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By William Blauvelt

Tun technical and engineering problems in the manufacture of coke are today the problems of the byproduct oven. Except in a few special localities, practically no beehive ovens have been built in the United States for the last 5 or 6 years except as renewals of old plants, and during these years the total number of beehive ovens in existence has been steadily falling. On the other hand, the number of byproduct ovens has increased from 4624 in 1911 to a total of about 7660 in operation at the end of 1917; with 2800 building, this makes a total of about 10,460 which will be in operation in 1918, or shortly thereafter. Preliminary Government estimates place the total production of coke for 1917 at 56,600,000 tons, the largest tonnage in the history of the industry. Of this 34,000,000 tons or 60 per cent. was beehive, and 22,-600,000 tons, or 40 per cent. was byproduct coke. Some time in 1918 the production of byproduct coke should pass the beehive output, and when the byproduct ovens now building are completed the total byproduct capacity will be about 40,000,000 tons of coke per. annum, which is over 70 per cent. of the record-breaking total coke production of 1917. The reasons for these changes in the coking industry are familiar to all of us, and need not be discussed here.

Jan 3, 1918

By R. Van A. Mills

ONE of the most important problems facing the petroleum industry is the profitable recovery of oil that is left underground by the ordinary methods of production. It is true that vast quantities of oil are being recovered from fields previously considered depleted by the pressure restoration method, the most widely applicable -and most successful means of obtaining greater recoveries that has thus far been, developed. But notwithstanding the progress that is being made in the field applica¬tion of this method there is urgent need for a better understanding of the fundamental principles that are involved. To meet this need the Petro¬leum Experiment Station of the U. S. Bureau of Mines at Bartlesville, Okla., during the past two years has conducted a series of intensive laboratory and field investigations. The larger part of the work has been carried on in the laboratory to supply the much needed information upon fundamental principles, information which few if any of the oil companies are in a position to supply for themselves. In all of this work the Bureau is endeavoring to correlate the results of laboratory investigations with those in the field, using the results of one to guide or check the other. This paper is primarily a progress report, briefly outlining the Bureau's methods of study, the laboratory and equipment in use, the preliminary problems that had to be solved in order to attack the major problems at hand, the methods of attacking some of the major problems, and some of the results of the investigations to date.

Jan 1, 1928

By M. R. Louthan, C. L. Angerman

In polycrystalline Zircaloy-2 the orientation of zirconium hydride precipitates is influenced by an applied stress during hydride precipitation; hydride platelets are oriented nearly parallel to a compres-sive stress and perpendicular to a tensile tress. 1,2 A similar effect has been observed in the Ti-H system, where precipitation of the low-density hydride platelets occurred on habit planes made energetically favorable by the application of stress. 3 Recently, stress activation of hydride habit planes in zirconium and Zircaloy-4 was also demonstrated. The hydrides precipitated on {101l), {112l} and (2131) planes in both zirconium and Zircaloy-4; however, no platelets were found near the prism-plane positions in the Zircaloy-4 samples. Investigations at the Savannah River Laboratory, using polycrystalline Zirc_aloy-2 samples, have confirmed the (101l) and (1121) habit planes but also showed that the prism planes were active hydride habit planes. Using single-surface stereographic analysis and back-reflection Laue techniques, most of the previously reported habit planes for a zirconium were observed.4"1 and one additional plane, the (1013) plane, was noted, Table I. All the habit planes observed had the form (101l) or { 112l) indicating that these planes are the habit planes for hydride precipitation in poly-crystalline Zircaloy-2. The specimens used in these studies were cut from large-grained weld areas of seam-welded tubing and were hydrided in either a static steam autoclave at 400°C and 1500 psig or in a modified Sieverts apparatus at 400°C.

