Search Documents

THE slag performs two useful functions in open-hearth steel- making. First, it is the means of disposal of all the impurities, save carbon, which are removed from the charge materials in refining the steel, so it must be suited to receiving and retaining as much as possible of undesirable elements with minimum loss of iron and useful alloying elements. Second, the slag serves as a buffer between the flame and the bath and transfers oxygen to the metal at a measured pace contrasted with the violent and difficultly controlled oxidation of the bessemer process. At the same time, the slag is a thermal insulator that limits the rate at which heat can be delivered to the metal from the flame, and a heavy slag blanket thereby serves as a brake on production rates. It has been said with justification that the secret of good steel- making is to make a good slag and the steel will take care of itself. In a broad sense, the subject of slag control includes not only the adjustment of the composition of the slag but also of its relative weight in terms of percentage of the metal-bath weight. The slag is made up essentially of: (1) oxides formed by oxidation of silicon, manganese, phosphorus, and iron in the charge, (2) Si02, MnO, MgO, and other oxides charged as such or introduced incidentally with ores or fluxes or by refractory erosion, and (3) lime charged or fed to the heat to neutralize the "acidic" oxides present (Si02 and P205). Obviously, if practically perfect control were possible over the composition of the charge as well as over the oxidation process during the melting period, both slag weight and composition would be very nearly predetermined; and the control problem would be solved. Unfortunately, only a somewhat imperfect control over these factors is possible, so the operator must begin during the lime boil and continue through the refining period to discover and correct departures from the normal pattern of slag development. To do this as the heat progresses, the first helper must be able to make quick estimates of the composition and physical state of develop-

Jan 1, 1964

By Alexander Knoll, Dwight L. Baker

THIS paper is a report on work undertaken to investigate the results and conclusions of Ravitz and Porter1,2. that galena freed of surface oxidation products and lead carbonate ("clean" galena) is water-repellent, and that the action of xanthates in flotation is the action of a cleansing agent, enabling oxidized galena particles to expose a pure lead sulphide, water-repellent surface. The apparatus, in construction and use, was essentially that of Ravitz and Porter. The only significant modification introduced by the present authors was the substitution of a three-necked flask for the flotation cell as the "reaction vessel." Our procedure was to place 50 grams of freshly ground, minus 200-mesh galena in the reaction vessel, sweep out all molecular oxygen from the system with oxygen-free nitrogen, and proceed to wash the galena surface free of its oxidation products with repeated small portions of (I) ammonium acetate (500 c.c. of water, 200 grams of ammonium acetate) or (2) ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid (2 liters containing 200 grams of ammonium chloride and 25 c.c. of 1.18 sp. gr. hydro chloric acid). The galena was next washed with many 100-c.c. portions of oxygen-free, distilled water. The galena was finally considered free of soluble salts when wash water that had been in contact with the mineral for at least 48 hr.* gave negative tests for: (I) lead ion with sulphide; (2) chloride with silver ion; (3) acetate with cuprous chloride, sodium chloride; and (4) ammonium ion with Nessler's reagent. Next 500 c.c. of potassium ethyl xanthate solution, free of dissolved oxygen, was run onto the "clean" galena particles. For this system there were determined: I. The wetting properties of the clean galena particles by shaking the reaction flask and noting the degree of mineral collection at the liquid-air interface. This was, of course, simply a qualitative test, but it proved adequate for our purpose. 2. The removal of xanthate ion from the potassium xanthate solution on being shaken with the "cleansed" mineral. Xanthate concentrations were determined by iodine titration according to the methods of Taylor and Knoll.3 3. The pH of the xanthate solution after having been shaken with the "cleansed" galena. The pH was determined colorimetrically.4 The results of five experiments of the type mentioned above are given in Table I.

Jan 1, 1941

By M. Cohen, R. T. Howard

The purpose of this paper is to direct attention to the lower part of the austenite transformation diagram, or TTT curves, where considerable uncertainty still exists as to the blending of the bainite and martensite reactions. The dissimilarities between these two low temperature transforrnations have been summarized recently by Troiano and Greninger.' Of particular importance to the present work is the fact that martensite formation, unlike bainite formation, is not suppressed by the fastest quenching rates attainable. However, most of the investigations in this direction have been concerned primarily with the start of the martensite transformation (Mg) during cooling, rather than with the quantitative aspects of the subsequent reaction on either further cooling or isothermal holding. Several years ago, Cohen2 suggested a form of transformation diagram which reconciled, at least schematically, the isothermal characteristics of the bainite transformation with the insuppressible nature of the martensite transformation. In essence, the diagram consisted of a family of horizontal lines (representing the progress of the austenite-martensite reaction during quenching) which were interrupted in point of time by the bainite family of C-curves extending down from higher temperatures. This picture received later support by metal-lographic3 and dilatometric4,5 studies, but the techniques employed were not sufficiently critical to substantiate some of the details. Elmendorf6 and Grange and Stewardi have shown that the Greninger-Troiano metallographic technique8 may be used not only for M, determinations, but for studying the course of further austenite decomposition. In fact, the latter investigators have observed the amount of martensite formed as a function of temperature below M, in fourteen commercial steels. In the present paper, the Greninger-Troiano technique has been combined with the lineal method of Howard and Cohen9 to provide a unique, quantitative treatment of the austenite-martensite reaction. Furthermore, isothermal transformations have been similarly measured on holding at temperatures above and below M., thus permitting a fairly detailed presentation of the lower part of the conventional austenite transformation diagram. Experimental Details Materials The steels, listed in Table I, were selected for study because they exhibit a satisfactory range of M. temperatures and have not received as much attention as the lower carbon grades. They were prepared as 30 lb induction furnace heats in the laboratories of the Vanadium-Alloys

