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By R. Clare Coffin

The production of petroleum in the Rocky Mountain district increased from 27,104,436 bbl. in 1929 to 33,048,630 bbl. in 1930. This increase was due to the development in southeastern New Mexico; which is in reality a portion .of the West Texas province. Disregarding production in southeastern New Mexico, the Rocky Mountain district produced 25,799,027 bbl. in 1929 and 23,164,988 bbl. in 1930, a decrease of 2,634,039 bbl. for the period. The daily production in January, 1930, averaged 70,839 bbl. for the entire district and in December, 1930, the daily production was 98,995 bbl. Total production by states is given in Table 1. Three important discoveries of oil and one of gas occurred in the district during 1930 in structures not, previously known to contain oil or gas. Oil was discovered in Dry Creek structure, Carbon County, Mont.; in the Midway structure, Natrona County, near Casper, Wyo.; and in the Greasewood structure, Weld County, Colo., northwest of Fort Morgan. Gas was discovered in the Bell Rock structure in Moffat County, western Colorado. Seven deep tests in as many different fields encountered oil in lower horizons than those already exploited. All of these discoveries were in the state of Wyoming. They occurred in the Salt Creek field, Natrona

Jan 1, 1931

By Herbert Clark Hoover, Lou Henry Hoover

IN the last book I have explained the methods of delimiting- the meers along each kind of vein, and the duties of mine officials. In this book1 I will in like manner explain the principles of underground mining and the art of surveying. First then, I will proceed to deal with those matters which pertain to the former heading, since both the subject and methodical arrangement require it. And so I will describe first of all the digging of shafts, tunnels, and drifts on venae profundae; next I will discuss the good indications shown by canales2, by the materials which are dug out, and by the rocks ; then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken down and excavated ; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins ; and further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts and air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter ; next I will deal with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of tunnels ; and finally, I will describe the method of mining venae dilatatae, venae cumulatae, and stringers.

Jan 1, 1950

By M. H. Shumate

Rope-type haulage has had many applications in the mining and allied industries. Records have indicated favorable results both from a standpoint of efficiency and investment. The Truax-Traer Coal Co. has used some variations of rope haulage at their mines and preparation plants. They have built a system which solves their particular problems, and have an investment which has indicated an annual savings in operating costs. Rope haulage, as applied to the mining industry, goes back many years for both underground and surface mining, or a combination of both. The Truax-Traer Coal Co. has used gravity retarding hoists as well as several variations of rope haulage, including electrical and combinations of both, but each was limited in its use and application by natural conditions and economies of the operation. Several systems of rope haulage equipment are offered by manufacturers today for handling railroad car movement on a limited or continuous basis. The portal and railroad loading facilities of Truax-Traer Coal Co.'s Burning Star Slope mine, located in Jackson County, Ill., were moved in 1960. The old location was abondoned, eliminating 3% miles of underground track haulage. The mine was converted to an all-belt system, and coal is loaded at a new raw coal plant and shipped by railroad cars to a central cleaning plant. The company wanted to operate the surface facilities as efficiently as possible, employing a minimum number of workers, using the latest type railroad car movers. The existing rope haulage facilities at several locations throughout the country were examined and considered for the Slope mine location. The application of each appeared favorable but lacked flexibility, and it was difficult to justify the capital investment. The company decided to investigate the possibility of building a system that would apply to their problem, and have an investment that could be amortized in a relatively short period. SPECIFICATIONS They employed the services of Allen and Garcia Co. of Chicago, Ill. Through combined efforts, a railroad car rope system was designed to specifications as shown in Fig. 1. The Falk Corp. of Milwaukee, Wis. built the hoist to the specifications as shown in Fig. 2. It has an all welded base and pedestals. The all welded drum is not grooved. A single helical gear was used in lieu of herring bone type. A Falk speed reducer, Unit 90Y3-A, is driven by a 25-hp 1800-rpm, 440-V ac type 'C' (high starting torque) drip-proof, Frame 324-U motor. The speed reducer shaft is equipped with a solenoid operated ac spring set shoe brake, operating on a 7-in. diam. brake wheel. The dolly car, shown in Fig. 3, was field constructed, using the trucks and frame of a railroad tank car. Truax-Traer did not alter the frame but added plates and anchors for hoist ropes and frames for 8.5 tons of concrete to be used as ballast on the car. The limit switch operating shoe was also installed and the car coupler latch mechanism overhauled. The hoist rope selected was 1% in. in diam., 6x37 improved plow steel extra flexible, right lay, regular lay, with independent wire rope core, and preformed. Wedge sockets were used to connect rope to the dolly car as shown in Fig. 4. The system employs two 30-in. and three 16-in. diam. sheaves. All are bronze bushed and equipped with grease fittings. Larger sheaves are used for directional change of hoist rope and the smaller ones as snub sheaves to correct fleet angle of rope as it approaches the hoist drum. The Trench lay cable, buried between the two tracks, is used for electrical distribution and controls between hoists and operator's cab. Foundations for the system required 187 cu yards of reinforced concrete using approximately 60 cu yd each at three locations. Four hoists are employed in the system, two for each track. A pair is interconnected electrically and when one operates, moving the cars, the tail hoist idles with brake released. The process is repeated for the reverse direction. A limit switch, mounted in the track near each end of the system, is tripped by the dolly car as it approaches the hoist. The limit switch controls movement in one direction only, protecting the dolly car and establishing positive con-