Jan 1, 1967

By R. R. Knuckey

HAVING been associated with the operation of the de Vooys process for coal, which has treated 13,000,000 tons per annum, and recognizing the process as of value in ore sorting, Huntington, Heberlein and Co. Ltd. (Great Britain) in 1936 made an examination of all other existing methods. In none of the pioneer applications had recognition been given to the necessity for maintaining certain conditions that are essential for sorting certain ores if a truly efficient separation by gravity alone is to be assured. Consequently, in 1936-1937 Huntington, Heberlein and Co. Ltd., with Pearson, employing certain ideas connected with the de Vooys application, commenced the development of a separator that would allow conformance with optimum conditions in the zone where separation is effected. Later, Holt and Wade added to the value of the original application by Wuensch, Rakowsky and others, whose conceptions are being successfully operated today. Meantime, Trostler had enhanced the value of the original H-H. process by improvements that are now embodied in operating plants, and today the process incorporates an improved apparatus and a stable medium that produce the optimum conditions for separation. These conditions are: 1. Elimination of disturbing currents in the separating zone; 2. Reduction to a minimum of medium-density differences throughout. the separating zone; 3. Stable medium of minimum viscosity to permit the unretarded fall of mineralized particles; 4. Removal of products of separation with minimum disturbance to the separating zone. DESIGN OF SEPARATOR The H-H. sink-and-float separator consists of a pyramidal tank in which the separation actually takes place, connected at the bottom with an inclined bucket elevator. The tank and the elevator are filled with medium to within a few inches of the top of the tank. Medium is fed into the separator at a variety of points, according to the type of ore being treated, and it is withdrawn from the separator at two points: (1) together with the float product, by means of a variable-speed paddle, at the surface of the medium, and (2) by flowing over an adjustable weir cut in the side of the elevator casing. The prepared ore is fed onto the surface of the medium. The intermediate paddles, which revolve at a slow speed of 2 to 5 r.p.m., move the floating ore across the bath from feed end to float-discharge end. The ore, which is heavier than the medium, sinks below the sweep of the paddles and reaches the boot of the bucket elevator, which discharges it without disturbance of the separating zone. These arrangements for withdrawing medium from the separator allow the use of minimum flows, which connote minimum

Jan 1, 1943

By Luis Elek

DEVELOPMENT of the cement industry in Mexico began some 40 years ago. It has gradually reached great importance in the economic life of the country and has contributed greatly to the technical and economical advances which have been so noteworthy, particularly during the last 15 years. From a modest start, the industry now comprises 18 cement-producing plants having a potential annual capacity of approximately 14 million bbl. About half the plants were built and equipped with secondhand machinery during the last world war when no new machinery could be procured. They will hardly attain full production before being modernized and reconditioned, a job now under way in several of the plants. At present, the yearly consumption is only about 8 to 9 million bbl but is steadily increasing. This is only a fraction of the cement consumed in the U.S.A., which is about 250 million bbl per year, although on the basis of consumption per capita per year, the figure is 1/3 bbl for Mexico and 1 2/3 bbl for the U.S.A. Cement consumption in Mexico is well above the average of all other Latin American countries, with the exception of the Argentine, and considering the potentialities and undeveloped riches of Mexico, the road construction and irrigation works, it is fair to assume that the Mexican cement industry will still prosper and expand in spite of temporary setbacks in the future caused by local events of economic or political nature. Portland cement is manufactured by burning a mixture of raw materials, one of which is mainly composed of calcium carbonates and the other of aluminum silicates. The most typical materials answering this description are limestone and clay, both of which occur in Mexico in many varieties. To be usable for cement manufacture limestone should contain at least 77 to 80 pct calcium carbonate. Lower grade limestone can be used for cement manufacture only if the lime content is increased by the beneficiation process, which has not yet been adopted by the Mexican cement industry. Most of the limestone used by Mexican cement plants has a calcium carbonate content of 90 to 95 pct and therefore requires addition of one or several correction materials. A typical composition of raw mix for cement manufacture is 85 pct limestone and 15 pct shale, clay or volcanic materials. Occasionally it is necessary to add a smaller amount of sand or other siliceous material to increase the silica ratio in the raw mix. Likewise, it is sometimes necessary to add 1 or 2 pct iron ore to facilitate fusion in the kiln and to obtain proper relation between alumina and iron oxide. After calcining and