Jan 1, 1949

By M. Cohen, R. T. Howard

The purpose of this paper is to direct attention to the lower part of the austenite transformation diagram, or TTT curves, where considerable uncertainty still exists as to the blending of the bainite and martensite reactions. The dissimilarities between these two low temperature transforrnations have been summarized recently by Troiano and Greninger.' Of particular importance to the present work is the fact that martensite formation, unlike bainite formation, is not suppressed by the fastest quenching rates attainable. However, most of the investigations in this direction have been concerned primarily with the start of the martensite transformation (Mg) during cooling, rather than with the quantitative aspects of the subsequent reaction on either further cooling or isothermal holding. Several years ago, Cohen2 suggested a form of transformation diagram which reconciled, at least schematically, the isothermal characteristics of the bainite transformation with the insuppressible nature of the martensite transformation. In essence, the diagram consisted of a family of horizontal lines (representing the progress of the austenite-martensite reaction during quenching) which were interrupted in point of time by the bainite family of C-curves extending down from higher temperatures. This picture received later support by metal-lographic3 and dilatometric4,5 studies, but the techniques employed were not sufficiently critical to substantiate some of the details. Elmendorf6 and Grange and Stewardi have shown that the Greninger-Troiano metallographic technique8 may be used not only for M, determinations, but for studying the course of further austenite decomposition. In fact, the latter investigators have observed the amount of martensite formed as a function of temperature below M, in fourteen commercial steels. In the present paper, the Greninger-Troiano technique has been combined with the lineal method of Howard and Cohen9 to provide a unique, quantitative treatment of the austenite-martensite reaction. Furthermore, isothermal transformations have been similarly measured on holding at temperatures above and below M., thus permitting a fairly detailed presentation of the lower part of the conventional austenite transformation diagram. Experimental Details Materials The steels, listed in Table I, were selected for study because they exhibit a satisfactory range of M. temperatures and have not received as much attention as the lower carbon grades. They were prepared as 30 lb induction furnace heats in the laboratories of the Vanadium-Alloys

Jan 1, 1949

By J. W. Downey, M. V. Nevitt

The phase boundaries for the 950" isothermal sections in the ternary systems Zr-Co-0 and `Zr-Ni-0 have been determined for the composition range from 50 to 100 at. pct Zr. The two systems show very similar phase relations, having no extensive solid solution phase fields. Each contains a ternary phase. These phases are apparently isostructural, but their structure has not been determined. Some aspects of the phase relations are discussed in terms of the alloying behavior of transition metals. THE work described in this paper is the outgrowth of a recent study of the occurrence of phases having the Ti2Ni-type structure (structure-type E9,) in certain ternary systems involving Ti, Zr, or Hf with another transition metal and O.", In the Zr-CO-0 and Zr-Ni-0 systems no Ti2Ni-type phases were found to occur. However, there are several interesting aspects of the phase relations in the two systems which have significance from the point of view of the alloying behavior of transition metals. The results of this investigation may also have some importance in studies of the oxidation of Zr-Co and Zr-Ni alloys. In both the Zr-Co-0 and Zr-Ni-0 systems only the 950" isothermal sections were investigated and, as a further restriction, the study was limited to the composition range from 50 to 100 at. pct Zr. A tentative Zr-Co binary diagram has been published by Larsen, Williams, and Pehin. In the composition range pertinent to the present work they report a eutectic at 980°C and 75.9 at. pct Zr, the products of which are the terminal solid solution based on /3 Zr and the compound Zr2Co, and a eutectic at 1080" and 64.8 at. pct Zr whose products are Zr,Co and ZrCo. The solid solution based on /3 Zr is shown to decompose eutectoidally at 826°C into a Zr and Zr2Co. The limits of solubility of Co in a and /3 Zr have not been established. The structure of Zr2Co is not identified in the publication just cited. Dwight has reported that ZrCo has the CsC1-type strcture. The Zr-rich portion of the Zr-Ni diagram has been determined by Hayes, Roberson, and Paasche." The phase relations are very similar to those of the ZrCo system. A eutectic reaction whose products are /3 Zr containing 2.9 at. pct Ni and Zr,Ni occurs at 961°c, and a eutectic between Zr,Ni and ZrNi is found at 985". The solid solution based on /3 Zr decomposes eutectoidally at 808°C. The solubility of Ni in a Zr is not known accurately but is believed to be very small. Smith, Kirkpatrick, Bailey, and Williams7 have found that Zr2Ni has a tetragonal structure of the A1,Cu-type and that ZrNi is orthorhombic. Domagala and McPherson8 have published a constitution diagram for the system Zr-ZrO,. At 950" their diagram indicates that the solid solution of 0 in 0 Zr is stable from 0 to 0.5 at. pct while the phase field of 0 in a Zr extends from 6 to 29 at. pct. These solubility limits were adopted in the present study and no binary Zr-0 alloys were made. No previous data on the phase diagrams of the ternary systems are known to exist. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The experimental details involved in the preparation of alloys in this laboratory by arc melting have been described in several previous papers"3 and they will not be repeated here. Information concerning the purity of the metals used is given in Table I. Oxygen was added in the form of reagent grade ZrO,. All of the cast specimens in both alloy systems were annealed in air-atmosphere tube furnaces at 950 3' for 72 hr and water quenched. The specimens were protected from oxidation by wrapping them in Mo foil and sealing them in quartz tubes that had been evacuated at room temperature to a pressure of 1 x 10B mm of Hg. The phase boundaries were determined by metallography, and identification of the phases was accomplished primarily by X-ray diffraction methods which employed a powder camera having a diameter of 114.6 mm. The diffraction techniques which are in use in this laboratory have been previously described.' An etchant that proved satisfactory for most of the alloys consisted of 5 pct by vol of AgNO