Jan 1, 1962

By Edgar S. Cook

The Warwick furnace at Pottstown, Pa., constructed for anthracite fuel, is, as may be remembered, 554 feet high, with 15; feet bosh. The actual working height from stock-line to bottom is only 474 feet, the bell-and-hopper taking up 8 feet. During the year 1886 we used mixed fuel, in the proportion of three-fourths anthracite and one-fourth coke. The total product of iron was 30,6299 tons of 2280 lbs., being a weekly average of 589 tons, including all ordinary and extraordinary stoppages. Deducting the latter, the weekly average would be about 600 tons. The fuel-consumption for the year was 1.2 tons per ton of iron, while the ore-mixture yielded 52 per cent. of iron. For about two months during the summer of 1887 we were obliged to run on anthracite exclusively, owing to the Connellsville coke strike. In the fall of 1885, in relining the furnace, the crucible had been built 8 feet 9 inches in diameter, with the view of using regularly one-quarter of coke (the largest previous diameter having been 7 feet 5 inches), and we felt somewhat apprehensive of the results when compelled to use anthracite only. The average of seven weeks' run on coal, as compared with the average of the seven corresponding weeks of 1886 (using one-quarter coke), was as follows:

Jan 1, 1889

By W. A. Bruce

This paper presents the essentials of a mathematical method of studying the pressure behavior of an oil reservoir as the fluids are withdrawn. Methods are shown Whereby the behavior of a reservoir can be used to predict the future relationship between withdrawals and pressure. The oil reservoir is considered as a small part of a large porous continuum, which contains for the most part water. The expansion of this water resulting from a decrease of pressure in the oil zone causes a movement of water that is an important factor in the relationship between fluid withdrawals and reservoir pressure. Examples are given to illustrate the methods of pressure prediction for a circular reservoir containing undersaturated crude, the pressure distribution over a field that has a uniform production rate, the effect of a fault line near a field, the mutual interference of near-by fields, and the perturbing influence of a gas cap. Applications of the analysis to well-spacing problems are shown. Introduction The pressure-prediction methods to be described here are based upon the conception of an oil pool as a small part of a large porous continuum, containing for the most part water. The formation containing this water may be thought of as extending over an area of many square miles and having one or more small bodies of oil or gas trapped in high spots or reservoirs. It will be treated as having the genera1 aspect of a thin, flat sheet with an over-all tilt to the horizontal and with numerous small high spots, tight zones, and irregularities This porous continuum will be treated as being much more extensive than the oil or gas zones, but will be recognized as terminating at such large boundaries as a general fault, outcrop, unconformity, or pinch-out. Throughout the greater part of this limited porous continuum it is likely that there is a hydraulic connection. If this is true, the removal of fluid in one place will cause a disturbance that eventually will travel to all parts of the continuum. This picture has led to the recognition of water as the major fluid in the porous continuum and in many cases the expansive nature of this water as the main driving force producing the oil. The next step is the solution of the general problem of compressible liquid behavior in porous media. The works of Hurst I and Muskat2 introduced the idea of using heat-flow mathematics to consider the problem of compressible liquid flow in a porous medium. Before their reports, it had been thought sufficient to use the incompressible fluid-flow work of S1ichter.3 Law Muskat4 pointed out in detail how far the incompressible-fluirl assumption, deviated from fact even for water, of which the compressibility is about 3 X 10-6 volumes per unit volume per pound per square inch. He showed that this deviation increased with increases of distance. For example, the incompressible-fluid formula might show good agreement with the

