid open-hearth steelmaking and it is therefore not our intention to discuss the various possible chemical reactions in the slag and between slag and metal. The points we have to carry in mind, in considering acid melting practice, are the differences in the type of steels produced and the difference in the chemistry of both the steel and the slag. The acid furnace is used to produce, let us not say "quality" steel, for, after all, a "quality" steel for one purpose is not a "quality" steel for another, but steels that require acid melting practice to be of proper "quality." Steels that are required to have high physical properties in tests taken transversely from forgings are peculiarly the product of acid furnaces. In this class may be placed various ordnance materials, notably gun forgings and projectiles and large commercial forgings requiring high transverse ductility. Forgings requiring an extremely hard surface, polished and free from imperfections, are also typical acid-steel products. Of course, such forgings can be made of basic open-hearth steel, but not with the same assurance of success. At the start, the preparation of the slag in the acid and basic furnaces differs. Lime is charged in the beginning of a basic heat to form a slag, but in the acid furnace nothing is added for the special purpose of producing a slag when the heat is melted down. The result is that the acid furnace has much less volume of slag than the basic. The slag formed upon melting down is made up almost entirely of the oxides of elements contained in the metallic charge, notably oxides of iron, manganese and silicon, the amount of silica being augmented somewhat by erosion of the furnace lining. A typical acid open-hearth slag, when the bath is completely melted, will have an analysis about as follows: CaO, 3.40 per cent; SiO2, 51.9; Fe2O3, 1.25 ; FeO, 28.86; Al2o3, 1.82; MnO, 12.22. The high iron oxide content of the slag gives it a black appearance. The metal is high in carbon and some manganese and silicon will be present, depending on the amount in the original charge, the amount of

Jan 1, 1935

By Francis B. Foley

Fundamentally, slag control in acid open-hearth steelmaking cannot be considered from any different viewpoint than can that in basic open-hearth melting. The same laws of mass action and distribution apply in both cases, so that while most, if not all, of the recent intensive study of slag-metal reactions have been carried on in basic furnaces the principles evolved are nevertheless applicable to acid open-hearth steelmaking and it is therefore not our intention to discuss the various possible chemical reactions in the slag and between slag and metal. The points we have to carry in mind, in considering acid melting practice, are the differences in the type of steels produced and the difference in the chemistry of both the steel and the slag. The acid furnace is used to produce, let us not say "quality" steel, for, after all, a "quality" steel for one purpose is not a "quality" steel for another, but steels that require acid melting practice to be of proper "quality." Steels that are required to have high physical properties in tests taken transversely from forgings are peculiarly the product of acid furnaces. In this class may be placed various ordnance materials, notably gun forgings and projectiles and large commercial forgings requiring high transverse ductility. Forgings requiring an extremely hard surface, polished and free from imperfections, are also typical acid-steel products. Of course, such forgings can be made of basic open-hearth steel, but not with the same assurance of success. At the start, the preparation of the slag in the acid and basic furnaces differs. Lime is charged in the beginning of a basic heat to form a slag, but in the acid furnace nothing is added for the special purpose of producing a slag when the heat is melted down. The result is that the acid furnace has much less volume of slag than the basic. The slag formed upon melting down is made up almost entirely of the oxides of elements contained in the metallic charge, notably oxides of iron, manganese and silicon, the amount of silica being augmented somewhat by erosion of the furnace lining. A typical acid open-hearth slag, when the bath is completely melted, will have an analysis about as follows: CaO, 3.40 per cent; SiO2, 51.9; Fe2O3, 1.25 ; FeO, 28.86; Al2o3, 1.82; MnO, 12.22. The high iron oxide content of the slag gives it a black appearance. The metal is high in carbon and some manganese and silicon will be present, depending on the amount in the original charge, the amount of

Jan 1, 1935

By Horace V. Winchell

PERHAPS the matter of greatest interest to all mining men at the present time is the question of income and excess profits taxes on mines. Every producing mine in the United States is called upon to render to the government an account of its operations and to pay a graduated tax upon its earnings. It is manifestly a matter in which every mine owner, every stockholder in a mining corporation, every mining and metallurgical engineer, every person employed by a mining company and every one engaged in an industry which in any way depends upon the continued operation of our mines or who consumes their products is financially, to a greater or less extent, involved. In view of this fact it is surprising to see how little attention is paid to it and how few of our members have taken the pains to investigate and understand the provisions of recent enactments by Congress and the ways in which these enactments are being applied to mining industries.

