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By T. G. Richardson, F. M. Perkins

In the recent paper of Richardson and Perkins entitled "A Laboratory Investigation of the Effect of Rate on Recovery of Oil by Water Flooding,"' the authors found very little appzrent effect on oil recovery of having free gas saturation present prior to water flooding in unconsolidated sands. We agree that the effect in this particular system was small but do not feel that the data presented should be regarded as disproving work of others which has shown an appreciable effect. The authors do not make such a claim, but neither do they advance an explanation of the difference. In our experience the following factors must be carefully considered when studying the relation between residual oil saturation after water flooding and initial free gas saturation: (1) the magnitude of the inherent residual oil saturation, i.e., the residual oil saturation with no free gas; (2) the increase in oil-water viscosity ratio with pressure lowering if the gas saturation is obtained by solution gas drive; and (3) the oil shrinkage which occurs with pressure lowering and gas evolution. The system studied by Richardson and Perkins gave residual oil saturations as low as 20 per cent without free gas present, and one should perhaps not expect much further lowering. As an illustration of the magnitude of the effect when the residual oil saturation is inherently higher we submit the accompanying figure. These data were obtained on an unconsolidated sand under elevated pressure in a system similar to the one described by Richardson and Perkins. Gas saturation was established by gas drive before water flooding. The viscosity ratio was 600:1 under the conditions of the displacement. Here the gas was extremely effective in reducing residual oil saturation. This fact was also indicated by Kyte, et al.2 Their plots of residual oil saturation vs initial gas saturation show trends of greater free gas effect with higher oil viscosities. The pressure-dependent effects were not discussed by Richardson and Perkins. They should be separated from the free gas effect if the objective of the study is a correlation of residual oil saturation vs initial free gas saturation. The increase in oil viscosity when gas is released from solution tends to increase residual oil saturation. This effect is rather small in the viscosity range of kerosene. A Buckley-Leverett calculation, assuming an increase in viscosity ratio from 1.2 to 1.8, indicates an increase in residual oil saturation of about 1 per cent of pore volume. Thus, one would expect this system, if operated at constant viscosity ratio, to show a slightly greater free gas effect. As Dyes- as shown, oil shrinkage can offset the beneficial effect of free gas on waterflood oil recovery, if the gas saturation is established by depletion. Since

Jan 1, 1958

By Gerhard Derge

The rapidity of oxygen steelmaking has created renewed interesl in the mechanisms and kinetics of the various processes involved. These studies can now be approached with increased confidence because of the more adequate thermodynamics, physical chernislry, and relevant engineering infornzation available. These combine to offer promise of useful control and automation if the details of each specific problem can be sufficiently well-defined. The hot filament microscope provides new insig-hi into many of these problems by direct observation at temperature, allowing the appraisal of the relative importance of thermal gradients, convection, and intermediate phases. All of these have a direct bearing on the overall rates and control of most pyrometallurgical processes. It is one of the special privileges of the Howe Lecturer to become better acquainted with this distinguished man. All of us interested in the metallurgy of iron and steel have developed some sense of his widespread influence by the annual reference to his work in these Memorial Lectures. Each lecturer since 1923 has been able to identify his personal specialty with the broad interests of Professor Howe. This has become even more rewarding with the background information from Professor Gensamer's monograph, "Henry Marion Howe's Contributions to Metallurgy, which brings out his happy combination of intellectual and professional activities. Beyond this, I found my personal bond with Professor Howe in his book on The Metallurgy of Sleel first published in 1891.' After a detailed discussion of the dephosphorizing action of slags, he relates the mineral species identified in the frozen sample to the chemistry of the fused slag with the question, "Is it not most philosophic to hold that these independent entities were wholly integrated in the initial magma; that their presence in it was wholly

Jan 1, 1968

By D. Krammer, E. S. Machlin

The effect of a brior high-temperature creep strain on the low-temperature ductility of commercially pure nickel has been evaluated. The low-temperature (-196°C) ductility decreases linearly with an increase in prior high-temperature (920°C) creep strain. The effect is experimentally correlated to the formation of inter crystalline cracks and voids during the prior high-temperature creep strain. The magnitude of the effect is also believed to be a function of the notch sensitivity of the material. SEVERAL mechanisms have been presented to explain the process of inter crystalline cracking in metals undergoing high-temperature creep. zenerl has suggested that grain boundary relaxation of shear stresses could build up high stresses at ob- stacles to grain boundary shear and thereby nucleate a crack. Chang and rant' have experimentally demonstrated that cracks do form at obstacles to grain boundary shear such as lines where three grains meet. The role of vacancies in the mechanism of high-temperature inter crystalline cracking has been explored by Machlt with the conclusion that the nu-cleation of voids by vacancy condensation is almost

