Search Documents

By H. LeChatelier, B. Bogitch

Page Introduction........................... 134 Methods of Investigation....................... 135 The Tridymite Network...................... 137 Independent Variables....................... 146 Manufacturing Operations..................... 153 Introduction Silica brick are indispensable in the manufacture of steel because they alone are able to withstand the high temperature of regenerative furnaces. All attempts to replace silica brick by other refractory materials for this purpose have failed, but the reason for this failure has remained obscure; we shall give an explanation later in this paper. Before the war, silica brick employed in France came principally from abroad, for which reason, since the beginning of hostilities, certain French steel works have been seriously handicapped. Our attention was first directed to the question by M. Bied, Engineer of the Teil Works. With him, we began certain investigations, at first using our laboratory and the furnaces of neighboring steel works. The larger part of our experiments, however, have been made in the laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences at the Sorbonne. For the heating of our samples, we are deeply obliged to MM. Charpy, Yeatmann and Guerineau. In undertaking these studies, our first aim has been to render assistance to French industry, by indicating, as precisely as possible, the necessary conditions for the manufacture of high-grade brick; but at the same time me have

Jan 1, 1919

By Hiro Minagawa

Japan's contact with the mining industry of British Columbia began as far back as 1952 with the first shipment of iron ore from the Texada mine. Five years later, the Big Three steel mills of Japan-that is, Nihon Kokan Kaisha, together with Yawata and Fuji Steel Mills-dispatched a coal survey mission to inspect coal mines in British Columbia. This resulted in 100,000 tons of coking coal being initially imported by Japan from western Canada in 1959. Also in 1959, Yawata, Fuji, NKK, Kawasaki and Sumitomo sent an iron ore survey group to Alaska and Canada. During the preceding year, Nippon Mining Company and Sumitomo Metal Mining Company initiated a project whereby they would assist in the development of Cowichan Copper on Vancouver Island. As a net result of this activity Japanese mining groups, who had heretofore concentrated on Southeast Asia and South America, finally turned their eyes toward Canada. It was in the fall of 1960 that the government of Japan, in order to keep pace with Japan's rapid economic development, announced a long-range economic plan whereby her gross national income would be doubled by 1970. This had the effect of further propelling Japan's desire to develop sources of raw material supplies abroad. With the development of Craigmont Mines and the signing of a long-term contract to export copper concentrates to Japan, and with the Sumitomo group's extending financial assistance to develop Bethlehem Copper, Canada itself began to realize that Japan was indeed a very important market for British Columbia. A number of surveys to develop mines in British Columbia was begun with an eye on Japan as the major market, and the activity has continued to this day.

Jan 12, 1963

By W. Klement

By quenching liquid alloys, single-phase solid solutions are obtained in the ranges 0 to 42.0 at. pct Co-Au and 0 to 15 and 75 to about 100 at. pet Co-Cu. Metastable solid solutions are also found in multiphase 42.0 to 49.0 and 69. 0 to about 100 at. pet Co-Au alloys. fie inability to achieve complete solid solubiliiies in Au-co and cu-co alloys is rationalized by a conszderation of the rate processes during cooling and solidification. Trends in lattice distortion and shifts in the compositions of the melting-point minima and critical points are discussed for the binary alloys of copper, silver, and gold with some of the transition metals of the first long period. By rapidly cooling alloys from the melt, a continuous series of metastable solid solutions can often be obtained for components of similar crystal structure which normally form eutectic systems.' The eutectic system Au-Co, Fig. 1, and the peritectic system Cu-Co, Fig. 2, were investigated in order to determine the extent of the metastable solid solutions attainable with the present technique.* EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Most of the alloys were prepared by melting weighed quantities of the elements (purity greater than 99.9 pct) under hydrogen in alumina crucibles by means of induction heating. After reweighing, the alloys were cast under argon into 1 mm diam wires. However, it was not possible to prepare some of the Cu-Co alloys with the requisite homogeneity (over about 1 mm3) in this way. For these alloys, reduced powders (purity greater than 99.9 pct) were mixed for 12 to 48 hr, pressed into compacts that were sintered at 1000º to 1050°C for 6 to 48 hr under hydrogen, and then furnace-cooled. Alloy charges of a few mm3, cut from the cast wires or chipped from the sintered compacts, were heated to 1550º to 1600°C in 30 sec in an alumina insert held within a graphite support and then ejected by a pulse of helium onto a lightly polished copper strip on the inner periphery of a rotating wheel. The