Jan 1, 1920

By N. Pessall, A. D. McQuillan

The phase relalionsllips in an isothernzal section of the Ti-Zr-H system at 750°Chave been investigated by measurement of hydrogen equilibrium pressures. The resulting diagram indicates that the hydride phase has an anomalously wide range of homogencity extending from 66.6 to 30 at. pct H in alloys containing about 15 al. pet Zr. Measurement of the heat of solution of hydrogen as a function of alloy composition in ß-phase alloys indicates no anomalous behavior in the region of 15 at. pet Zr, and suggests that the extensive range of homogeneity in the hydride phase at about this composition must he attributed to an enhanced stability of the, hydride phase. THE manner in which titanium and zirconium react with hydrogen and the constitutional diagrams of the two metal-hydrogen systems are qualitatively very similar,'-6 as can be seen from Fig. 1 which shows the constitutional diagrams of the two systems. Quantitatively, however, there are some differences. For example, the exothermic heat of solution of hydrogen in ß titanium is smaller than that in ß zirconium, and consequently the equilibrium hydrogen pressure of a Ti-H alloy is higher than a Zr-H alloy at the same temperature and hydrogen concentration. Other differences manifest themselves in the hydride phases which exist at high hydrogen concentrations. In the Ti-H system, above room temperature, there exists only a single hydride phase in which the metal atoms are arranged on a fee lattice, but in the zirconium system there are two hydrides, and whereas the hydride of lower hydrogen concentration has a fee structure, the higher hydride has a face-centered tetragonal structure. The tetragonal hydride retains its stability up to temperatures in excess of 450oC.7 From the foregoing, it would be expected that the constitutional diagram of the ternary Ti-Zr-H system would have a very simple form, especially as titanium and zirconium are completely miscible in both the a and ß forms.8 The present work, which consists of a study of an isothermal section of the ternary system, was carried out in order to check the assumption frequently made that the electronic structure of the two metals and the mechanism by which hydrogen is held in solution in the metals is the same for each. Although this proved largely to be true, certain inter esting and unexpected features of the ternary system emerged which must be explained before we can really say that the reactions of titanium and zirconium with hydrogen are fully understood. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The most convenient method of studying hydrogen-metal systems is by the measurement of the hydrogen pressure in equilibrium with the hydrogen dissolved in the metal as a function of hydrogen concentration and temperature. In binary systems, the results are easily interpreted in terms of alloy constitution, since two-phase regions can be recognized by the fact that the hydrogen pressure at constant temperature does not vary with the hydrogen concentration in the alloy when it is in the two-phase condition. This criterion does not apply in ternary systems, but there is usually a marked change of slope in the isothermal pressure-composition curves when a phase boundary is crossed, and with care, and a knowledge of the limiting binary systems, the phase structure of the alloys can usually be deduced. In the

Jan 1, 1962

A GREAT labor, surely, is that of the coppersmith, since his every work must be hewn from the mass of copper by force of the hammer. At the beginning, middle, and, end all his works are inconvenient pieces and unpleasant to handle. If the work is done on the forge with the fire, it is done in order to refine or compose it into masses again, for drawing these out while hot with the blows of some heavy hammer, or in order to put the works in a condition that allows them to be drawn out while cold and worked. In this he puts all his labor and industry. He who works at this art often makes use of large hammers, sometimes of small ones, and sometimes of those that have a long iron head and a short handle. With these he is obliged ever to proceed in one of these activities, either extending the work lengthwise, narrowing it, or widening it. This is achieved by the manner and direction of striking and therefore it is sometimes hammered on the inside, sometimes on the outside, sometimes with the peen, and sometimes with the flat head. For instance, when he wishes to close it up he strikes it on the outside with the peen, and if he wishes to widen it he strikes it on the inside with either the flat head or the peen. In this way he proceeds to shape it with constant patience, and to make all the vessels that he works graceful. This metal, as I have told you, is soft, flexible, and tenacious under the hammer. It yields with a certain toughness, provided, however, that it is fine and without admixture of a trace of tin or other metal. That craftsman is a good master of this art who best makes every desired work