Jan 1, 1962

By J. M. Toguri, K. Grjotheim

It is known 1,2 that the equilibrium between titanium metal, TiCl2 , and TiCl3, in a solvent of molten metal chlorides, is influenced both by the total amount of dissolved titanium and by the type of solvent. Assuming that the trivalent titanium forms the complex ion Ti111 Cl4, the equilibrium reaction may be expressed by the following equation, (Me) TiIII cl4+ 1/2 Ti = 3/2 TiII cl2+ (Me) Cl The ideal ionic equilibrium constant for this reaction is, Where the N's are the molar ionic fractions in the equilibrium melt, and (Me) the different types of cations present in the equilibrium mixture. The following thermodynamic relation is derived between Kand the concentration of cations in the equilibrium melt, mix The N"S are the equivalent ionic fractions, and so forth are constants corresponding to the standard changes in free energy for reactions in melts where only the cation indicated is present, and f (y1) is a function of the activity coefficients in the equilibrium mixture. When this term vanishes, a simplified linear relationship between In Kideal and the concentration is obtained. The simplified relationship has been applied with satisfactory results to the experimental data of Mellgren and pie,' and Kreye and Kellogg.2 MANY existing methods for the production of light metals involve the reduction of their respective metal halides in the presence of salt melts composed of alkali or alkaline earth chlorides. In such a solution phase, the light-metal halide may undergo stepwise reduction from a higher, to a lower valence, and finally to a zero valent state. In this connection, the disproportionation equilibrium is of great interest. In the case where the higher valence is three and the lower valence is two, the disproportionation equilibrium may be written as follows, 3 Me11 = 2 Me111 + Me [I] If this equilibrium occurs in a salt melt containing a large excess of alkali chlorides, a typical ionic melt is obtained. It is then possible to formulate the cation equilibrium: 2 Me+h' + Me = 3 Me++ [II] Reaction [11] is analogous to a cation exchange reaction. It has been shown thermodynamically that the equilibrium constant for such a reaction in 2

Jan 1, 1960

By W. H. Bassett, C. H. Davis

The late J. P. Sparrow, chief operating engineer of the New York Edison CO., carried out a series of practical tests on condenser tubes of several copper alloys and reported on the results to the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies at its meeting in September, 1913. In the preparation of these tubes the senior author had the pleasure of cooperating. Copper-zinc alloys in the proportions of 60-40,70-30,80-20, 90-10, and Admiralty metal, which is in effect 70-30 with 1 per cent. of tin, were tried. Monel metal and several copper-nickel alloys, and 8, 5, and 3 per cent. aluminum bronze were also tried. At the time of this report, the aluminum bronze had been in service for 4 1/2 years and seemed to be giving especially good results but later it began to fail and showed no substantial improvement over Admiralty metal. Monel metal was unsatisfactory and the nickel alloys apparently did not give better service than the Admiralty alloy. Previous to the publication of the report, and after considerable discussion, it was agreed that a test where tubes of different kinds could be under laboratory observation would be advisable, so the apparatus described here was set up in The American Brass Co.'s Waterbury Laboratory. This was fitted with tubes of copper, brass, bronze, nickel silver, cupro-nickel and other alloys, and the test started on Oct. 11, 1912. Salt water from East River, New York harbor, was barrelled and transported to the laboratory for the test. A fresh supply, completely replacing the water in service, was obtained at the end of each six months period. Plan of Procedure In general, the procedure was to inspect the tubes at short intervals and to remove those that had begun to leak. The tubes removed were carefully examined and a photographic and microscopic record of the