Jan 1, 1953

By Luis Elek

DEVELOPMENT of the cement industry in Mexico began some 40 years ago. It has gradually reached great importance in the economic life of the country and has contributed greatly to the technical and economical advances which have been so noteworthy, particularly during the last 15 years. From a modest start, the industry now comprises 18 cement-producing plants having a potential annual capacity of approximately 14 million bbl. About half the plants were built and equipped with secondhand machinery during the last world war when no new machinery could be procured. They will hardly attain full production before being modernized and reconditioned, a job now under way in several of the plants. At present, the yearly consumption is only about 8 to 9 million bbl but is steadily increasing. This is only a fraction of the cement consumed in the U.S.A., which is about 250 million bbl per year, although on the basis of consumption per capita per year, the figure is 1/3 bbl for Mexico and 1 2/3 bbl for the U.S.A. Cement consumption in Mexico is well above the average of all other Latin American countries, with the exception of the Argentine, and considering the potentialities and undeveloped riches of Mexico, the road construction and irrigation works, it is fair to assume that the Mexican cement industry will still prosper and expand in spite of temporary setbacks in the future caused by local events of economic or political nature. Portland cement is manufactured by burning a mixture of raw materials, one of which is mainly composed of calcium carbonates and the other of aluminum silicates. The most typical materials answering this description are limestone and clay, both of which occur in Mexico in many varieties. To be usable for cement manufacture limestone should contain at least 77 to 80 pct calcium carbonate. Lower grade limestone can be used for cement manufacture only if the lime content is increased by the beneficiation process, which has not yet been adopted by the Mexican cement industry. Most of the limestone used by Mexican cement plants has a calcium carbonate content of 90 to 95 pct and therefore requires addition of one or several correction materials. A typical composition of raw mix for cement manufacture is 85 pct limestone and 15 pct shale, clay or volcanic materials. Occasionally it is necessary to add a smaller amount of sand or other siliceous material to increase the silica ratio in the raw mix. Likewise, it is sometimes necessary to add 1 or 2 pct iron ore to facilitate fusion in the kiln and to obtain proper relation between alumina and iron oxide. After calcining and

Jan 1, 1953

By Utley Wedge

(Cleveland :Meeting, October, 1012.) In general, the art of securing copper from sulphide ores or concentrates may be said to consist of : (1) separation, in the molten state, of copper sulphide with some iron sulphide, from the great bulk of gangue-material, followed by (2) elimination of sulphur and iron from the molten matte, by oxidation and fluxing, leaving metallic copper. The definition is made broad enough to cover the general practice, whether or not the ore or concentrate is given a preliminary roast for the removal of surplus sulphur. The above process, which I will designate as the smelting process, makes necessary the presence in the ore, or the addition thereto, of such silica, lime, and iron as may be necessary for the formation of a light and fusible slag, together with sufficient sulphur and iron for the formation of copper-matte, and also the addition to the matte of sufficient silica for the oxidation and fluxing-out of the iron. These items, together with the cost of fuel sufficient for melting the mass, constitute important items of cost in the copper-smelting process. Numerous cases where fluxing-materials are scarce or dear, or where fuel is expensive, have caused special attention to be given recently to the wet process of copper-extraction, which may be designated as consisting of forming soluble copper salts which are then washed or leached out of the ore or concentrates by dissolving in water or acid. Metallic copper may then be secured from the solution of copper salts by electrolysis; by cementation; or copper can be brought out of the solution as a * Presented also at the Joint Meeting of the Institute and Section IIIa, Metallurgy and Mining, of the Eighth International Congress or Applied Chemistry, New York, N. Y., September, 1912, and here published by mutual agreement.

Dec 1, 1912

By Forbes K. Wilson

Dick Hunt is known for having said, "Ore bodies are found but mines are made." This was certainly true of the Ertsberg-it was stumbled upon, literally, by a group of mountain climbers, but to develop it into a mine took 12 years of concerted effort. For more than a century, explorers had attempted to penetrate the jungles of New Guinea and climb the snow-covered Mt. Carstensz, named for a Dutch navigator who first saw it in 1620. But the first to succeed was the Colijn expedition which reached the 5030-m (16,500-ft) pinnacle in December 1936 after starting out from the south coast57 days earlier. Members of that expedition were A. H. Colijn and Jean Jacques Dozy, employees of Shell Oil Co., and Lt. Wissel, a pilot in the Royal Dutch Navy.