Jan 1, 1942

By D. C. Porterfield

-4s a result of world economic conditions brought about by the European war and the consequent loss of European markets for Venezuelan crude, production in Venezuela decreased from 205,433,000 bbl. in 1939 to 186,134,000 bbl. in 1940, or 9.4 per cent. This decline interrupted a steady annual increase in production from the country, which had been continuous since 1932. The Maracaibo Lake Basin in western Venezuela accounted for 135,738,000 bbl. during 1940, or 73 per cent of the total, as against eastern Venezuela's production of 50,396,000 bbl., or 27 per cent of the total for the country. Corresponding figures for 1939 were 167,688,000 bbl., or 82 per cent of the total from the Lake Basin, and 37,744,000 bbl., or 18 per cent from the east. These comparisons indicate the increasing importance of the newer developments in eastern Venezuela, but it is unlikely that production from the east will ever exceed that from the west. In all, 429 new wells were completed in Venezuela during 1940 as compared to 438 in 1939. Of the 1940 completions, 411 were in proved areas and 18 were wildcats; 389 (95 per cent) of the exploitation wells drilled were producers, I was a gas well and 21 were dry holes, while 6 (33 per cent) of the wildcats drilled were producers and 12 (67 per cent) were dry; 263 of the exploitation wells and 4 of the wildcats were in the Maracaibo Lake Basin and 148 exploitation wells and 14 wildcats were in the east, mostly in the State of Anzoategui. Exploration of the light-oil areas in the Tia Juana and Lagunillas fields was con- tinued during the year with favorable results. Along the lake shore, drilling was confined principally to fill-in wells in the La Kosa, Tia Juana, Laguni!las and Bachaquero fields, although some important semi-exploratory drilling was done in the Pueblo Viejo area between Lagunillas and Bachaquero fields. The only other developments of particular interest in the west were the successful completion of a step-out well lying to the south of the former southern limit of Mene Grande field, which adds considerable proved acreage to that field; and the failure of two wildcats that were drilled near the Colombian border to determine whether the productive sands of the Petrolea field in the Barco Concession, Colombia, extend into Venezuelan territory. In the east no new fields were discovered during the year, although five wildcats were completed as producers. Three of these, Guario No. I, Jusepin-56 and LM-I (Leona), discovered important extensions to previously proved areas and the remaining two, Cantos-I and SPN-I (Socororo), were subsequently proved to have tapped productive sands of small extent and operations in these areas have been suspended. The greatest activity in the east was concentrated in the Oficina field, where 105 new wells were completed during the year and production was increased from 22,540 bbl. per day during January 1940 to 57,627 bbl. per day during December 1940. Important development work was also done in the Jusepin. San Joaquin and El Koble fields.