Jan 1, 1925

By O. George Specht, Carl A. Zapffe

In recent print, some remarkably contradictory statements have appeared regarding the importance to be attached to sponge Iron,1-6 a metallurgical commodity whose history goes back at least to the time of Diodorus Siculus in the fourth century B.C. This disagreement, however, expresses the lack of a satisfactory method for producing sponge iron rather than defection in the commodity. The blast furnace is admitted to have certain inherent disadvantages, such as a general unsuitability for magnetite and the heating and blowing of vast quantities of undesirable nitrogen, so that a workable sponge-iron process remains attractive. In this respect, low-temperature gaseous reduction shows especial promise; but confusion persists regarding the factors involved. The present paper, therefore, has three principal divisions: (I) an exhaustive examination of all previous work on low-temperature gaseous reduction, (2) experi- mentation on the reduction of a magnetite with hydrogen, and (3) development of certain thermodynamic relationships in reduction, with a summarized depiction of the factors in the general process. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS Gaseous media used in the reduction processes under discussion can be classified in three types: (I) H2, (2) CO, and (3) other gases. In the second, the CO is often admixed with H2. The third principally comprises hydrogeniferous gases, such as natural gas and producer gas, and in addition includes chlorine. Because hydrogen therefore features in all three, a study of hydrogen reduction based on investigations using pure hydrogen alone may be incomplete. The present paper reviews the three groups of investigations in the listed order, paying particular attention to hydrogen reduction. For the benefit of future workers, an exhaustive bibliography has been prepared and similarly classified. Group I: Reduction with Hydrogen Equilibria Although the present problem is specifically one of kinetics, a first consideration is the equilibrium of the system, since the reactions to be studied comprise that equilibrium, and their direction and end points are defined by it. The historic development of these researches is interesting and informative.

Jan 1, 1947

By O. George Specht, Carl A. Zapffe

In recent print, some remarkably contradictory statements have appeared regarding the importance to be attached to sponge Iron,1-6 a metallurgical commodity whose history goes back at least to the time of Diodorus Siculus in the fourth century B.C. This disagreement, however, expresses the lack of a satisfactory method for producing sponge iron rather than defection in the commodity. The blast furnace is admitted to have certain inherent disadvantages, such as a general unsuitability for magnetite and the heating and blowing of vast quantities of undesirable nitrogen, so that a workable sponge-iron process remains attractive. In this respect, low-temperature gaseous reduction shows especial promise; but confusion persists regarding the factors involved. The present paper, therefore, has three principal divisions: (I) an exhaustive examination of all previous work on low-temperature gaseous reduction, (2) experi- mentation on the reduction of a magnetite with hydrogen, and (3) development of certain thermodynamic relationships in reduction, with a summarized depiction of the factors in the general process. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS Gaseous media used in the reduction processes under discussion can be classified in three types: (I) H2, (2) CO, and (3) other gases. In the second, the CO is often admixed with H2. The third principally comprises hydrogeniferous gases, such as natural gas and producer gas, and in addition includes chlorine. Because hydrogen therefore features in all three, a study of hydrogen reduction based on investigations using pure hydrogen alone may be incomplete. The present paper reviews the three groups of investigations in the listed order, paying particular attention to hydrogen reduction. For the benefit of future workers, an exhaustive bibliography has been prepared and similarly classified. Group I: Reduction with Hydrogen Equilibria Although the present problem is specifically one of kinetics, a first consideration is the equilibrium of the system, since the reactions to be studied comprise that equilibrium, and their direction and end points are defined by it. The historic development of these researches is interesting and informative.

Jan 1, 1947

CORPORAL SHEPPARD B. GORDY Sheppard B. Gordy, a brief biography of whom was printed inn the January Bulletin, entered the employ of the Braden Copper Co. immediately on his graduation from the Sheffield Scientific School in 1912. He remained with this company four years, working up through the various grades to assistant foreman and foreman to one of the individual mines. The last year he was in its employ, he acted as general mine foreman. He was for a short time with the Chile Exploration Co. and then went with the Andes Exploration Co. (Anaconda) and remained with CORPORAL SHEPPARD B. GORDY. the latter, doing mine exploration and development work, until he sailed for home in June, 1918, to give a more personal and active service to his country in her need. He declined a tender of induction into an officers' training camp, at the urgent request of Professor McClelland supplemented by Mr. Potter, because they demonstrated to his satisfaction that he could give more valuable service to his country in helping out with the aircraft production. Being within the draft age, in order to carry out this plan, it was necessary for him to be called by his Local Board and sent to camp. This call came Aug. 26. Two weeks before that time lie had gone to Dayton, Ohio; to begin the study of aircraft production, and was sent by the Dayton Board to Camp Sherman, Chillicothe, Ohio, where he died of pneumonia on Oct. 9.