Jan 1, 1963

By Alfred E. Hunt

The charge to be described was made in a seven-ton furnace, with a hearth twelve feet long and eight feet wide, with three gas and three air ports on each side. The stock of the entire heat was charged cold in one hour and five minutes, a part of the pig being first placed upon the bottom to protect it, then upon it the plate-scrap and blooms, and finally the remainder of the pig—some two thousand pounds. In fire hours and twenty-five minutes after beginning the charge the metal was melted down level, and two hundred pounds of hot twelve-per cent. spiegel was charged, care being taken to have it entirely immersed in the bath. In two hours more the bath was thoroughly melted and hot, and began to boil, i. e., the carbon began to be oxidized and evolved through the bath of covering slag as carbonic acid and carbonic oxide gases. Seventy-five pounds of lumps of Republic specular iron ore were added at this time, increasing the action, so that in ten minutes after the metal was in active ebullition. A test of the metal showed it to have about 0.90 per cent. carbon. One hour after the first ore was added a test was again taken, after thorough rabbling of the metal, and it was found to be 0.37 per cent. carbon. One hundred pounds more of lump Republic ore and about seventy-five pounds of limestone were then added, and fifty minutes later, after the bath was thoroughly rabbled, a -test showed the metal to have 0.23 per cent. carbon. Twenty-five pounds more of Republic iron ore were added and the metal allowed to boil for twenty minutes, when a test, after rabbling, showed the carbon to be 0.18 per cent. and the manganese to be 0.01 per cent.; the slag fracture was vitreous and of a very dark-green color. About forty pounds of limestone were added, and, the metal being hot and in a state of quiet ebullition, a hickory pole of twelve feet length and about four inches diameter, was run through the aperture in the centre door and held in a steady inclined position in the bath, with the end touching the bottom, the pole being shoved in further as it was burned away. The bath was carefully watched to see that the action that ensued was not too violent, the pole being several times

Jan 1, 1884

Discussion of the paper of A. P. WATT, presented at the St. Louis meeting, October, 1917, and printed in Bulletin No. 130, October, 1917, pp. 1476 to 1563. THE CHAIRMAN (0. M. _BILHARZ, Miami, Okla.).-Mr. Watt's reference to sorting or hand-picking of the ore in the lead district, which is being introduced at Mine La Motte, is especially interesting. I believe, from my former experience in the district, that hand-picking should be practised to some extent by all the companies in the Lead Belt. I know that a great many thousand tons containing only very small amounts of lead are passed through the mills, which, of course, is not to the advantage of milling machinery. That procedure may be Warranted at times of high prices, but I think that hand-picking should ordinarily be adopted to some extent: ERNEST GAYFORD, Salt Lake City, Utah.-On page 1525, speaking of the settling of slime previous to treatment either on slime tables or by flotation, Mr. Watt states: "The settling area allowed per ton of dry slime varies from 11 to 16 sq. ft.-an average for the district would be about 13 sq. ft. of settling area per ton of dry slime. This figure applies when the, discharge contains 20 per cent. solids." Mr. Ramsey, of the Dorr company, is here and I would like to ask him whether a settling area of 13 sq. ft. per ton of dry slime per 24 hr. is not considerably above the average area of Dorr settling tanks, and whether 20 per cent. solids is not above the general dilution for that' capacity? I should also like to know what is the general average on slimes of that character. E. R. RAMSEY, Denver, Colo.-An allowance of 13 sq. ft. per ton does seem rather large. I am not familiar with the settling characteristics of the dolomitic gangue, but as an average over the country, I should say that 6 or 7 sq. ft. would be nearer correct for discharge at that consistency. L. A. DELANO, Bowie Terre, Mo.-We have had an opportunity to try our tanks at the highest capacity, and-find that by thickening the slime to 30 per cent. solids we average 12 sq. ft. per ton of dry slime. ERNEST GAYFORD.-DO you find any definite ratio between the thickness of the discharge and the settling capacity of the tank? Do you consider that the tank has a larger capacity if the discharge is 3 to 1 than if it is 50 per cent. solids? L. A. DELANO.-I think it has greater capacity with the thinner discharge. It depends a good deal on the density of feed to the tanks; in our case the feed contains 2.5 per cent. solids.