Jan 1, 1941

By D. C. Porterfield

-4s a result of world economic conditions brought about by the European war and the consequent loss of European markets for Venezuelan crude, production in Venezuela decreased from 205,433,000 bbl. in 1939 to 186,134,000 bbl. in 1940, or 9.4 per cent. This decline interrupted a steady annual increase in production from the country, which had been continuous since 1932. The Maracaibo Lake Basin in western Venezuela accounted for 135,738,000 bbl. during 1940, or 73 per cent of the total, as against eastern Venezuela's production of 50,396,000 bbl., or 27 per cent of the total for the country. Corresponding figures for 1939 were 167,688,000 bbl., or 82 per cent of the total from the Lake Basin, and 37,744,000 bbl., or 18 per cent from the east. These comparisons indicate the increasing importance of the newer developments in eastern Venezuela, but it is unlikely that production from the east will ever exceed that from the west. In all, 429 new wells were completed in Venezuela during 1940 as compared to 438 in 1939. Of the 1940 completions, 411 were in proved areas and 18 were wildcats; 389 (95 per cent) of the exploitation wells drilled were producers, I was a gas well and 21 were dry holes, while 6 (33 per cent) of the wildcats drilled were producers and 12 (67 per cent) were dry; 263 of the exploitation wells and 4 of the wildcats were in the Maracaibo Lake Basin and 148 exploitation wells and 14 wildcats were in the east, mostly in the State of Anzoategui. Exploration of the light-oil areas in the Tia Juana and Lagunillas fields was con- tinued during the year with favorable results. Along the lake shore, drilling was confined principally to fill-in wells in the La Kosa, Tia Juana, Laguni!las and Bachaquero fields, although some important semi-exploratory drilling was done in the Pueblo Viejo area between Lagunillas and Bachaquero fields. The only other developments of particular interest in the west were the successful completion of a step-out well lying to the south of the former southern limit of Mene Grande field, which adds considerable proved acreage to that field; and the failure of two wildcats that were drilled near the Colombian border to determine whether the productive sands of the Petrolea field in the Barco Concession, Colombia, extend into Venezuelan territory. In the east no new fields were discovered during the year, although five wildcats were completed as producers. Three of these, Guario No. I, Jusepin-56 and LM-I (Leona), discovered important extensions to previously proved areas and the remaining two, Cantos-I and SPN-I (Socororo), were subsequently proved to have tapped productive sands of small extent and operations in these areas have been suspended. The greatest activity in the east was concentrated in the Oficina field, where 105 new wells were completed during the year and production was increased from 22,540 bbl. per day during January 1940 to 57,627 bbl. per day during December 1940. Important development work was also done in the Jusepin. San Joaquin and El Koble fields.

Jan 1, 1941

By W. T. Lankford, Low J. R., Gensamer M.

The problem of sheet metal formability is one which has received a vast amount of attention during recent years. In spite of the great amount of study and experimental work which has been devoted to this problem, many of its fundamental aspects are still not well understood. No generally satisfactory test has been developed which is capable of providing a reasonably adequate evaluation of sheet metal formability, particularly in borderline cases. Anomalies persistently arise in which a lot of supposedly satisfactory material exhibits excessive breakage when formed. This lack of suitable technological tests greatly hinders the design of new parts and the substitution of new materials in parts of existing design, frequently necessitating considerable costly trial and error experimentation on an actual production basis. When, at the beginning of World War 11, it became apparent that mass production methods of forming would bc required in the aircraft industry if the large numbers of military aircraft needed were to be supplied, renewed attention was focussed on the problem of sheet metal formability. It was widely recognized that the formability requirements placed on sheet metals had been steadily increasing in severity through the years, especially as greater and greater emphasis was placed on streamlined designs with the resultant freer application of doubly curved surfaces. The recent advent of several new high strength aluminum alloys of more limited formability than some of the older alloys also served to emphasize the need for new approaches to the problem. It seemed evident that progress in the technology of sheet metal forming would depend to a great extent on the development of more reliable criteria for the evaluation of formability. Although the problem is admittedly very complex, the most logical approach appeared to be through studies of the fundamental material properties of sheet metals, especially under complex stress conditions simulating those prevailing in actual forming operations. Most previous investigations have failed to make full use of existing knowledge of fundamental material properties, and in many instances have attempted correlations with properties which are now recognized as being ambiguous in nature. This investigation was undertaken, therefore, with the aim of developing methods for the study of the flow and fracture of sheet meta1s under combined stresses, and of making use of such methods as might be developed in