Jan 1, 1960

By H. M. Chance

Stretching from New York southwestwardly to Georgia is a great range of hills and mountains consisting of pre-Palæozoic schists, slates, .and gneissic and granitoid rocks, known locally by many different names; in Pennsylvania as the South mountains, the Berkshire or Durham and Reading hills, and in Virginia and farther south as the Blue ridge. To the northwest of this range lies the " Great Valley," underlain by Lower Silurian limestones, and known as the Lehigh valley, Cumberland valley, Shenandoah valley, valley of Eastern Tennessee and Georgia and by other local names, but all these are parts of one valley, geologically and geographically continuous from New Jersey to Georgia. Lying upon and along the northern flank of this range of mountains, and dipping northwestwardly under the limestone of the valley, is the Potsdam formation (Primal or No. 1 of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey), which consists of sandstone or conglomerate overlain by slates. The latter are sometimes arenaceous and occasionally are replaced in part by sandstone. This formation varies from a few feet to several hundred feet in thickness. At the outcrop the slates are completely decomposed, oxidized or disintegrated, forming a belt of clay several hundred feet wide occupying the interval between the outcroppings of the sandstone and limestone. This clay-belt includes a more or less continuous series of iron-ore (brown hematite) deposite, which have been, and still are, extensively worked. The belt is more or less continuously milleralized with iron throughout its length, and hundreds of large deposits of ore have been developed and worked, producing many millions of tons of ore.

Jan 1, 1909

By L. J. Howell, H. H. Kellogg

AN a previous paper' the phase diagram and vapor pressure of melts in the systems NaC1-ZrCl,, KC1-ZrCl,, and NaC1-KC1 (1:1 molar)-ZrC1, were reported. This note supplements the earlier paper with the results of electrical conductivity measurements on NaC1-ZrC1,and NaC1-KC1 (1:l molar)-ZrC1, melts. The design of the conductivity cell is shown in Fig. 1. Tungsten electrodes, A, were sealed into the Pyrex cell, C. That portion of the electrodes in contact with the melt was covered with a tight-fitting platinum cap. The electrodes were sur-

Jan 1, 1960

By D. W. Smith, C. H. Mathewson

In a series of papers published recently,' R. F. Mehl and associates have studied the characteristics of form and orientation of many segregate structures and have found diversified conditions which can be explained only by postulating some specific kind of cooperative mechanism permitting the matrix lattice in some favorable region to transform into the segregate lattice in an adaptable region presenting a geometrically similar arrangement of atoms. We have collected the published data on crystallographic relationships of this sort, chiefly derived from Mehl's work, in Table 1. It is evident at once that the crystal structure of the matrix does not uniquely determine the location of the plate structures or other forms assumed by the segregate. Thus, the first seven items in the table represent precipitation of platelike forms from a matrix of face-centered cubic structure, but these plates are found stratified along planes of form {1111, {loo), {110) or another unidentified form, depending upon specific conditions involving the nature and concentration of the segregating substance. Again, in a matrix of body-centered cubic structure, plates, needles or stars have been found and the favored inner surface of segregation may be a plane of form (110), (112), {210), or indeed a surface without crystallographic indices defining a bundle of close-packed lattice lines (strings of atoms) taken more or less at random. Such a surface might be formed ideally by revolving one of these parallel strings of atoms around another as an axis. Hanemann and Schroder2 recently discussed these questions, principally with relation to original conceptions concerning the process of

Jan 1, 1932

By Howard A. Smith

OF late considerable experimental and theoretical interest has been shown in the rates of transformation from a single phase, usually a supercooled solid solution, into one or more phases. Such reactions may involve both diffusion and transformation of the major constituent, as in iron alloys, or it may simply involve diffusion, as in superstructure formation and in age-hardening systems. Most of the work has been confined to ferrous alloys1-9† although two investigations have been made on copper alloys 10-11. That such work may be of considerable practical importance has been demonstrated by Bain12, by the workers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut für Eisenforschung13, 14, and by the everyday use of precipitation and age-hardening principles15. Experiments in this country have generally followed Davenport and Bain's technique of rapid supercooling followed by isothermal treatment. In Germany16, 17 the work has been extended to the study of the influence of accurately controlled and measured rates of cooling. The work on steel indicates that there are two subcritical temperature ranges where reaction starts sooner after quenching and proceeds at a more rapid rate than at other temperatures. At subcritical temperatures above Ar" where reaction is dependent upon atomic migration there is a period of time of which the length depends upon the alloy content and the temperature, before which no reaction has been detected. Davenport and Bain1 find that different sorts of atoms in solid solution in gamma iron affect the length of this "prereaction" period differently, manganese

Jan 1, 1935

By John Batchelder, David W. Blake, Ted. G. Theodore

The Copper Canyon CIL-Au-Ag deposits include two geologically distinct hypogene ore bodies developed primarily in late Paleozoic rocks adjacent to a 38-m.y.old potassic-altered granodiorite, whose emplacement seems to have been controlled largely by the Virgin fault, a north-striking normal fault. Widespread but subeconomic concentrations of sulfides as fracture and cavity fillings in skarn apparently preceded the final intrusion of the granodiorite. In the west ore body, metals reached ore-grade concentrations through the massive replacement of andradite by chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite mineral assemblages. The east ore body probably formed after the granodiorite reached its present level. Data suggest that fluids associated with potassic alteration here were most likely composed of magmatic water mixed with some meteoric water.