Jan 1, 1918

By Jan D. Miller

Under the name given to this column, I almost feel obliged to write about some aspect of grinding, but I have decided instead to comment on the future of chemical processing. In recent years, I have seen a tremendous interest in extractive metallurgy develop among undergraduate and graduate students at the University of Utah. For example, of the 12 graduating seniors this year, over half seem to prefer extractive metallurgy to physical metallurgy. In particular, they seem to be most interested in hydrometallurgy, or chemical processing, obtaining industrial exposure to the phenomena they study via part-time employment at the Kennecott Research Center and the USBM Metallurgical Center in Salt Lake City. The stimulus has been generated by society itself. Many students are dedicated to the proposition that new technology can circumvent the destruction of our environment, a concept which provides considerable motivation. At the governmental level, the recent concern for the quality of our environment has created action in the area of chemical processing both through imposition of stringent air and water quality standards, and through increased funding for technological research in this area. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) gave impetus to this movement when it pointed up the need for development and support of such disciplines as extractive metallurgy, particularly chemical processing, in a recent report on Mineral Science and Technology. The recommendations in the NAS report have prompted governmental action on many fronts, including the Bureau of Mines, and have also given rise to direct legislation in the form of two bills -H. R. 3492 and S. 635- presently before Congress to a mineral engineering education. The report recommends that chemical processing technology (more generally extractive metallurgy) be developed by both new engineering techniques and unconventional chemical techniques such as application of the chemistry of nonaqueous liquids to mineral systems.

Jan 1, 1971

By B. J. Bayles, J. A. Ford, M. J. Salkind

Unidirecltonally sulidijied AL-A13Ni was found to exliibit excellent microstructural stability to 508°C. Above this temperature the transverse micvostructure coarsened in a manner analogous to "Ostwald Ripening", but the A13Ni whiskers did not spheroidize or foreshorlen. The coarsened whiskers reinforced the matrix as effectirely as the finer whiskevs and no reduction in room-temperature tensile strength mas noled after exposure for 90 hr at 96 pel 0-1 the absollite melling temperature of the eulectic. The slability was auribucted to the presence of low-index (and presurrlably lor-energy) cvystallographic interjaces between phases. The driving force for microstructural coursening was presumed to be the reduction of interfacial energy between the phases. Finer micvoslructures were found to coarsen more rapidly than those which weve imitally coarser. FIBER-reinforced metals have been shown to exhibit good short-time tensile properties at elevated temperatures.1-4 However, many elevated-temperature applications require long-time property retention which dictates the necessity for microstructural stability. Two types of instability are common to fiber composities. The first, chemical instability, is due to chemical reaction between the matrix and the relnforcing phase. Petrasek and weeton5 have shown that chemical reaction between tungsten wire and several copper alloy matrices resulted in degradation of the reinforcing phase and reduction in strength of the composite materials. Kreider and Leverant4 have noted similar behavior for boron-reinforced aluminum above 400°C. The second type of instability arises in systems in which the phases are essentially chemically stable with respect to each other and is characterized by spheroidization and/or agglomeration of the reinforcing phase. parratt6 has reported this type of degradation to occur relatively rapidly at moderate temperatures for nickel and cobalt alloys containing whiskers of silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and silicon carbide and has identified it as "physicochemical" instability. Although both types of instability are the result of the differences in the chemical potential between the fibrous phase and the matrix, they may be differentiated by the fact that the second type, "physicochemi-call' instability, results in little or no net change in the composition or amount of each phase present. It does, however, result in a morphological change which profoundly affects the strengthening mechanism. Chemical interaction. on the other hand, results in a change in the composition and amount of one or more of the phases present, or the appearance of a new phase. In the latter case, the appearance of the mi-crostructure, that of a fibrous phase aligned in a matrix, may remain essentially unchanged, but the chemical degradation of the fiber results in markedly reduced composite strength. This investigation was initiated in an attempt to evaluate the microstructural and related mechanical property changes of a whisker-reinforced eutectic composite after elevated-temperature exposure. The composite system chosen for this study was the uni-directionally solidified A1-A13Ni eutectic which Lemkey. Hertzberg, and Ford7,8 demonstrated to behave as a whisker-reinforced composite. The microstructure of the unidirectionally solidified material consists of aligned needles of A13Ni in a matrix of aluminum. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Eutectic ingots having a nominal composition of 6.2 wt pct Ni were produced by melting 99.99+ pct A1 and 99.99 pct Ni in recrystallized alumina crucibles in an argon atmosphere. The analyses of the starting materials are listed in Table I. These master heats were cut up? melted by induction heating, and unidirectionally solidified vertically in 1/2 -in.-ID. 6-in.-long graphite crucibles, in a dynamic argon atmosphere. Therma1 gradients in the liquid were determined by measuring the temperature in the melt as a function of apparatus travel distance, as discussed by Kraft and Albright.9 The rate of solidification was assumed to be equal to the uniform rate at which the crucible assembly was withdrawn from the furnace. Ingots representative of nominal growth rates of 2, 5, and 11 cm per hr were produced and the solidification parameters are summarized in Table 11. Ingots used for met allographic analysis were pre-