Jan 1, 1947

By Low J. R., Gensamer M., W. T. Lankford

The problem of sheet metal formability is one which has received a vast amount of attention during recent years. In spite of the great amount of study and experimental work which has been devoted to this problem, many of its fundamental aspects are still not well understood. No generally satisfactory test has been developed which is capable of providing a reasonably adequate evaluation of sheet metal formability, particularly in borderline cases. Anomalies persistently arise in which a lot of supposedly satisfactory material exhibits excessive breakage when formed. This lack of suitable technological tests greatly hinders the design of new parts and the substitution of new materials in parts of existing design, frequently necessitating considerable costly trial and error experimentation on an actual production basis. When, at the beginning of World War 11, it became apparent that mass production methods of forming would bc required in the aircraft industry if the large numbers of military aircraft needed were to be supplied, renewed attention was focussed on the problem of sheet metal formability. It was widely recognized that the formability requirements placed on sheet metals had been steadily increasing in severity through the years, especially as greater and greater emphasis was placed on streamlined designs with the resultant freer application of doubly curved surfaces. The recent advent of several new high strength aluminum alloys of more limited formability than some of the older alloys also served to emphasize the need for new approaches to the problem. It seemed evident that progress in the technology of sheet metal forming would depend to a great extent on the development of more reliable criteria for the evaluation of formability. Although the problem is admittedly very complex, the most logical approach appeared to be through studies of the fundamental material properties of sheet metals, especially under complex stress conditions simulating those prevailing in actual forming operations. Most previous investigations have failed to make full use of existing knowledge of fundamental material properties, and in many instances have attempted correlations with properties which are now recognized as being ambiguous in nature. This investigation was undertaken, therefore, with the aim of developing methods for the study of the flow and fracture of sheet meta1s under combined stresses, and of making use of such methods as might be developed in

Jan 1, 1947

By Charles Will Wright

I. INTRODUCTION. THE application of the camera as an adjunct to topographic mapping began practically with its invention, and it has been employed with varying success since that time. With the exception of the camera to be described, the plate-camera has been universally used in this work, thus giving a projection of the area photographed on a flat surface. From such projections or photographs, by the rules of geometry and of perspective, points defining topographic features and seen from at least two camera-stations may be projected upon a ground-plane-the map.1 In 1904 I employed the plate-camera for this purpose in Alaska, but found that the labor necessary to plot the maps, even in a general way, was long and tedious. In 1905 a small Eastman panoramic camera was fitted with spirit-levels, a sightalidade and a transparent scale, introduced inside the camera to register the degree-points in the sky-line of the film-negative; also, arrows to indicate the horizon-line. This was, on the whole, successful; but the details in the topography were not brought out in the views with sufficient clearness, and the photographs were too small. These difficulties were overcome by obtaining a larger and more carefully constructed instrument, which was satisfactorily employed in the field during the year 1906. A panoramic view is made up of an integral number of perspective views upon flat surfaces, and logically is the most ac-

Jan 1, 1908

By R. A. Vandermeer, P. Gordon

The study of recrystallization in cold-worked metals is complicated by the impossibility of making direct three-dimensional optical measurements. Metallo-graphically, theinternal three-dimensional features of samples must be inferred from their intersections with the two-dimensional plane of polish. The inherent difficulties involved in this procedure have led— particularly during the last few years—to some instances of rather doubtful interpretations of experimental data in terms of nucleation and growth rates in recrystallization. In the present paper an analysis ; is given of the recrystallization characteristics in a polycrystalline alloy containing 0.008 wt pct copper in ZONE-refined aluminum *and an effort is madf to reemphasize the necessity in such studies for attention to the proper statistical relationships between one- two- and three-dimensional features of opaque samples. It is shown that, in common with several recently described cases for other types of transformations,1-5 recrystallization in this alloy can best be rationalized on the basis that all nucleation took place essentially at time zero—i.e., there is no significant time-dependent nucleation during annealing—and that the kinetics are controlled exclusively by the growth-rate parameters. This is true despite the fact that the number of

Jan 1, 1960

By Ellis Clark

The greater portion of the brown ore in the vicinity of Easton, along the north slope of the Lehigh Mountain or Durham range of hills, is obtained from mines instead of from open cuts or quarries, as is the case in the ore-beds in the western part of Northampton County, in Lehigh County, and in Berks County. The reasons for this method of procedure are various, and the principal causes of the shaft and regular mine system of working being adopted instead of the open air cuts, are: First, the large amount of stripping that would be necessary, as the richer and more valuable portions of the ore do not appear to be found as near the surface as those in other portions of the Kittatinny valley; second, the occurrence of the ore in regular beds, interstratified with the clay, and, to a less extent, in pockets or erratic deposits, as is the case in the mines of Lehigh County; and third, on account of many of the mines being situated at the immediate base of the Lehigh Mountain, where the surface water would be in such large quantities as to be with difficulty handled, and where the subsequent caving in of the sides of the open cut would be almost certain to expose the gneiss rock, which is water-bearing, the large quantities of water coming from which would probably drown out the ore-bed. Shafts, and a regular system of gangways and mining are therefore required by the configuration of the surface, the depth of the deposits and their geological structure. The ordinary size of the shafts is about four feet square, but where an extensive plant of pumping machinery is required the size may be increased to eight feet by six, with two compartments for the hoisting and pump-shaft respectively. A man-way, consisting of ladders with rests at intervals of twenty or thirty feet, is comprised in the pump-shaft, the wire rope being used for purposes of ascent and descent only in exceptional cases, on account of accidents which