Jan 6, 1977

By Janshi Sen

VERTICAL-INTENSITY magnetometers, such as the Hotchkiss Superdip and the Askania vertical field balance, are now [ ] widely used, because vertical-intensity charts give definite information for the location of upper pole, dip and strike, and approximate shape of the deposit. Again, a slow and steady increase of dip over a large area indicates a large deep-lying deposit, while a large dip limited to a small area and falling away rapidly suggests a small and shallow one. The complication comes more from the richness of the ore. A large body of lean ore near the surface might produce the same vertical-intensity chart as a rich ore at depth. This paper presents a method for calculating the maximum depth of a single-pole deposit and another for a two-pole mineral body, by utilizing data of both vertical and horizontal intensities as obtained by a Thalen-Tiberg magnetometer. As shown on the left side of Fig. 1, lean ore, rich ore and a single pole produce the same magnetic field. The depth of the pole, [ ] h, can be calculated from the following relation: [h=a=tan¢=G-F h=aXFy] where G is the vertical intensity at point A due to the pole; F, the horizontal intensity of the same; and a, the distance from the point of maximum vertical intensity or the vertical projection of the pole on the surface to the point of observation A. If an entirely covered deposit is indicated by magnetic measurements and boring cost estimated from the calculated depth is so reasonable as to encourage drilling, the ore should be struck somewhere within the limit of the calculated depth by the borehole. A number of such points as A should be taken for calculation, erratic results should be rejected and the average figure used for cost estimation.

Jan 1, 1944

By William White

History.—The making of iron and steel from the ores of northern Mexico was for years a favorite project of the late Don Patricio Milmo, upon whose estate large deposits of coal and iron were known to exist, and with whom Mr. Eugene Kelly, of New York, was associated. Several expert examinations of the property mere made for them; and when failing health forced Sr. Milmo to retire from active part in the matter, Mr. Kelly carried on the project and associated himself with Messrs. Vicente Ferrara, of Monterrey, Antonio Basagoiti and Leon Signoret, of the City of Mexico, and other leading citizens of Mexico, Monterrey and New York, who, in May, 1900, organized the " Compania Fundidora de Fierro y Acero de Monterrey," with a capital of $10,000,000. The main reason for locating the plant at Monterrey was, that a circle drawn with Monterrey as a center, and the distance from Monterrey to Laredo as a radius, will contain all the known Deposits of iron-ore of Bessemer quality, and the greater part of the available coal, in the Republic. Moreover, Monterrey is connected with all the Mexican trunk railwaylines, and thus with the Gulf of Mexico, and supplies, therefore, the conditions necessary for prosperous manufacturing, namely, cheapness in assembling raw materials and means for wide distribution of product. It also has a number of enterprising citizens, who have been successful in mining, smelting and manufacturing operations, and a sufficiently large population to supply the necessary labor. Iron-Ore.—The company's iron-mines are on the Carrizal mountain, on the Mexican National, and at Monclova, on the Mexican International railroad. At the former locality, two mines, Piedra Iman and the Anillo de Hierro, sufficiently large

Jan 1, 1902

By G. J. Harmsen

is shown that in any isotropic porous medium there is a fixed ratio, : , between the numerical valrles of the total pore perimeter per unit of cross-section and the specific surface area per unit of bulk volume. The consequences of this fact on the use of the concept "hydraulic radius" in the case of porous media are examined. The validity for consolidated sands of Kozeny's rela- tionship and of the formula derived by Carman for capillary rise are discussed. INTRODUCTION In the course of time several quantities and relations have been put forward in order to describe the texture of a porous medium and the flow of fluid through it. Among these relations the so-called Kozeny formula and a formula for capillary rise, for both of which Carman',' has given a derivation, will be specially considered here. These relations are of a semi-empirical nature and the derivations must be considered to have a heuristic significance only. For unconsolidated mate-