Jan 1, 1968

By W. A. Vine

When a hole is made in a stressed solid, such as rock pierced by mine openings, equilibrium of the solid is destroyed. To restablish that equilibrium the stress condition in the rock surrounding the opening becomes rearranged. This rearrangement may or may not develop local stresses in the vicinity of the opening which exceed the elastic strength of the rock. Since stability of the opening depends, therefore, on the strength of the naturally occurring rock surrounding the opening, this rock is an engineering material of construction, and all rock affected by the associated opening or system of openings may be considered a structure. The term invert is chosen to describe the formation of the structure built from the inside, as it were, and a consequence of mining rather than an entity built for a purpose. By definition, an invert structure is formed when openings are made underground and is com- posed of that material on the solid side of a rock-air interface wherein the stress condition is affected by the associated opening or system of openings. The shape of an invert structure is never clearly defined; the skin of the structure may be mapped, and even described, but the boundary of the structure within the solid rock mass must be arbitrarily set.

Nov 1, 1955

By C. E. Shoenfelt

Operations ill Colorado oil fields in 1934 were not quite so extensive as in 1933, but much better results were obtained and one new oil field was discovered. In all, 26 wells were drilled, of which 9 were oil wells, 1 was a gas well, and 16 were dry holes. New oil production totaled 10,220 bbl. and new gas production totaled 33,714,000 cu. ft. This compares with new oil production in 1933 of 1238 bbl. and new gas production of 14,307,000 cu. ft. Dry holes in 1933 totaled 29 as conlpared with 16 in 1934. Oil was discovered in the Hiawatha gas field, Moffat County, in 1934 in the Mountain Fuel Supply Company's No. 4B Wilson, C. NE. NW. of sec. 23, 12N., 100W. This well was completed in a sand in the Wasatch (Tertiary) at 2304 to 2337 ft., after plugging back from 3797 ft. It made 20 bbl. of oil initially. No. 4B Wilson is the first well in the Rocky Mountain region to discover oil in commercial amounts in rocks younger than Cretaceous, and while it is not expected that Hiawatha will develop into an oil field of important proportions, eventually it may produce a considerable amount of oil as the gas pressure declines. The Hiawatha gas field was discovered in 1926, on one of six structures in what is known as the Vermillion Creek gas area. It is a northeast-

Jan 1, 1935

By H. L. Teicliman, E. M. Sipprelle

ENACTMENT of Public Law 290 by the 78th Congress authorized the U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, to conduct an experimental program to develop the technology for obtaining oil from oil shale. In adopting and later extending this legislation, the Congress recognized the impending necessity of supplementing ground petroleum reserves with synthetic fuels. Under the provisions of this legislation, the Bureau of Mines, among other things, was charged with the responsibility of developing mining techniques, methods, and equipment for mining the oil shales of the Green River formation of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.

Jan 1, 1950

By George B. Holderer

The relation between man-hours of labor and production may be correlated for any industry, and already it has been widely used in piecework studies. It is not in general use as yet for recording labor efficiency of an enterprise or an industry. An exception to this is the Cement Institute, which tabulates the man-hours used in each operation and thus gets the total man-hours per barrel of cement. The writer knows of one steel company that keeps a complete record of man-hours for every operation from mining the ore to finishing the product. No doubt many others find the information useful, and such a study could be of value to the mineral industries.