Jan 1, 1879

By A. B. Kinzel

Since the exposition of the behavior of certain iron alloys by Sykesl involving the existence of an austenite loop and the discovery of such a loop in the chrome-iron system by Bain,2 there has been much conjecture both on his part and on the part of metallurgists in general as to the exact shape and location of this loop. In previous work commercial steel has been used and the microscope has been employed to locate the critical points so that the position of the loop has been quite approximate. Numerous attempts have been made to measure the critical points of the carbon-free alloys but all of these for one reason or another have failed. A satisfactory method for studying these phenomena is presented here. MateRial The first difficulty in this study was to obtain pure chromium-iron alloys. This has been overcome by melting in a vacuum electrolytic iron and chromium analyzing 99.84 Cr, Fe and C. A pure magnesite crucible was used and the melt allowed to solidify in the crucible. A typical analysis is chromium, 10.10 per cent., carbon, 0.006 per cent., silicon and manganese nil. To overcome the problem presented by segregation, ingots were made into wire 0.04 in. in diameter. This was accomplished by hand-forging the ingots into rods, using an oxyhydrogen flame for heating, in order to avoid carbon. Subsequently the rods were swaged to wire, the heating being carried out in hydrogen. Thus local segregation was eliminated although differences in analysis between portions 50 ft. apart were noted. An electric-resistance method was first tried to determine the critical points, but due to the physical defects in the wire this failed. Bain had previously shown the presence or absence of critical points in a qualitative way by observing the sag in a catenary. The author has devised the following method which gives an accurate determination of the critical points from expansion-temperature curves of suspended wire, a special telescopic dilatometer being used for the purpose.

By J. C. Osmond

One of the least known geologic regions in the U.S. is the area now called the Basin and Range Province. It is paradoxical that so little geologic information has been compiled for a province that has yielded billions of dollars worth of metals and is currently producing a small amount of oil. Regional stratigraphic studies of parts of this large territory have been published only recently, and regional structural interpretations of even parts of the province are rare in the literature. This, of course, does great injustice to the earliest workers: Gilbert,1,2 Russell,9 Le Conte,4 Spurr,5 Louderback,8 and others, who recognized the area as distinctively different from the rest of North America. Their simplified picture of the structure of the ranges and the province as a whole is the groundwork for present understanding and has never been superseded. Since their early works, however, geologic data from the province has consisted largely of detailed reports of widely scattered mining districts. Each district has been described as though it were an island in an unknown sea. More recent syntheses of the geologic history have been prepared by Lindgren,7 Ransome,8 Nolan,9 Bill-ingsley and Locke,30 Longwell,11 and Eardley.12 The tentative nature of the present interpretation, which treats the structural evolution of the Utah and Nevada area, must be considered in light of the scarcity of geologic information from the province as a whole. The methods of interpreting tectonic history from stratigraphy are based largely on the concepts of Marshal Kay.23 Discussions with Hoover Mackin also have aided in organizing the Tertiary history. TECTONIC AND STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING Two approaches to the subject of the tectonic history are possible; they correspond to looking through opposite ends of a pair of binoculars. One involves an expansion and extension of detailed work and the other an interpretation based on regional geological relationships. It is believed that the second approach, used here, is not in disagreement with detailed observations. The area of the Basin and Range Province is shown in Fig. 1. Within this area middle Tertiary to Recent high-angle faulting has controlled development of mountain ranges and valleys. Only the part of the area north of Las Vegas, Nev., and south of the Snake River in Idaho will be considered in this article. Within this part of the province most of the ranges trend north-south. Approximately two thirds of the area is covered by late Tertiary to Recent valley fill and lake deposits.