Jan 1, 1943

By W. A. Bruce

This paper presents the essentials of a mathematical method of studying the pressure behavior of an oil reservoir as the fluids are withdrawn. Methods are shown Whereby the behavior of a reservoir can be used to predict the future relationship between withdrawals and pressure. The oil reservoir is considered as a small part of a large porous continuum, which contains for the most part water. The expansion of this water resulting from a decrease of pressure in the oil zone causes a movement of water that is an important factor in the relationship between fluid withdrawals and reservoir pressure. Examples are given to illustrate the methods of pressure prediction for a circular reservoir containing undersaturated crude, the pressure distribution over a field that has a uniform production rate, the effect of a fault line near a field, the mutual interference of near-by fields, and the perturbing influence of a gas cap. Applications of the analysis to well-spacing problems are shown. Introduction The pressure-prediction methods to be described here are based upon the conception of an oil pool as a small part of a large porous continuum, containing for the most part water. The formation containing this water may be thought of as extending over an area of many square miles and having one or more small bodies of oil or gas trapped in high spots or reservoirs. It will be treated as having the genera1 aspect of a thin, flat sheet with an over-all tilt to the horizontal and with numerous small high spots, tight zones, and irregularities This porous continuum will be treated as being much more extensive than the oil or gas zones, but will be recognized as terminating at such large boundaries as a general fault, outcrop, unconformity, or pinch-out. Throughout the greater part of this limited porous continuum it is likely that there is a hydraulic connection. If this is true, the removal of fluid in one place will cause a disturbance that eventually will travel to all parts of the continuum. This picture has led to the recognition of water as the major fluid in the porous continuum and in many cases the expansive nature of this water as the main driving force producing the oil. The next step is the solution of the general problem of compressible liquid behavior in porous media. The works of Hurst I and Muskat2 introduced the idea of using heat-flow mathematics to consider the problem of compressible liquid flow in a porous medium. Before their reports, it had been thought sufficient to use the incompressible fluid-flow work of S1ichter.3 Law Muskat4 pointed out in detail how far the incompressible-fluirl assumption, deviated from fact even for water, of which the compressibility is about 3 X 10-6 volumes per unit volume per pound per square inch. He showed that this deviation increased with increases of distance. For example, the incompressible-fluid formula might show good agreement with the

Jan 1, 1943

By C. L. Burrill

The forecasts presented in this paper constitute an attempt by the writer to predict the pattern of the consumption of petroleum products in the United States during the period of transition from war to peace. Although, in preparing the estimates, secular trends were not overlooked, greater emphasis was placed upon considerations of a cyclical character, or upon influences which might be peculiar to parts of the period. The estimates do not extend beyond the year 1950 because by then conditions in the industry should have returned to normal. The consumption of petroleum products is affected, of course, by changes in the condition of business in general. Before estimates of petroleum consumption could be prepared, therefore, it was necessary to predict the pattern of general business during the period under review, particularly the economic series that in the past have shown the closest relationships with petroleum consumption. It is the writer's view that business activity in this country (as measured by industrial production) will be higher on the average during the period between the end of the war and the year 1950 than it ever was before during a peacetime period of the same duration. When the war is over, consumers will have saved amounts of money that will be very large as compared with any previous accumulations. There is little question, therefore, as to the financial ability of consumers to purchase goods. The production of many durable consumers' goods, such as automobiles, refrigerators and radios, has been completely stopped since early in the war; also, many semidurable and nondurable consumers' goods have not been available in the quantities or the qualities desired. There is considerable needi therefore, for consumers to purchase goods after the war. The important question is whether consumers will purchase goods in "1arge enough quantities to keep our economy running at a high level. The writer answers this question in the affirmative. The mere existence of very large consumer savings lends considerable support to this view because, with such backlogs of " security," consumers can afford to spend more of their current earnings than they otherwise could. Also, several polls have been taken, which indicate that consumers expect to buy large quantities of a variety of goods. Some of the savings, therefore, probably will go into current consumption. Even though this percentage is relatively small, so that the bulk of the funds accumulated by consumers during the war continues to remain as savings during the period under review, spending should be great enough to start the production cycle and keep it