Jan 1, 1956

By Van C. Nyman

A time-sharing computer was tied in to Hecla in August of 1967. This has proven to be helpful in performing metallurgical and engineering calculations that were formerly tedious tasks. Metallurgy programs were written for applying two and three product formulas. Programs were expanded to make the monthly metallurgical balance calculations for each of the Hecla mills. The Hecla engineering department uses the computer for solving hoist duty cycles and for traverse analysis. Both Asarco and Bunker Hill Company in the Coeur d’Alene Mining District are tied to a time-sharing computer. Their uses for the time-sharing computer will be discussed. Asarco had the advantage in learning computer techniques during an extended strike. A comparison of Asarco computer use with that of Hecla's will show the advantage in having a person or persons spend full time on the use of computers. Bunker Hill has the versatility of five teletype units in their mine-smelter complex plus ability to tie in to their own computer.

Jan 1, 1969

Rustenburg Platinum Mines, Ltd. is the largest producer of platinum metals in the western world. It is also the only major platinum producer this side of the Iron Curtain. One of its mines is situated at Rustenburg, 80 miles northwest of Johannesburg. It also has a smaller operation, the Union Section, 60 miles north of the Rustenburg property. Both mines exploit the Merensky Reef, which forms a part of the Transvaal's remarkable Bushveld Igneous Complex, an irregular oval area covering some 15,000 square miles. In order to cope with an increasing world demand for platinum and such platinum-group metals as palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium, Rustenburg Platinum Mines embarked on a major expansion program some time ago. It is expected that production will reach an annual rate of 850,000 oz of platinum by the middle of 1969 and increase to 1 million oz by the middle of 1970. Capital expenditures at Rustenburg during the next few years will be about $60 million. It is believed that the ore at Rustenburg averages about 4.5 oz of precious metals per ton. About 70% of the metal is platinum, some 15% is palladium, and the rest is made up of the other metals in the platinum group.

Jan 4, 1969

By M. M. Slotnick

IT was once aptly said that a sign of approaching senility is ceasing work on a subject and beginning to talk about it. Perhaps that explains why, after many years in which part of my duties has been the training of college men in various branches of petroleum exploration geophysics, I have now begun to talk about it. In making an outline of what I believe ought to be discussed under the general heading of the title, I found it almost impossible to subdivide the ideas into an ordered set of discrete subjects. Rather, the pertinent remarks seemed to interlock almost everywhere. The consequence is that it will be necessary to start with the conclusions and then try to justify them by jumping back and forth. However, based on the types of men with whom I have had to deal, the subject naturally divides itself into two parts. In the first part, I should like to deal with the case of those undergraduates whose natural bent is toward the physical sciences and who may decide to enter the geophysical fold as a career. The other part will deal with those many men, geologists and engineers for the most part, who have drifted into exploration geophysics by one means or another, and whom it is necessary to train for geophysical work while they are occupied in their routine jobs. Here it may be in point to remark that most men in exploration geophysics at present have been developed from precisely the latter group, and that the problem of training here is of great importance even though, in this paper, it will perforce occupy the secondary place. TRAINING OF A GEOPHYSICIST The outstanding reason for the perplexing problem on the training of a geophysicist is that ideas differ on the answer to the question: "What is a geophysicist?" In any of the scientific "specialties," like physics, for example, it is relatively simple to pigeonhole a man as being qualified to call himself a physicist. That appellation applied to an individual does not mean that he has mastered only the branches of intellectual endeavor usually associated under the broad name of "physics." We expect him also to have a more than mere acquaintance with mathematics and chemistry and some understanding of most of the other sciences. But note this important point-we expect our physicist, whom we have chosen as an example, to be intelligently trained so that, if necessary, he can and will know how and where he can get the proper information on a subject in which he is not a specialist; he will know how to absorb that information and turn it to his uses. It seems to me that this is the outstanding characteristic of a man who can truly call himself a scientist: that he is a specialist in one of the broad branches of science and that he has enough training and discipline in the scientific approach so that, when called upon to do so, he can intelligently absorb knowledge from another bordering science (and all sciences not only border upon one another to some extent, but more often, overlap one another), and

Jan 1, 1941

By Joseph P. Brennan, Robert L. Vines

A historical comparison of the frequency of fatal coal mining accidents occurring underground in mines of various size ranges in the United States and in member countries of the Commission of the European Communities is presented. Frequencies are normalized on hours-worked and tons-produced bases. The comparisons rely on published and confirmed data and on theory for selective treatment of data in an effort to overcome reporting differences and basic differences in the mining conditions and system employed. Trends are identified ad projections made of the effect on accident records of various industry growth patterns. Conclusions are drawn regarding the reasons for differences between the records of U.S. underground coal mines and the records of those mines in European countries.