Jan 1, 1937

By Cyril Stanley Smith

BETA brass (consisting of approximately equal atomic proportions of copper and zinc) exists as a random solid solution at high temperatures, but at low temperatures [ ] an ordered structure is stable, with the copper and zinc atoms occupying alternate sites on the body-centered-cubic lattice. On cooling, ordering commences at a temperature of 450° to 490°C., depending on the composition. The degree of ordering progressively increases at lower temperatures until it becomes virtually complete at about 100°C. The electrical resistivity of the alloy illustrates the changes clearly (Fig. I). This type of reaction has been a favored subject for study by physicists. An [ ] excellent summary of the theory is to be found in a paper by F. C. Nix and W. Shockley.1 All published data on electrical conductivity, specific heat and other properties agree in indicating that the ordering reaction in beta brass takes place so rapidly that it cannot be prevented or even retarded by quenching. With most ordered alloys, cold-working induces disorder and

Jan 1, 1942

CONTENTS PAGE BARTON, D. C.-The Eötvös Torsion Balance Method of mapping Geologic Structure (T. P. No. 50) 1 GEORGE, P. W.-Experiments with Eötvös Torsion Balance in the Tri-State Zinc and Lead District (T. P. No. 65). 15 LANCASTER-JONES, E.-The Computation of Eötvös Gravity Effects (T. P. No.75) HEILAND, C. A.-A Cartographic Correction for the Eötvös Torsion Balance-(T. P. No. 52) 17 SLICHTER; L. B.-Certain Aspects of Magnetic Surveying (T. P. No. 120). . . . 18 WEAVER, W.-Certain Applications of the Surface Potential Method (T. P. No.121) LUNDBERG, H.-Recent Results in Electrical Prospecting for Ore (T. P. No. 98). . 20 HOTCHKISS, W. 0., ROONEY, W. J. and FISHER, J.-Earth-resistivity Measure-ments in the Lake Superior Copper Country (T. P. No. 82) 21 LEONARDON, E. G. and KELLY, S. F.-Some Applications of Potential Methods to Structural Studies (T. P. No. 115) 23 MASON, M.-Geophysical Exploration for Ores (T. P. No. 45) 25 The Eötvös. Torsion Balance Method of Mapping Geologic Structure Discussion of the paper of D. C.. Barton, issued as Technical Publication No. 50 with Mining and, Metallurgy, February, 1928. D. C. BARTON.-The field surveys which I have been privileged to use as illustrations for this paper were done for Mr. DeGolyer's companies and were released through his favor. W. J. MILLARD, Tulsa, Okla.-Has any oil been found by the torsion balance in West Texas? D. C. BARTON.-NO new oilfield has been discovered on the basis of torsion balance work. It has had some part in controlling the policy of certain companies in playing the extension of known oil fields. A number of "T. B." structures have been drilled and dry holes obtained. Of those known to the writer, one apparently was a structural high, one is a broad general high but locally low and probably is a deep-seated structural high, one seems normal although the control is poor, and one was considered structurally low but is now suspected by some geologists of being structurally high. E. L. DEGOLYER, New York, N. Y.-A large gravity structure, generally referred to, I believe, as the Crosby County Structure, has been found in West Texas. This structure is perfectly symmetrical with the arrows all pointing toward a common center, very much like the Nash salt-dome pattern in Dr. Barton's paper (Fig. 9). One of the peculiar things about it, from the standpoint of the gravity high, is that it is so

Jan 1, 1928

By J. L. Martin, W. M. Campbell

A new electric logging method, called displacement logging, often gives a direct indication of the presence of mobile hydrocarbons in hydrocarbon-bearing formations. This method is based on the detection of a bank of connate water which is formed between the invading mud filtrate and virgin formation fluids in these cases. The existence of this phenomenon has beer, verified by laboratory studies and by actual field logs taken in known oil sands. INTRODUCTION During the past decade increasing use has been made of conventional electric logs to determine the amount of oil or gas in formations traversed by a borehole. This determination requires knowledge of several factors, such as true resistivity of the formation, formation factor, and water resistivity. Sometimes all of the factors necessary to make a reliable saturation calculation are not available. Also, the computations and corrections which are necessary in such a study often require the services of an experienced log analyst. It has long been the desire of exploration people to have a logging device which will locate hydrocarbon-bearing formations directly without requiring complex interpretation methods. The displacement log, while not completely fulfilling this desire, appears to be a Step in that direction. Basis for the Device The basis for this device stems from a phenomenon which occurs when mud filtrate invades a formation which contains displaceable hydrocarbons. As the mud filtrate invades the formation, most of the oil or gas is pushed out of the invaded zone, leaving residual oil. However, in addition to displacing most of the oil or gas, the connate water is also swept out, since the originally irreducible water is mobile in the presence of a water phase.1,2,3 Tonsequently, this irreducible water piles up as a bank between the virgin oil zone and the invading filtrate. If the mud filtrate is of higher resistivity than the formation water— as is commonly the case—the resulting annular zone, containing the bank of formation water, will be of lower resistivity than either the virgin oil-bearing formation resistivity or the invaded zone resistivity. This resistivity configuration, going from high to low to high again as the distance from the borehole increases, is found only in those zones which contain displaceable hydrocarbons. A device which would reliably detect this low resistivity zone would give a direct indication of mobile hydrocarbons. Illustrations This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of a zone containing salty connate water plus displaceable hydrocarbons, along with graphs showing fluid content and electrical resistivity vs distance from the borehole, before invasion occurs. Fig. 2 shows this zone, together with fluid content and resistivity graphs. after invasion by a fresh water mud. The resistivity pattern on moving away from the borehole is high: low: high. The absence of the low zone phenomenon in water zones is illustrated in Fig. 3 and 4. Fig. 3 shows a sketch of a zone containing salty formation water and residual oil, along with graphs showing fluid content and electrical resistivity vs distance from the borehole, before invasion occurs. Fig. 4 shows this water zone, together with fluid content and resistivity graphs, after invasion bv a fresh water mud. In this case the resistivity pattern on moving away from the borehole is high: low since there is no change in water saturation at the head ol