Jan 1, 1945

By R. M. Keeney

Jan 1, 1915

By R. W. Shearman, F. Weston Starratt

A new center for mining and metallurgical research is developing at Sterling Forest, N. Y., under the auspices of Union Carbide Corp. Here is to be located the Union Carbide Nuclear and Ore Research Laboratories. In truth, history has repeated itself; the Sterling Forest area in the days of the Revolutionary War, and for many years thereafter, was the mining and metallurgical center of the US. For in these Ramapo hills along the New York-New Jersey border, iron ore was mined, pig lion was cast, and the weapons of war and the plowshares of peace were forged. Before embarking on an historical pilgrimage to yesteryear-a brief description of Sterling Forest. Located in Orange County, N. Y., near Tuxedo, immediately north of the New York-New Jersey State line, and just west of the Erie Railroad and the New York State Thruway, Sterling Forest is approximately 35 mi from New York City. Title was acquired in 1956 from the Harriman family by City Investing Co. Its President, Robert W. Dowling, has established himself as a city planner, having conceived such projects as Pittsburgh's Gateway Center and Philadelphia's Penn Center. A unique, self-contained community -is planned that will contain light industry and centers for research and engineering. Colonies of homes will be interspersed throughout the 20,000 acres of forest land, lakes, and rolling hills. Culture will not be neglected, for Sterling Forest will be the new home for the annual Empire State Music Festival The Sterling Forest Gardens, 125 acres of landscaped woodland and streams, will become the "world's largest permanent floral showplace" The Sterling Forest International Research Building was opened earlier this year, and designed to provide all facilities needed by small growth research companies. The first major company to acquire land to construct research buildings at Sterling Forest is Union Carbide. 1763 ... Discovery of iron ore In turning back the pages of history, a fascinating story can be told of special interest to the metallurgist, the mining engineer, and perhaps even the sociologist. For, where new communities are planned today, older communities had been born, matured, and died. In these hills had lived the. iron miners, the blacksmiths, the lumbermen, the masons, and the teamsters that had given America its start in heavy industry. This was the area where the forests were crisscrossed with many wood roads that brought logs to the charcoal pits, and iron ore to the furnaces. Men make history. Our story brings forth many names of men known as ironmasters, or as industrial leaders-Hasenclever, Faesch, Erskine, Townsend, Ryerson, Parrott, Cooper, Hewitt, Jay Cooke, and Harriman. The name Sterling is derived from a Scotch Lord, the Fifth Earl of Stirling (in its earlier spelling). Lord Stirling was one of seven Englishmen granted a patent of land in the Ramapo hills by Queen Anne in 1707, known as the Cheesecock Patent. He sent an agent, Cornelius Board, to America in 1730, with the express purpose of looking for copper deposits. While he found no copper in his travels up and down the Ramapo Valley, he did find iron ore in two localities: first, in the vicinity of what is now Ringwood, N. J.; second, five miles to the north. There he constructed a forge and furnace at the edge of a lake in 1736, naming the land Stirling Property, after his patron. In 1740, the Ogden family in Newark bought land from Board at Ringwood and began smelting of iron in 1741. The Ringwood story Soon, a genius in the person of Peter Hasenclever appeared on the scene. He was attracted by an advertisement in the New York Mercury for March 5, 1764, in which David Ogden of Newark offered

Jan 1, 1961

By L. Guttman, C. S. Barrett, J. S. Bowles

THE transformation from the face-centered cubic (Al) to the face-centered tetragonal (A6) structure in certain alloys of the indium-thallium system reported in the preceding paper1 exhibits many interesting crystallographic and metallo-graphic features, most of which presumably are similar to those of other cubic to tetragonal transformation such as, for example, the one which occurs in the chromium-manganese system,2 the one which, judging by microstructures and X-ray pat-terns,3 probably occurs in the copper-manganese system, the ones accompanying ordering in FePt,4 Copt,&apos; and AuCu,5 and the transformation near 115°C in barium titanate.6,7,8 If, as mentioned in ref. 1, the transformation is second order, the phases in equilibrium do not differ in composition, and it is both possible and likely that the mechanism is a diffusionless one. The present paper reports the results of a detailed study of the indium-thallium transformation and presents a theory for the atomic movements of the transformation which accounts for the observations. Experimental Crystallography of Transformation Markings The transformation from cubic to tetragonal in the indium-thallium alloys produces microstruc-tures of the type illustrated in fig. 1. These structures are observable either as relief effects produced on a smooth surface by the transformation, or after polishing and etching. These microstruc-tures are markedly similar to those found in copper-manganese alloys: iron-platinum alloys," and barium titanate,7,8 where it has been demonstrated that the lamellae are parallel to the (101) planes of the original cubic crystal. That the observed lamellae in indium-thallium alloys are also parallel to the (101) planes was proved by the following analyses performed on single grains in polycrystal-line samples containing 20.75 atomic pct T1. A study of the microstructures of a number of specimens revealed the fact that in many specimens the transformation markings continued unchanged in direction across the (111) interfaces of annealing twins. This at once demonstrates that the lamellae are parallel to a plane that is common to both parent and twin orientations, i.e., a plane in the zone <112>. This conclusion is compatible with the lamellae being parallel to (101) planes. To make a more complete determination of the habit plane of the lamellae, two grains were selected in which annealing twins ({Ill) twins) had been present in the high-temperature modification (cubic). The traces of the annealing twins, and of the transformation markings in both parent and twin crystals, were plotted together in stereographic projection, and a parent-twin pair of orientations was found that accounted for all lamellae as (101) planes. The projection of one of these twinned grains is reproduced in fig. 2. In view of these results the probability of there being another solution for the habit plane remote from (101) is very small, but to explore the possibility that the habit plane deviates slightly from (101), a more precise analysis was undertaken. In this, the orientation of a grain in the cubic modification was determined from a Laue back-reflection photograph taken with the sample at 90°C. The traces of the lamellae that formed in this grain on cooling were plotted in the stereographic projection