Jan 1, 1984

By Robert H. Richards

VERY little has been published recently on this subject in the mining journals or proceedings of societies. The attention of experts has been diverted perhaps by the demands for pan amalgamation of refractory ores. Yet free milling ores occur in many localities, and it may be interesting to have on record some data as to details of running a small test-mill, especially as details of results do not seem to be accessible to students and investigators. Küstel, in 1863, under battery amalgamation, dismisses the subject by stating that "amalgamation on copper-plated platforms, troughs, and other copper fixings" is " very imperfect, and mostly abandoned." J. Arthur Phillips says, in 1867, under placer mining : A well-amalgamated copper plate is considered as effective for

Jan 1, 1880

By R. H. Wightman, G. H. Adams

In order to secure good results in the prevention of accidents, it is generally recognized that the desire for such accomplishment, as well as the aggressive and constructive action to achieve it, must emanate from the Top Management and permeate successively down through the "Chart of Authority" to the workmen. Several years ago, with the above as a basis and with full support of the Top Management, the Mining Department started a program of selling the foremen and bosses the idea that safety could be achieved and that it was desired and required. Using psychology, persistence and numerous other methods, the foremen and bosses were finally impressed with the idea that "It can be done" and "It will be done." With this in mind, new ideas were brought forth by the foremen and bosses regarding the caving operation and the specific jobs in the operation. These new ideas were taken up in round-table discussions and resulted in certain changes in the undercutting method and the actual drawing of the blocks. These changes resulted in increasing fragmentation of the blocks which prevented the usual hang-up areas in the blocks. With the rock smaller in size and within reasonable reach from the tapping drifts, accidents were prevented in the tapping section. At the same time, an enforced campaign of housekeeping throughout the mine was undertaken with very beneficial results. The foremen and bosses then, in turn, educated and trained the workers themselves to become safety conscious. In so doing, a constant reminder was given on all jobs assigned that the job was to be done safely as well as efficiently. No man is assigned a job who is not qualified for the type of work required. Efficiency and safety go hand in hand. Safety Rules To supplement and aid this safety conscious attitude, certain safety rules applicable to our operation, a modified block caving system of mining limestone, in addition to the established state regulations, were put into effect and enforced. The specific rules referred to above and which will be mentioned below are in most cases simply a means of applying and complying with the very adequate "Mine Safety Orders" issued by the Industrial Accident Commission of the State of California. Some of the safety rules and policies are as follows: All men are required to wear safety

Jan 1, 1950

By A. S. Callen

These iron mines of Spain are located on the mountain ridge forming the boundary between the Teruel and Guadalajara provinces, called Sierra Menera. They form a property of 25 mines extending over an area of 1,677 hectares (4,140 acres) situated at a height varying from 1,200 m. (3,940 ft.) to 1,500 m. (4,920 ft.) above sea level. The deposit follows the direction north to south; huge masses of ore are being found both on the slopes and at the summit of the Sierra. The ore occurs among quartzites and magnesite limestone, in some places overlaid by quartzite 15 m. (50 ft.) thick; in some others (and this is more general) the ore is overlaid by earth and boulders of quartzite origin; this layer is about 8 m. (26 ft.) thick. The ore beds occupy the geological horizon of the Superior Trias or Muschelkask, which are here in direct contact with the Silurian quartzites. The lime-stones have been more or less transformed. There is ample evidence to show that these mines were worked in very ancient times—objects and tools employed in mining by the ancient Romans and Arabs are to be found plentifully in old workinigs which extend down into the deposits. It has been estimated that more than 10,000,000 tons of ore were mined in the old days in this district and carried to the primitive forges in the vicinity where iron of much renown in Spain was extracted. Remains of more than 20 of these forges are found in the neighborhood of Sierra Menera and are usually situated near waterfalls and forests. Much investigation has been carried on for the purpose of determining the quantity of ore to be found in these mines, but no exact calculations can be made at present. When the investigation is completed it will surely be found that the deposit contains a much larger quantity than the 100,000,000 tons indicated by the present workings. The mines are now worked as open quarries and this method can and will be followed for a long time, probably until the deposit is worked out. Figs. 1 and 2 give some idea of the quarries in operation and the reserves, the iron-ore stocks, screening installation and general arrangement. From these quarries 1,000,000 tons can be mined annually (987,000