Jan 3, 1919

By G. L. Boxer, C. B. Smith, W. J. Atkinson

Since the inception of the Ashton (formerly Kalumburu) Joint Venture in 1972 the parties have expended $24 million in exploration for diamonds in the Kimberley region. This has resulted in the discovery of the currently subeconomic Ellendale deposits in 1976/77 and the economic Argyle - Smoke Creek Deposits in 1979/80. In addition to Argyle and Ellendale, some 90 kimberlitic and lamproitic bodies have been discovered grouped broadly into three provinces, on the west, east and north margins of the Kimberley block. These bodies range in size from dyke-like features less than 1 m (3 ft) in width to pipes with a surface area of 128 ha (316 acres). The bodies with larger surface area are volcanic crater deposits, infilled with air-fall and water deposited tuffs and epiclastic sediments. Diamond content ranges from trace to economic concentrations. The exploration discoveries were facilitated by early recognition that the petrography, mineralogy and chemistry of the diatremes varied from the classical kimberlites of Kimberley, South Africa, to unusual more highly fractionated, alkaline, silicic varieties having affinities with leucite-lamproite. Indirect methods of exploration were used, primary reconnaissance work being stream gravel sampling for kimberlitic indicator minerals. Evaluation showed Ellendale diamonds are 90% gem and near gem, but the low grades and tonnage render the deposits unpayable at today's diamond prices. After discovery in late 1979 and completion of a feasibility study by the end of 1982, evaluation studies proved Argyle to be economic. Alluvial diamond mining commenced in 1983 producing 6.2 million carats (Mct) that year, 60% being of industrial quality. Open-pit mining of the AK1 lamproite should start in 198511986 at a rate of 3 million t/a (33 million stpy) and produce 25 Mct/a, making this mine, and Australia, the world's largest producer of diamonds by weight. The revenue from diamond deposits is a function of the grade and the value of the diamonds. The grade is the product of the frequency of occurrence of the diamonds (stone density) and the mean stone size; the value of the stones is strongly related to their size distribution. During evaluation of the West Australian deposits, the diamond distribution was found to vary markedly in stone density and stone size. These variations corresponded with changes in the rock type hosting the mineralization. As a consequence, geological mapping of individual lamproites within the multiple vents and careful monitoring of the diamond distribution became an important part of the evaluation work. Similar variations in stone size and frequency were found to accord with separate alluvial terraces and fan gravels derived by erosion from the Argyle AK1 lamproite.

Jan 1, 1985

By A. E. Zawadzki

A progress report is presented on the development of a process for the removal of sulfur dioxide from flue gases. Catalytic oxidation of the sulfur dioxide in flue gases, with the production of recoverable sulfuric acid, has been demonstrated to be technically feasible. Problems associated with the process are discussed. The need for an inexpensive and efficient process for controlling sulfur dioxide emissions from utility plant stacks has been accentuated by the ever-increasing public demand for elimination of all man-made air pollutants. I would like to describe the results of an investigation of the development of such a process; more important, I would like to present a discussion of the problems associated with the process which remain to be solved. The research work on the BCR catalytic gas phase oxidation process has been jointly sponsored by the Association of Edison Illuminating Cos., Edison Electric Inst. and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., since 1958. However, work on SO2-pollution abatement was initiated by BCR in 1953. Tieman and Clymer,1 working with ozone and simulated flue gases, evaluated a gas phase oxidation process for removing SO2 from flue gases. Their experimental data indicated that the use of ozone to oxidize SO2 in flue gas concentrations, with subsequent recovery of H2SO4, did not appear to be economical due to the large ratio of ozone to sulfuric acid produced (2.6 to 1). The cost of the ozone would be 6 to 10 times the cost of sulfuric acid produced. As a result of the ozone study, work on a catalytic oxidation process was developed. The following reactions are the basis for the catalytic oxidation process Reaction [I] normally occurs in the combustion of sulfur-bearing fuels. At the high temperature found in the combustion chamber, 95% to 99% of the sulfur in the fuel is oxidized to SO2 and 1% to 5% is oxidized to SO3. The concentration of SO2 in the combustion gases depends on the combustion efficiency and the quantity of excess air used. A commonly used rule of thumb is 0.1 percent by volume SO2 in the flue gas for each 1% sulfur in the fuel. Reaction [2] proceeds at a wide range of temperatures. The rate of the reaction is rapid above l,000°F; however, the equilibrium conversion drops rapidly above this temperature. 2 Reaction [3] occurs rapidly to completion at temperatures below 400°F; above this temperature some SO3 exists in equilibrium with H2SO4. Complete dissociation of H2SO4 occurs above 650°F.3 The simplicity of the proposed process provided added incentive to the development and evaluation of the various component unit operations. The advantages of the process were considered to be as follows: 1) no raw materials were required, 2) the unit operations were not radically new; and 3) a salable product, sulfuric acid, would be produced. The successful development of the process was contingent upon the solution of several major problems: 1) The development of a catalyst which would provide high catalytic activity at reasonable conditions of gas flow and temperature without causing an unacceptable increase in pressure drop. 2) The development of a high temperature dust collection system to provide clean flue gases to the catalytic reactor. 3) The complete recovery of the sulfuric acid produced in the process; the effluent gas must contain less than 20 ppm by volume of sulfuric acid. As of this date, the complete solution to these problems has not been achieved. EXPERIMENTAL Catalyst Development: The use of platinum and vanadium catalysts for the production of sulfuric acid by the treatment of dry gases containing 5% to 20% by volume sulfur dioxide has been known for many years. The application of the basic idea of catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide in flue gas concentrations was