Jan 1, 1951

By Frank R. Van Horn

It is customary to ascribe two general modes of occurrence to natural gas, namely, shale gas which, as the name indicates, is found in shale, and reservoir gas, which occurs in sandstone, conglomerate and dolomitic limestone. Both of these types are found in the Cleveland district. The shale gas has been produced on a small scale for a long period of years, probably dating back as far as 1883. Shale gas is a low-pressure gas, small in volume with variable pressure, and is limited to no definite horizon. It is generally independent of oil, may last for a long time, and is not dependent to any great extent on the structure of the rocks. There are many such wells in the district which range from 400 to 1,840 ft. in depth, although most have been completed at about 800 ft. This indicates that the wells pass through the Cleveland and Chagrin shales into the Huron or Portage shale of the Upper Devonian. During the last 2 years great interest has developed in a deeper-seated reservoir gas. What is commonly called reservoir gas is generally a high-pressure gas occurring in large volume at a definite horizon. Oil may, or may not, be associated with the gas, and in most regions in which reservoir gas is found, the geological structure is of great importance. This type of gas occurs in all large fields such as those of West Virginia which have been supplying Cleveland until the recent discovery of local gas at great depths in commercial amounts. Historical Outline The oldest well producing reservoir gas in the district was drilled in 1886 in Newburg for what was then known as the Cleveland Rolling Mill Co. This well was 3,000 ft. deep, and was thought to have reached the "Clinton" formation. Two "sands" showing small amounts of oil were recorded in the Niagara limestone at depths of 2,658 and 2,686 ft. This is about the horizon of the so-called Newburg sand which has proved to be of some importance as a source of gas and oil by recent drilling operations. The rock pressure was reported to be 400 to 500 lb. per square inch, but since the volume was only 14,000 to 16,000 cu. ft. daily, the well was not only considered unsuccessful but was thought to prove the absence of high-pressure gas in commercial quantities in the Cleveland district.

Jan 1, 1917

By Jim D. Mote, Eugenia M. Howard, Willis L. Barmore, John E. Dorn

The effect of stress and temperature on the creep rate of Ag-33 at. pct A1 and Ag-33 at. pct Al-1 at. pct Zn for prismatic slip was determined over a range of temperatures from 440º to 700°K. The alloys exhibited a brief initial inverted transient creep over which the creep rate increased slightly to a steady-state value which depended only on the stress and temperature, regardless of the previous strain history. The steady-state creep rates were found to be given by: where the activation energy is independent of the stress and strain and agrees fairly well with that estimated for diffusion. The observed creep behavior was shown to be in qualitative agreement with a model based on the stress-induced local disordering in the vicinity of a dislocation. OVER the past fifteen years, considerable progress has been made in correlating the experimen-entally observed plastic behavior of pure metals over each temperature range with one or more of a series of theoretical strain-rate controlling dislocation mechanisms. Despite the current interest in the plastic behavior of intermediate phases and inter metallic compounds, however, very little has been done in identifying the operative dislocation mechanisms in these materials. It is anticipated that the plastic behavior of intermediate phases can be rationalized in terms of the same dislocation mechanisms that are appropriate to pure metals and a solid solutions, provided the additional complexities arising from crystal structure, bonding, long-range order, short-range order, and defect lattices are taken into account. As part of a more extensive investigation on the plastic behavior of intermediate phases, Mote, Tanaka, and Dorn1 recently reported on the effect of temperature on the yield strength for prismatic slip in the hexagonal Ag-33 at. pct A1 intermediate phase as recorded in Fig. 1: Over Region I the deformation was observed to take place as a result of the thermally-activated Peierls mechanism, and over Region II the athermal disordering mechanism applied. The experimental data at that time, however, were not sufficiently extensive to identify the thermally activated mechanisms operative over Region III. It is the purpose of this investigation to attempt to identify the mechanisms that are operative over this high-temperature region. It will be shown that the same mechanism operates all over Region Ill, although the activation energy for this mechanism is in good agreement with that for diffusion, the process cannot be attributed either to the motion of jogged screw dislocations or the climb of edge dislocations. The results, however, are in good qualitative agreement with stress-induced disordering localized at dislocations. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The alloys studied in this investigation were prepared from silver, aluminum, and zinc (each of purity greater than 99.995 pet) by induction melting under an argon atmosphere and chill casting in a copper mold. Rectangular bar single crystal specimens (1/4 by 1/8 in. in cross-sect ion) of Ag-33 at. pct Al were grown in vacuum by a modified Bridgman technique. Similar Ag-33 at. pct Zn specimens were produced by an identical technique employing an argon atmosphere. The specimens were so oriented that the angle 90-Xo between the tensile axis and the normal to the prismatic plane and the angle A, between the tensile axis and the slip direction were 45 ± 1 deg. The effect of a change in temperature on the creep rate and a change in stress on the creep rate were determined over the temperature range