Jan 1, 1956

By L. M. Pidgeon

The reactive metals are above manganese on the electromotive series. Their compounds are characterized by large heats of formation and they cannot be reduced from their ores by classical methods. Three general production methods have been used: a) Fused salt electrolysis, b) reduction of a halide by another metal, and c) reduction of the oxide by another metal. Method (a) is highly developed, as in the case of aluminum, (b) in the case of titanium, and (c) has been successful in the case of volatile metals such as magnesium and calcium. It is suggested that future improvements will take place in (a), and particularly in (c), but are rather less likely in the case of (b). THIS year of 1963 is the centennial of the birth of both Charles Hall and of Heroult, the founders of the aluminum industry. Aluminum is the one reactive metal which has reached massive stature in modern industry and perhaps the only such metal to have been produced in any quantity before the turn of the century. It has been joined by others, some on a very modest scale, but all of importance and all of fascinating interest. When invited to give the Fifth Extractive Metallurgy lecture, it seemed appropriate to look back upon the short history of this group to trace the developments which brought extraction methods to their present state and, at great risk, offer opinions as to future trends.

Jan 1, 1963

By J. M. Weehuizen

Complete details are given of the drilling method by which two shafts were sunk at the new Beatm'x mine of Staatsmijnen in the Netherlands. The nature of the rock strata in the Dutch mining district determined choice of the drilling rather than the freezing method. Data for each step and details of the equipment used are given in the illustrations. Staatsmijnen was founded in 1902 with government financial backing, but it is run as a private enterprise, on a commercial basis, with the normal fiscal obligations. The company now has four mines in operation with annual outputs amounting to 7 1/2 million tons of coal. In 1952 it was determined that a new mine—the Beatrix—would be opened. Details of the shaft-sinking operation are described in this paper. SHAFT LOCATION The coal-bearing carboniferous rock in the Dutch mining district is overlain almost completely by soft water-bearing strata, which at the site of the new shafts are about 1600 ft thick. The sinking of the new shafts through this soft water-bearing overburden (Fig. 1) is a costly and time-consuming affair. From the two availaible sinking methods: 1) Poetsch's well known freezing method or 2) the drilling method of Honigmann-de Vooys, the latter was preferred, not only because of its relative cheapness, under the prevailing conditions, but primarily because by using the drilling process, a special type of shaft lining of steel, concrete, and bitumen could be used. The new shafts, located 330 ft apart, have an inner diameter of 18 ft, 4 1/2 in. The boreholes, which have a diameter of 25 ft and which were drilled through nearly 1600 ft of overburden and some 100 ft of carboniferous, each contain more than 29,000 cu yd—by far the largest in the world. DRILLING METHOD The drilling method is based on the use of mud-flush—a thin mixture of clay and water—to keep the borehole filled during the entire drilling period and during insertion of the lining (Fig. 2). The pressure of the mudflush against the borehole wall is greater than that of the water in the surrounding