Jan 1, 1965

By H. J. Struth

Economic law was accorded considerably more recognition by the oil industry last year than perhaps ever before. While proration was undoubtedly given added impetus in 1931, and the list of proponents of unit operation was noticeably lengthened, predominant evidence plainly shows that the functioning of economic laws dominated collective efforts to reduce the excessive above-ground supply of petroleum. Crude oil production was reduced more than 48,000,000 bbl. last year; imports from other parts of the world were substantially lower; stocks of crude were drawn upon to the extent of nearly 48,000,000 bbl.; domestic gasoline demand increased 2 per cent—and yet, prices of petroleum and its products were at the lowest levels in many years. To say that the ills of the oil industry during 1931 were due to the general depression that was felt in all other lines is tantamount to attaching an air of uncertainty to a group of commodities that have been proved to be an ever increasing necessity, even in times of depression. TO say that the potential productivity of proven oil-producing areas has been responsible for the unsatisfactory state of affairs last year, and now, is to admit failure to carry out the principles designed to control production in accordance with the limits prescribed by demand. In fact, there is no reason why a large proven potential supply of oil should not be considered a valuable asset to the industry; an assurance against future needs; a stabilizing influence in building up confidence in the ability of the industry to supply this and future generations with fuel and lubricant requirements at reasonable prices. At any rate, an assured future supply of oil should be interpreted to the public to mean that the oil industry is a legitimate, progressive industry, and not a group of prospectors madly searching for "liquid gold." There has been a great deal of romance connected with the history of the oil business—so much that the public has come to associate the word "oil" with untold riches. However, the financial statements of 1931 will furnish conclusive proof to the contrary. Too much oil, too many refineries, too many filling stations, too much capital invested; these and other "too muches" and "too manys" have perhaps been given more publicity than necessary. We seldom hear these

Jan 1, 1932

By W. L. Fink, R. S. Archer

THIS paper describes results obtained on aluminum-beryllium alloys and aluminum-beryllium-copper alloys in the preparation of which aluminum of 99.95 per cent. purity was used. The constitution and structure of the high purity binary alloys are given. The aluminum-beryllium eutectic occurs at 0.87 per cent. beryllium and 645° C. The solid solubility of beryllium in aluminum at 631° C. is 0.05 per cent. beryllium, and at room temperature is less than 0.013 per cent. beryllium. The densities of the alloys are substantially the same as the values calculated on the assumption that the densities of the elements are not changed by alloying. All of the alloys age-harden at room temperature after a solution heat treatment, and the chill cast aluminum-beryllium-copper alloys age-harden at room temperature without a prior solution heat treatment. Hardness and tensile properties are given. Salt spray corrosion tests on sheet specimens are described. It is shown that beryllium does not lower the corrosion resistance of aluminum to salt spray provided the alloy has received a solution heat treatment. COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES OF BERYLLIUM ALLOYS Beryllium has certain properties such as low density, high hardness, good corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion and fairly good electrical conductivity, which would indicate that it is worthy of consideration as an ingredient of light alloys. It was not until recently, however, that beryllium could be produced with sufficient ease to encourage research along this line. The production of beryllium by electrolysis from a fluoride bath has now developed to the stage where it could be used commercially if there were sufficient demand for the element. Claims made in certain newspapers and technical articles in regard to the strength and corrosion resistance of the aluminum-beryllium alloys are not justified by experimental results. Moreover, beryllium is an expensive metal ($200 a pound at the time this work was done) and, on account of the nature of its ore and the consequent difficulty of its extraction, it will in all probability continue to be a relatively expensive metal, although the cost would undoubtedly be a great deal less than $200 a

Jan 1, 1928

By J. C. Febles

HISTORY. THE use of iron for the precipitation of copper was known at least as early as the fifteenth century. Both Paracelsus and Basil Valentine refer to it in their writings, as early as 1500 A. D. It was used in Peru for this purpose prior to 1637, and at Rio Tinto, Spain, as early as the sixteenth century. The statement has been made repeatedly that in the early history of the mining industry at Butte, the practicability of this method of recovering copper from solution was overlooked, and that enormous quantities of copper-bearing water were allowed to go to waste, the copper in which might easily have been recovered at small cost; and .that this oversight on the part of the mine operators was due to ignorance of this method of recovering copper. As a matter of fact, very little copper-bearing mineral was encountered in the mines of Butte until a depth of 400 or 500 ft. bad been reached, and in many cases much greater depths were necessary to reach the copper-bearing zone. The water encountered in the upper levels (although in most cases quite highly mineralized) contained little or no copper, and it was only after considerable areas of copper-bearing ore' had been uncovered and developed that copper sulphate began to appear in the mine water in any considerable quantity. In fact, the first water that was observed to contain copper carried it in such small amounts as to be of little or no importance. It was only after years of underground work had opened extensive areas of stopes, drifts, and other underground workings, these being subsequently filled with waste, nearly all of which contained small copper values, which became oxidized by exposure to the air and were acted upon by the slowly percolating mineral water, that the recovery of copper from mine water became commercially important.