Jan 1, 1963

Correlation between Metallography and Mechanical Testing By H F MOORE (Henry Marion Howe Memorial Lecture Trans, vol 120 11,000 words ) The lack of effective correlation between metallography and mechanical testing from the days of Reaumur to the present is noted, and two general problems of such cor¬relation are stated (1) the correlation of qualitative test results with quantitative, and (2) the correlation of average results with maximum or minimum results Some correlation has been achieved, notably in the field of heat-treatment and in the study of elastic strength of metals Correlation is in the process of being developed in several other fields, including the quantitative study of the effect of grain size of metal on mechanical properties, of grain size and type of crystalline structure on the sensitivity of metals to weakening at holes, notches and other "stress raisers," and in the study of the starting phases of spreading, "fatigue" cracks Correlation of mechanical test results and metallographic study is needed in the study of such problems as the various theories of failure of metals, the meaning of and tests for service ductility of metals, and the relative damaging effect of defects inherent in metals, such as minute cracks and segregation, as compared with the damaging effect of "imposed" stress raisers, such as screw threads, sharp shoulders, etc The neces¬sity for more correlation of metallography and mechanical testing during student days is emphasized, and also the need of a better understanding on the part of engi¬neers of the significance and limitations of metallographic apparatus and results and of X-ray diffraction This should be matched by a better understanding on the part of metallurgists of the significance and limitations of mechanical tests of metals, of testing machines and strain-measuring apparatus

Jan 1, 1937

By H. B. Pulsifier

THE following report on the structure of copper is the result of work done in the laboratory of the Rome Wire Co. early in 1925. Previous work had indicated to the author that excellent results might be expected if a suitable technique in surfacing and etching could be developed. The resources of the Rome Wire Co. enabled this metal to be studied more intensively than previously, although none of the materials were investigated exhaustively. The material presented is hardly more than a preliminary summary of the most obvious character of the metal; a much longer research would have been necessary to solve many of the pressing problems connected with the casting and working of copper. The Rome Wire Co. has generously released the paper; to Dr. E. H. Darby, technical supervisor of the company, are due particular thanks for his appreciation of the importance of metallographic study of copper and for his effective support in the prosecution of the work and in making its publication possible.

Jan 1, 1926

By J. D. Forrester, Erich Sarapuu, T. C. Cheasley

Electrocarbonization of coal will produce cheap fuel for electric power plants. The complete electrification of industry and domestic power consumption of gas generated as fuel in situ is a worthwhile goal for the coal industry. Production of synthetic oils, gasoline, and coal chemicals from coal gas will create additional new markets for the coal industry. RANKING high in the nation&apos;s wealth of natural resources, readily available liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons are nevertheless falling steadily in supply, while industrial requirements for hydrocarbon compounds are greater today than during the peak period of World War 11. Theoretically, several processes will increase the future supply of liquid and gaseous fuels, but the practical application of these methods depends on two controlling factors: 1—that enough carbon-bearing material be available to warrant industrial exploitation, and 2—that the given process be physically, chemically, and economically applicable. With regard to the first factor, the Western Hemisphere is fortunately well supplied, see Table I. Table I not only shows the extensive occurrence of many fuel sources, but also the wide discrepancy among quantities of fuel substances in various materials. Great quantities of potentially available fuel have not been recovered. Many coal seams and other hydrocarbon-bearing deposits are so situated that production is uneconomical by present-day mining or oilwell pumping methods, and even in many exploitable deposits where the most efficient production methods are used a large proportion of material is never recovered. Industrial production of hydrocarbon liquids and gases must be better balanced, and processes must be developed which will convert coals, oil sand, and oil shales into fabricated commodities. Among the techniques employed by scientists and engineers to secure fuel masses not economically available at present are several processes of underground gasification. These are all concerned with converting raw materials into gaseous products by thermal treatment of source substances while they are still in the ground and therefore require that a subsurface heat (fire) zone be induced to affect pervasively the buried raw fuel deposit. This is possible only where sufficiently high temperature exists and where the fuel material is satisfactorily opened or channelized. Also, to compete successfully with common mining or oilfield practices, a given method must be controllable and must not involve greater operational expense than regular methods. Preferably, it should be less expensive. Since the close of World War 11, England has continued field studies of underground gasification methods. Experiments have also been conducted in Sweden, Estonia, France, Belgium, Italy, and Germany. The U. S. Government has sponsored field studies at Gorgas, Ala., and because gasification in situ is vitally important to establishment of the nation&apos;s fuel resources, the mining engineering department at the Missouri School of Mines has been actively interested in developing the process of underground electrocarbonization. Research was conceived by Erich Sarapuu, and preliminary experiments in treating bituminous coal were begun at the school in September 1947. The work consisted of laboratory experimentation until June 1948, at which time, through a cooperative agreement with the Sinclair Coal Co. of Missouri, pilot plant studies were instituted at the Tiger mine of the Hume-Sinclair Coal Co. near Hume, Mo., to test the encouraging laboratory findings. This comprehensive field program was pursued continuously until the beginning of 1952."&apos;" The broad term underground electrocarbonization describes a unique gasification process that releases by electricity the desired economic constituents from a raw carbon-bearing material, converting the substance of such deposits into deliverable form and greatly reducing the cost-of-mining factor. Underground electrocarbonization is not subject to the major limitations of many other underground gasifi-