Jan 1, 1961

By Charles A. Stickels, Edward E. Hucke

The dihedral angle, formed by the intersection of three interfaces, is often determined by measuring a sample of apparent angles of intersection seen on a random plane of polish, then comparing the exerimental distribution of angles to the distribution calculated by Harker and Parker. Statistical tests show that the latter distribution does not satisfactorily describe the population from which samples are drawn. It is concluded that the major reason for this discrepancy is the presence of a range of dihedral angles in all specimens. When reasonable care is used experimentally, random measuring error is unimportant. It is shown that measurements made on dispersed second-phase inclusions are subject to a systematic error depending on inclusion size, which can be minimized by using adequate magnification. A dihedral angle, calculated from a sample of observed angles as though a unique dihedral angle were present, is termed an "effective dihedral angle". Experience has shown that "effective dihedral angles'' are reproducible quantities, useful for characterizing samples. Methods of determining an "effective dihedral angle", establishing its reliability, and making comparisons between samples are discussed. THE authors have recently reported measurements of the dihedral angle formed by liquid-lead inclusions lying in nickel grain boundaries.' Di- hedral angles were measured by the statistical method first employed by Harker and parker2 and used subsequently by many other workers.3"8 Since a relatively high degree of accuracy was necessary in the authors' experiments, the reliability of this method of dihedral-angle measurement was examined. Briefly, this method of measuring dihedral angles is usually performed as follows. A multiphase alloy is prepared, equilibrated under conditions which allow sufficient interface mobility to establish equilibrium, quenched to room temperature, then prepared for metallographic examination. A large number of observed angles, formed by the traces of grain boundaries and/or interphase boundaries on the plane of polish, are measured at high magnification. If all orientations of interfaces in the specimen are equally probable, Harker and parker2 showed that the population of observed angles is described by a distribution function containing a single parameter, the dihedral angle, 8. certain properties of the population, e.g., the mode or median, have been calculated from this distribution function in terms of the dihedral angle.3, 9 Thus, if the mode or median of a sample is identified with the corresponding property of the population, a unique value for the dihedral angle is determined. One defect in this procedure lies in identifying the properties of a sample of observed angles with the properties of the population from which they are drawn. If one were to proceed in a more rigorous fashion, it would be necessary to find a function of sample properties which is an estimator of the dihedral angle. Then by determining the distribution function for the estimator one could set limits on the value of the dihedral angle. The most apparent obstacle to this straightforward approach is the complexity of the distribution function assumed to describe the population. In analytical form, the distribution function may be written:2, 10

Jan 1, 1964

By J. D. Wheeler, H. W. Mathews

The increased activity in West Texas, which started in 1933, has continued through 1936 at a constantly accelerated rate. During 1936 there were 1442 wells completed in the area as compared with 700 in 1935 and 468 in 1934. Of these completions, 1313 were producers with a total 24-hr. potential in excess of 1,750,000 bbl. From among the 1442 wells, eight are considered to be discovery wells for new West Texas fields. New Fields Bennett.—The Bennett field, which added Yoakum County to the oil-producing counties of West Texas, was actually indicated as an oil-producing area during 1935, but the discovery well, Honolulu Oil Corporation, Ltd. and Cascade Petroleum Company's Bennett No. l, was not given a production test until April 1936. The discovery well made 15 bbl. per hour through 3/4-in. choke with a plugged-back total depth of 5264 ft. First oil in the hole was from 5088 to 5090 ft., which is several hundred feet below the top of Permian lime. Producing limits of the field are unknown, as the second test had not reached the pay at the close of the year. Henderson.—-To date indications are that the Henderson pool, in northern Winkler County, is the most prolific area opened during 1936. This field, which lies to the north of the old Hendrick pool, is producing from the same reef-type dolomitic lime producing in the older field. The Henderson field was opened by the completion of R. H. Henderson, J. B. Walton-Humble 1-A in April 1936 for a natural flow of 2306 bbl. per day through tubing. Total depth of the discovery well is 3049 ft. Later development has indicated the productive area to be a rather narrow zone running slightly west of north. Present area of from 1000 to 1500 acres has been proved for production. Keys and Emperor.—The Keys and Emperor pools in the belt of sand pools running across Winkler County appeared for the first time on State proration schedules during 1936. This report considers these pools as links in joining the belt of sand production across Winkler County, for