Jan 7, 1913

By Charles Baker

THE district of Catorce, San Luis Potosi, ranks among the first half-dozen silver-producing camps f Mexico. Mining has been more or less continuous there for 150 years. The large producing mines, Mapum, Mazapil, Palomas, Musquiz, Minas Virjas, now for the most part idle or abandoned, are grouped around the head of two valleys: one, which drains to the west, falls 2000 ft. (609.6 m.) in 4 1/2 mi. (7.2 km.) between the main Catorce and the western foot of the range and is characterized by steep canon walls; the other, east of the main town of Catorce from which it is separated by a high divide, heads in a number of steep tributaries above the basin in which lies the town of Potrero and flows nearly north for 10 mi. (16 km.) to the northern base of the range; below Potrero, it has for the most part gently sloping valley walls and a broad valley floor. The Sierra Catorce is the highest range of the region, the summits reaching altitudes of over 11,000 ft. With the exception of a few cliffs of the erosion escarpment of the lower limestone and the canon walls below the main town of Catorce, which is the highest town in Mexico, the gently rounded slopes are characteristic of a maturely eroded mountain range composed of folded sedimentary rocks. As is usual in desert regions, the heavy-bedded limestones are the most resistant to erosive forces. Folded into anticlines, they form the mountain ranges; and the intermontane valleys and basins, originally carved out of less resistant shales, clays, marls and sandstones, are covered by debris forming a mantle with surface gradually rising upwards toward the hills. In time, the debris buries, in deposits formed from their own ruins, all but the highest summits of the original mountains; some f this region has already nearly reached this stage. Most of the debris is firmly cemented by calcium carbonate (caliche). Solution f the limestone by meteoric waters afforded the supply of lime carbonate, which has been redeposited upon evaporation of the waters as a cement binding the boulders, pebbles, and finer detritus.

Jan 9, 1921

By Kenneth F. Whinery, John M. Campbell

Basically, the Buckley-Leverett theory involves two systems which are similar in nature but are differentiated by time. These systems may be described by the fractional flow and frontal advance equations which essentially characterize the mechanics of oil movement while being expelled from the reservoir. The fractional flow equation originally developed by Leverettl may be expressed in the more usable form The development of this equation is based on Darcy's law describing fluid flow through porous media and applies to the flow at only one point (it is a point function). For simplification, the fractional flow equation is written in the above form because the capillary forces always increase the fractional flow of the displacing phase regardless of the direction of flow or the displacing phase. If, for simplicity, the effects due to gravity and capillary pressure differences are neglected, the fraction of the displacing fluid, f, at any point in the flowing stream is related to the properties of the system by 1 Thus, it is seen that in the absence of capillary and gravitational effects, fd for a given sand and fluids varies only with saturation and pressure. The magnitude of the viscosity ratio, —a has an effective range (range of about 30) in the system where gas is displacing oil and a much smaller range for water displacing oil. In order to make the fractional flow equation more versatile, it is necessary to connect the fractional flow at a given point and saturation with time. This problem was approached by Buckley and Leverett" who developed the frontal advance equation, Eq. 3 states that the rate of advance of a plane that has a fixed saturation, Sd, is proportional to the change in composition of the flow stream caused by a small change in the saturation of the displacing fluid. It is, essentially, a transformation of a material balance equation representing the net rate of accumulation of the displacing phase within a homogeneous sand block. This accumulation is proportional to the difference between the rate at which the displacing fluid enters the sand and that at which it leaves. Eq. 3 describes the velocity with which a plane of constant displacing phase saturation advances through a porous system. Buckley and Leverett," Babson,' Kern," Welge, and others have adequately discussed the basic mechanism and application of the fractional flow and frontal advance equations. APPLICATIONS OF THE FRONTAL ADVANCE THEORY TO PETROLEUM RECOVERY Two general applications of the Buckley-Leverett frontal advance theory involve the system in which the oil is being displaced by an expanding gas cap overlying the oil zone and that in which the oil is being displaced by water. Displacement by Gas in the Presence of an Immobile Water Saturation A system in which gas is the displacing phase may be thought of as having two forces effecting the displacement process. These forces are the gravitational force and that force exerted by the displacing gas. The gravitational effects control the displacing efficiency of the gas. The gravitational effect will be less at higher rates of flow, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the displacement of the oil by the gas. The more efficient displacements occur at flow rates which are less than the gravity free fall rate. Capillary forces can be neglected without materially changing the magnitude of the gas saturation. The Mile Six pool is used herein to illustrate the calculating procedures in evaluating gas drive-gravity drainage field perfomlance. These calculations represent the determination of the gas-oil contact when the distribution of the hydrocarbon pore volume is considered. Two methods