Jan 1, 1955

By Claus G. Goetzel

Pressing of powdered metal parts is best done in the direction of the shortest extension of the piece, to avoid too great a loss of pressing force through internal iriction. As long as curved surfaces, re-cessej, or offsets occur only parallel to this shortest axis of pressure, no special difficulties arise: the cross sections, perpendicular to the pressure, do not vary, nor does the shape of the parts change during compression except for a gradually reduced thickness (Fig. IA). The problem becomes more dificult, however, when the curved surfaces or recesses are perpendicular to the shortest axis of the part (Fig. IB) Two processes for molding uniformly dense parts with complicated shapes from powdered metals are described in detail in this paper. Both can be employed successfully by those trained in the art. The first refers to curved parts; the second is especially adapted to parts having one or more recesses or steps. Both methods, as set forth here, are applied under the condition that presents the more difficult problem. For clarity, before description of the two practical methods, the variable factors in molding powdered metal parts will be reviewed, then an idealized procedure will be considered briefly. Variable Factors in Molding Powdered Metal Parts Compression Ratio Compression ratio is defined as the proportion of the final relative density of the compact to the apparent density of the powder. For iron powder of an apparent density of 3.0, for example, a compression ratio of 2 1/2:1 would be required to produce a compressed compact of 7.5 density; whereas for another iron powder having an apparent density of only 1.5, a compression ratio of 5:1 would be required to produce the same density. The lower the powder&apos;s apparent density, the greater must be the compression ratio for pressing compacts of high density.

Jan 1, 1946

By Claus G. Goetzel

Pressing of powdered metal parts is best done in the direction of the shortest extension of the piece, to avoid too great a loss of pressing force through internal iriction. As long as curved surfaces, re-cessej, or offsets occur only parallel to this shortest axis of pressure, no special difficulties arise: the cross sections, perpendicular to the pressure, do not vary, nor does the shape of the parts change during compression except for a gradually reduced thickness (Fig. IA). The problem becomes more dificult, however, when the curved surfaces or recesses are perpendicular to the shortest axis of the part (Fig. IB) Two processes for molding uniformly dense parts with complicated shapes from powdered metals are described in detail in this paper. Both can be employed successfully by those trained in the art. The first refers to curved parts; the second is especially adapted to parts having one or more recesses or steps. Both methods, as set forth here, are applied under the condition that presents the more difficult problem. For clarity, before description of the two practical methods, the variable factors in molding powdered metal parts will be reviewed, then an idealized procedure will be considered briefly. Variable Factors in Molding Powdered Metal Parts Compression Ratio Compression ratio is defined as the proportion of the final relative density of the compact to the apparent density of the powder. For iron powder of an apparent density of 3.0, for example, a compression ratio of 2 1/2:1 would be required to produce a compressed compact of 7.5 density; whereas for another iron powder having an apparent density of only 1.5, a compression ratio of 5:1 would be required to produce the same density. The lower the powder&apos;s apparent density, the greater must be the compression ratio for pressing compacts of high density.