Jan 1, 1961

Victor G. Hills, Cripple Creek, Colo. (communication to the Secretary): In continuation of the subject of the perform ance of "baby machine-drills," presented by Mr. Thane, I sub mit the following records of work done with these drills in the Cripple Creek district of Colorado. Two years ago, the Anchoria-Leland mine began to use baby drills ; and, to make the experiment more complete, began by purchasing two machines, of the same size, but of different make. The little drills were first used for stoping and up raising, in which they achieved at once an unqualified success. Soon after, they began to be used for the smaller branch-drifts and prospecting cross-cuts, while the large two-man drills were still used for the main drifts. Now they have almost entirely superseded the large drills, since it has been found that they will do any ordinary work in the mine at less cost, both for labor and for powder, per ton of rock broken. The large drills, of course, make more rapid progress; but it is only where time is a specially important factor that they are now used. The Portland mine, where, until within a year, only the large machines were used, is now using some small drills for stoping, and also for drifting. Mr. Thane speaks of having two men to operate a baby-drill; but in this district the baby-machine is always worked by one man without help. Again, in Prof. Christy's postscript, the quoted extract from a letter of Mr. L. T. Seymour, the South African engineer, mentions a " 2 1/2-inch Little Giant," as though that were the smallest machine used in that region. These statements leave some doubt as to just what Mr. Thane means by a " baby-drill." To avoid any such uncertainty as to the present communication, I will say that the large or two-man drill in common use at Cripple Creek has a 3 1/8-inch cylinder; while a few mines employ a 3-inch, and a few, in running large tunnels, a 3 1/2-inch drill. What we call a baby-drill here has a

Jan 1, 1900

By R. E. Head

UNDER existing economic conditions, the treatment of gold ores occupies an outstanding position in metallurgical activity. The increased price of gold has automatically brought about a reclassification of old dumps and low-grade orebodies, and many that formerly were considered valueless are now being vigorously investigated and worked. This situation has developed problems that have taxed the ingenuity and ability of metallurgists to the utmost. Some gold ores give a high extraction of gold by standardized methods of treatment; other ores of apparently similar character yield but a relatively small percentage of their gold when treated by the same processes.

Jan 1, 1936

By James Douglas

An address before the Meeting of the New York Section, Nov. 4, 1914. As life advances one is inclined to look backward instead of forward, and the vista over which my memory carries me has been filled with such a shifting panorama of changes in metallurgy that the whole practice of the art seems to have been re-created. The first cupola furnace that I saw in operation was at one of the group of mines at Capelton, Quebec, from which the Nichols company still draws some of its sulphur supply. At that time it was operated by a Hartford, Conn., company, under a General Adams. When its small brick furnaces made a campaign of a week and smelted 10 tons a day, the feat redounded to the credit of the operator. The introduction of the water-jacketed cupola dates forward to the next decade. I was using one in Pennsylvania, making copper matte, to the horror of a noted metallurgist, who could not conceive it possible that you. could bring fused sulphides in contact with steel without rapid corrosion. In our ignorance we were doing what seemed to be an impossibility, and it is just that recklessness and disregard for precedent which has characterized so much of the work of American metallurgists, and carried us forward at such headlong speed. Once the water jacket was accepted as the type of the. copper cupola, its almost unlimited expansion in length, but not in width, was a matter of convenience rather than of skill. In Butte the cupolas have been enlarged by adding furnace to furnace. The first reverberatories which I saw in operation were those in Professor Hill's Black Hawk establishment, where the concentrates from the Gilpin County gold mills were run down into matte for separation in England. Sixty dollars per ton was the usual deduction in those days before gold and silver was paid for. Smelting was done with wood as fuel, and the capacity of the furnace was about 10 tons per diem. Shortly after this Professor Hill formed an alliance with Richard Pearce, who was running what, if I recollect aright, was called the Swansea Works, at the bend of the river approaching Georgetown.

Jan 4, 1915