By W. L. Fink, R. S. Archer

This paper describes results obtained on aluminum-beryllium alloys and aluminum-beryllium-copper alloys in the preparation of which aluminum of 99.95 per cent. purity was used. The constitution and structure of the high purity binary alloys are given. The aluminum-beryllium eutectic occurs at 0.87 per cent. beryllium and 645° C. The solid solubility of beryllium in aluminum at 631° C. is 0.05 per cent, beryllium, and at room temperature is less than 0.013 per cent. beryllium. The densities of the alloys are substantially the same as the values calculated on the assumption that the densities of the elements are not changed by alloying. All of the alloys age-harden at room temperature after a solution heat treatment, and the chill cast aluminum-beryllium-copper alloys age-harden at room temperature without a prior solution heat treatment. Hardness and tensile properties are given. Salt spray corrosion tests on sheet specimens are described. It is shown that beryllium docs not lower the corrosion resistance of aluminum to salt spray provided the alloy has received a solution heat treatment. Commercial Possibilities of Beryllium Alloys Beryllium has certain properties such as low density, high hardness, good corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion and fairly good electrical conductivity, which would indicate that it is worthy of consideration as an ingredient of light alloys. It was not until recently, however, that beryllium could be produced with sufficient ease to encourage research along this line. The production of beryllium by electrolysis from a fluoride bath has now developed to the stage where it could be used commercially if there were sufficient demand for the element. Claims made in certain newspapers and technical articles in regard to thc strength and corrosion resistance of thc aluminum-beryllium alloys are not justified by experimental results. Moreover, beryllium is an expensive metal ($200 a pound at the time this work was done) and, on account of the nature of its ore and the consequent difficulty of its extraction, it will in all probability continue to be a relatively expensive metal, although the cost would undoubtedly be a great deal less than $200 a

By George Macready

TRINIDAD, British West Indies, is an island near the north coast of South America, situated between latitudes 10° and 11° N:, and. opposite the numerous outlets of the Orinoco River Delta. It is separated from Venezuela by the Gulf of Paria (salt, water) and straits over 5 mi. (8 km.) wide. The area of the island is approximately 1750 sq. mi. (453,- . 250 hectares) and the population is approximately 400,000. The climate is tropical with an annual rainfall of from 45 to 60 in. (114 to 152 cm.). The oil fields consist of several units, or fields, located in the southern half of the island. Approximately 90 per cent. of the total production has been yielded by fields situated within 7 mi: (11.3 km.) of the famous asphalt lake and on the southwest peninsula. The most important producing fields, or units, are the following, which are shown on the accompanying map: Brighton, or Pitch Lake Field, operated by the Trinidad Lake Petroleum Co., Ltd., is situated beside the famous Pitch Lake; it, even encroaches on the lake. Vessigny Field, operated by the Trinidad Lake Petroleum Co., Ltd., is situated 2 mi. (3.2 km.) south of Pitch Lake. Lot One Field, operated by the Petroleum Development Co., Ltd., the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., and Stollmeyer, Ltd., is situated 3 mi. south of Pitch Lake upon Lot One of Morne 1'Enfer Forest Reserve and adjoining properties. Parry Lands Field, operated by the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., and the Petroleum Development Co., Ltd., is situated 3;2 mi. south of Pitch Lake on Lot Three of Morne l'Enfer Forest Reserve and adjoining properties. Point Fortin Field, operated by the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., is situated at Point Fortin, 6 mi. southwest of Pitch Lake. Fyzabad Field, operated by Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd., is situated several miles southwest of Fyzabad Village and 6 mi. south-southeast of Pitch Lake. Barracpore Field, operated by Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd., is situated several miles south of. San Fernando and 15 mi. (24.14 km.) east of Pitch Lake.

Jan 9, 1920

By George A. Macready

Trinidad, British West Indies, is an island near the north coast of South America, situated between latitudes 10" and 11" N., and opposite the numerous outlets of the Orinoco River Delta. It is separated from Venezuela by the Gulf of Paria (salt water) and straits over 5 mi. (8 km.) wide. The area of the island is approximately 1750 sq. mi. (453,-250 hectares) and the population is approximately 400,000. The climate is tropical with an annual rainfall of from 45 to 60 in. (114 to 152 cm.). The oil fields consist of several units, or fields, located in the southern half of the island. Approximately 90 per cent. of the total production has been yielded by fields situated within 7 mi. (11.3 km.) of the famous asphalt lake and on the southwest peninsula. The most important producing fields, or units, are the following, which are shown on the accompanying map: Brighton, or Pitch Lake Field, operated by the Trinidad Lake Petroleum Co., Ltd., is situated beside the famous Pitch Lake; it even encroaches on the lake. Vessigny Field, operated by the Trinidad Lake Petroleum Co., Ltd., is situated 2 mi. (3.2 km.) south of Pitch Lake. Lot One Field, operated by the Petroleum Development Co., Ltd., the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., and Stollmeyer, Ltd., is situated 3 mi. south of Pitch Lake upon Lot One of Morne 1'Enfer Forest Reserve and adjoining properties. Parry Lands Field, operated by the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., and the Petroleum Development Co., Ltd., is situated 31/2 mi. south of Pitch Lake on Lot Three of Morne 1'Enfer Forest Reserve and adjoining properties. Point Fortin Field, operated by the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., is situated at Point Fortin, 6 mi. southwest of Pitch Lake. Fyzabad Field, operated by Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd., is situated several miles southwest of Fyzabad Village and 6 mi. south-southeast of Pitch Lake. Barracpore Field, operated by Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd., is situated several miles south of San Fernando and 15 mi. (24.14 km.) east of Pitch Lake.

Jan 1, 1921