Jan 1, 1946

By R. K. Hopkins

For a great many years fusion welding has been used in and around petroleum refineries, but it is only within six or seven years that the more important pressure vessels have been constructed by this process, because before that time the properties of fusion welds would not withstand such rigorous service. Since the adoption of fusion welding for the construction of this equipment, the refiner has required pressure vessels suitable for operation over a very wide range of conditions. On the one hand, vessels must operate at extremely high temperatures, in the range of 950" to 1000° F., and on the other vessels must be suitable for operation at sub-zero temperatures down as low as —75" F. Also, vessels are required suitable for operation at pressures upwards of 1000 lb. per sq. in., and as low as a 29-in. vacuum. In addition, vessels are required to withstand the attack of very corrosive mediums. It has been a rather difficult task for the fabricator to meet all of these requirements, but as a result of the extensive research carried on by steel manufacturers and several fabricators of class I vessels, practically all of these demands have been met. In order to meet the refiners&apos; requirements for this wide range of conditions, the fabricator has worked closely with the metallurgist. This has enabled him to choose the proper base metal for each service condition, but it has been the fabricator&apos;s problem to develop a welding rod and welding technique, as well as a heat-treatment, that would produce in the welded vessel characteristics in and around the weld comparable to those in the base metal. Where corrosion is not a serious problem, and where the operating temperatures are not too high, ordinary carbon steel has served very well. But, when corrosion is serious, and/or when the temperatures are either very high or very low, it is necessary to use some form of alloy steel to give satisfactory service. A great deal of credit is due to the members of the Boiler Code Committee and also to the members of the Joint A.P.I.-A.S.M.E. Committee, who have formulated codes that insure the safety of the

Jan 1, 1935

By R. K. Hopkins

For a great many years fusion welding has been used in and around petroleum refineries, but it is only within six or seven years that the more important pressure vessels have been constructed by this process, because before that time the properties of fusion welds would not withstand such rigorous service. Since the adoption of fusion welding for the construction of this equipment, the refiner has required pressure vessels suitable for operation over a very wide range of conditions. On the one hand, vessels must operate at extremely high temperatures, in the range of 950" to 1000° F., and on the other vessels must be suitable for operation at sub-zero temperatures down as low as —75" F. Also, vessels are required suitable for operation at pressures upwards of 1000 lb. per sq. in., and as low as a 29-in. vacuum. In addition, vessels are required to withstand the attack of very corrosive mediums. It has been a rather difficult task for the fabricator to meet all of these requirements, but as a result of the extensive research carried on by steel manufacturers and several fabricators of class I vessels, practically all of these demands have been met. In order to meet the refiners&apos; requirements for this wide range of conditions, the fabricator has worked closely with the metallurgist. This has enabled him to choose the proper base metal for each service condition, but it has been the fabricator&apos;s problem to develop a welding rod and welding technique, as well as a heat-treatment, that would produce in the welded vessel characteristics in and around the weld comparable to those in the base metal. Where corrosion is not a serious problem, and where the operating temperatures are not too high, ordinary carbon steel has served very well. But, when corrosion is serious, and/or when the temperatures are either very high or very low, it is necessary to use some form of alloy steel to give satisfactory service. A great deal of credit is due to the members of the Boiler Code Committee and also to the members of the Joint A.P.I.-A.S.M.E. Committee, who have formulated codes that insure the safety of the

Jan 1, 1935

By C. E. Shoenfelt

The year 1939 witnessed the rapid development of several of the more important Rocky Mountain oil and gas areas and the discovery of new oil and gas fields. As a further result of an active year, many oil fields had their productive limits greatly extended or responded to deeper drilling with oil production in lower horizons. In Colorado there was a substantial increase in refinery capacity, with three new units constructed. Its contribution to the crude-oil supply was an important extension of the producing area of a Western Slope field and a deeper oil-producing horizon in an old field east of the Front Range. Occurrences of gas were reported in two wells in northwestern Colorado, but severe winter weather prevented tests and the value of these discoveries cannot be determined at this time. Montana&apos;s northern fields were extended and a number of record wells were completed. The North Cut Bank area gives promise of wide expansion in 1940. The gas-producing area of Wyoming&apos;s Elk Basin field was extended into Montana on the north plunge of the anticline. The most important developments in Wyoming oil fields in 1939 were extensions to the producing area of Lance Creek and the discovery of a deeper pay in the Tensleep formation at Wertz dome. A new gas field at Horn Valley in the south central part of the state was the only new field discovered, but wildcatting was at low ebb in Wyoming in 1939. Colorado In Colorado, the year 1939 saw the completion of several interesting tests, but largely with negative results. Oil was discovered, however, in a deeper sand in the old Fort Collins field and the productive area of the Wilson Creek field was extended. Gas had been noted in two Western Slope wells, at Yellowjacket-Buford and at Trull, but their volumes had not been determined at the end of the year. Of principal interest, however, were the failures, descriptions of which will be given presently. One of these established a new depth record for Colorado.

Jan 1, 1940