Jan 1, 1916

Discussion of the paper of ROSWELL H. JOHNSON, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 98, February, 1915, pp. 221 to 226. A. C. LANE, Tufts College, Mass.-About a year ago Mr. Washburne read a paper on the same characteristic oil-sand waters, discussing their chemical character, and the possibility of their chemical character being modified by adsorption in passing through the shale. We are used to consider circulation as being in one stratum, and I have often gone so far as to think that 2,000 or 3,000 ft. clown I could recognize the chemical character as in part connate to a given water. For instance, the St. Peter sandstone, far underneath oil sands, seems to retain' a relatively fresh and peculiar character. I am, therefore, tempted to ask the writer if in his experiments lie has made any test to see whether the chemical character of these waters is also changed, where there is any adsorption, so that the water passing through these fine-grained beds should leave behind its salt as well as its oil. In many cases salt-waters are associated with oil and-gas. A second question has occurred to me. In these days when we hear a good deal about oil flotation, may it not be well to repeat these experi-ments with pyritic concentrates, and see if they observe precisely the same with regard to the selective accumulation of oil and gas. ROSWELL H. JOHNSON.-I thank Profesor Lane for bringing this question forward. I recognize its importance, but. am not able to say I have any data upon that point. It is also very interesting in connection with Dr. Day's hypothesis of fractional filtration, and we may very easily get something happening to the water corresponding in some degree to what we get with oil. D. B. REGER, Morgantown, W. Va.-Mr. Johnson in his paper states his belief that the oil is formed originally from organic matter in the shale, and is forced out of the shale into the porous reservoir of the sand above the shale. He states further, that as you go deeper iii the measures where there is an increasing overburdens, the oil becomes less and the gas increases in large proportion, or lie says that the oil is forced back out of the sand by pressure, into the shale.

Jan 5, 1915

By Alfred R. Powell

FOR the purposes of this discussion, the direct gasification of coal means the of hydrogen and carbon monoxide by the well-known water-gas reaction. Chemicals or other synthetic products may be made from these constituents of the gas and under such circumstances the gas is called synthesis gas. Or, if the same gas is used as a fuel, it is called blue gas or water gas. This type of gas has usually been made from coke, especially in this country, and has been used both for fuel purposes and for manufacture of chemicals. Recently, natural gas has gained the ascendancy as a source of synthesis gas for manufacture of chemicals because of its relative cheapness. As natural gas becomes less readily available and more expensive, coal will take its place as a raw material for the preparation of synthesis gas. This substitution will probably take the form of direct gasification of the coal rather than the present two-step procedure of carbonization of the coal followed by gasification of the coke. The chief reason for this probability is the intensive research now being carried on by several organizations to develop successful and economical processes for the direct gasification of coal, which is a considerably cheaper fuel than coke. In the following pages an attempt has been made to predict the chemicals that will result from this future production of synthesis gas by the direct gasification of coal. CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF SYNTHESIS GAS Given the proper conditions, there are many chemical reactions leading to production of useful products that can be carried out with this mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. These many reactions may be grouped into three classes: (1) interaction of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, possibly with addition of other reactants; (2) reaction of hydrogen with various substances; (3) reaction of carbon monoxide with various substances. Thus sometimes hydrogen and carbon monoxide are utilized together in the same chemical reaction while in other instances only the hydrogen or only the carbon monoxide is required as a reactant. Fortunately, practical methods are available for securing either hydrogen or carbon monoxide from synthesis gas, some of which are also applicable for changing the ratio of these two constituents in the gas when that is desirable.

Jan 1, 1953