Jan 1, 1937

By C. A. Hartnagel

The production of petroleum in New York state in 1942 amounted to 5,410,000 bbl. This represents an increase over each of the four preceding years, and, with the exception of 1937, is the largest production since the peak of over six million barrels in 1882, shortly after the discovery of oil in Allegany County. The oil industry in New York is virtually stabilized and there has been little or no exploration for new sources of supply in recent years. The boundaries of the present fields were established more than 30 years ago and since then no additional reserves have been found. Deep drilling for natural gas during the past 10 years both within and without the oil fields has failed to find oil in quantity below the present producing sands of Devonian age. Oil Since 1882, the New York fields have produced approximately 140 million barrels of oil. Of this amount, 65 million was produced up to the year 1919 by ordinary pumping methods; that is, without flooding by water or the use of other secondary-recovery methods. In the year 1919, when a law was passed making the use of water-flooding methods legal, the oil production, of the state amounted to only 851,000 bbl. In the 23 years since 1919, there have been produced in the state 75 million barrels, or 10 million more than in the previous 37 years, which included the period of flush production. Price.—On March 26, the price of crude oil was raised from $2.75 to $3.00 per barrel, hut this increase had little or no effect on the number of wells drilled. In the Allegany field, which accounts for three fourths of the state's oil production, 1259 wells were completed in 1942, 7 less than in 1941. The smaller number of wells drilled was not only due to the shortage of labor but also was caused by the fact that in water-flooding territory a definite program for drilling wells is followed, and the flush period of an oil well is not usually reached in time to profit by any given price increase. Daily Production.—All of the oil wells in New York state, some 21,000 in number, are small producers. The average daily oil production is 7/10 bbl. per well. Under good flooding conditions, a maximum production of 5 to 8 bbl, a day is reached about one year after the flood begins to act on the well. In 5 years the daily production usually is less than one barrel. Although most of the oil in New York is produced by flooding, an estimated 2500 old wells produce without flooding. Some of these produce as little as 1/20 bbl. a day and are pumped only at intervals. The small producing Wells are mostly on lands leased to the larger oil companies and later will be included in a flooding program. At present, they are pumped only because the owners of the land insist on the royalty. Government Aid Needed.—Because of its good lubricating qualities, New York oil is one of those for which there is an insistent and growing demand, but even at its present price of $3.00 per barrel, many of the operators are producing at a loss.

Jan 1, 1943

By C. A. Hartnagel

The production of petroleum in New York state in 1942 amounted to 5,410,000 bbl. This represents an increase over each of the four preceding years, and, with the exception of 1937, is the largest production since the peak of over six million barrels in 1882, shortly after the discovery of oil in Allegany County. The oil industry in New York is virtually stabilized and there has been little or no exploration for new sources of supply in recent years. The boundaries of the present fields were established more than 30 years ago and since then no additional reserves have been found. Deep drilling for natural gas during the past 10 years both within and without the oil fields has failed to find oil in quantity below the present producing sands of Devonian age. Oil Since 1882, the New York fields have produced approximately 140 million barrels of oil. Of this amount, 65 million was produced up to the year 1919 by ordinary pumping methods; that is, without flooding by water or the use of other secondary-recovery methods. In the year 1919, when a law was passed making the use of water-flooding methods legal, the oil production, of the state amounted to only 851,000 bbl. In the 23 years since 1919, there have been produced in the state 75 million barrels, or 10 million more than in the previous 37 years, which included the period of flush production. Price.—On March 26, the price of crude oil was raised from $2.75 to $3.00 per barrel, hut this increase had little or no effect on the number of wells drilled. In the Allegany field, which accounts for three fourths of the state's oil production, 1259 wells were completed in 1942, 7 less than in 1941. The smaller number of wells drilled was not only due to the shortage of labor but also was caused by the fact that in water-flooding territory a definite program for drilling wells is followed, and the flush period of an oil well is not usually reached in time to profit by any given price increase. Daily Production.—All of the oil wells in New York state, some 21,000 in number, are small producers. The average daily oil production is 7/10 bbl. per well. Under good flooding conditions, a maximum production of 5 to 8 bbl, a day is reached about one year after the flood begins to act on the well. In 5 years the daily production usually is less than one barrel. Although most of the oil in New York is produced by flooding, an estimated 2500 old wells produce without flooding. Some of these produce as little as 1/20 bbl. a day and are pumped only at intervals. The small producing Wells are mostly on lands leased to the larger oil companies and later will be included in a flooding program. At present, they are pumped only because the owners of the land insist on the royalty. Government Aid Needed.—Because of its good lubricating qualities, New York oil is one of those for which there is an insistent and growing demand, but even at its present price of $3.00 per barrel, many of the operators are producing at a loss.

Jan 1, 1943