Jan 1, 1977

By Burdett Loomis

The advantages of gaseous fuel have been too fully set forth during the past few years to need recapitulation. Papers, arguments, and editorials have been issued, in a more or less general way, that would make volumes. Systems have found zealous advocates, and many promises of results that have sounded strangely in the ears of old-fashioned gas-makers, have been born of theory, and have died in the earliest throes of trial; while in some few instances success has demonstrated the value of practical effort. With few exceptions, however, everything attempted or accomplished has tended towards the one end-—the realization of more perfect results than we can

Jan 1, 1891

By W. B. Morrison

Anderson, King, and Spreadborough present detailed evidence to show what ~aldwin~' has already pointed out, that, over a relatively small grain-size range (Ad"1/2 ^ 10 mm-'I2, d is average grain diameter), yield point data can fit a number of relationships. Part of the difficulty in obtaining data which reflect only the effect of change in grain size on yielding arises from the fact that in varying the grain size, even though great care is taken, other structural changes are almost certain to occur. In iron alloys, these changes may consist of variations in subgrain size, grain boundary ledge density, and degree of carbon and nitrogen segregation at grain boundaries, all of which are difficult to detect and which may affect yielding, primarily through their effect on dislocation generation. Because of the inherent inaccuracy associated with yield point measurements there is little point in using relatively complex equations to fit data, as was done by Anderson et mnl., rather than the simpler, widely used Hall-Petch equation. In compiling their table of data, it is surprising that they did not include results from certain low-carbon steels,31 in which, as illustrated in Fig. 2, the grain-size range is very much larger than in their Armco Iron. The very fine grains in these steels were obtained by a thermomechanical process. Examination by electron microscopy showed that the grains were separated by high-angle boundarie and contained only an occasional subboundary. The data from these steels obeyed the Hall-Petch equation, and it was shown quite conclusively that they did not fit a d-l or (1-lJ3 relationship. Obviously, a much wider range in grain size than used by Anderson et al. is desirable if we are to determine the true relation between lower yield stress and grain size.

Jan 1, 1969

By K. Osseo-Asare

The thermodynamics of solid-aqueous solution equilibria up to 200°C In the systems Me-NH3 H2 0 (Me=Cu, Ni, Co) are summarized with predominance area diagrams generated with the DIAGRAM computer program. The implications of the diagrams to ammonia hydrometallurgy are discussed.

Jan 1, 1981

By L. H. Ketchum, T. L. Theis, W. H. Engelmann

The use of a suspended growth system of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans attached in a film to individual particles of bentonite and operated as a sequencing batch reactor is shown to be a practical way of oxidizing ferrous iron in acid mine drainage. This component, followed by limestone neutralization, is both a technically and economically feasible approach to treating these waste waters, compared to existing and other proposed methods. The advantages, in addition to less expense, are greater safety, acceptable treatment at a lower pH, lower solids buildup, less danger of overtreatment, and greater flexibility in operational characteristics. In this paper, data on the continuous bench scale operation of the system under a variety of conditions shows sustained levels of oxidation in excess of 98%. Capital and operating costs are projected to be $80/1000 m3 ($80 per 35, 000 cu ft) of waste water.

Jan 1, 1985

By NONE N

Jan 1, 1963

By W. H. Kantner

In this paper, no attempt will be made to theorize on subsidence. Only known data and actual facts will be given, with a few exceptions noted where other factors and outside influences tend to change subsidence directly resulting from porphyry caving. The area under observation is known as the Southeast Extension of the East orebody. The orebody is irregular in outline and dips to the south and the east, extending in depth from about 425 ft. below the surface to 1050 ft. below the surface. In the upper horizon, the orebody is about 400 ft. long and 150 ft. wide. At 720 ft. below the surface, the ore outline is approximately 450 by 170 ft.; 70 ft. below this, it is 500 by 110 ft., with an extension at the north end to the east 270 by 120 ft. From this elevation to about 900 ft. below the surface, the ore spreads out to the cast and south, being about 700 by 500 ft. between these vertical limits. Below this it pinches out and at 1060 ft. below the surface is only 100 by 100 ft. The nearest point of the orebody—which is on the northwest side—is 600 ft. 'southeast of the Sacramento shaft. The country rock is all porphyry. Fig. 1 is a vertical east-west section showing orebody and original surface. The surface over the orebody was fairly regular and in this area and adjacent to it were portions of the surface plant, roads, and the main plant railroad to the concentrator. Fig. 2 is a map of the surface over the porphyry area. Caving operations started in April, 1925, at the approximate top of the orebody. The first lift was on the 600-ft. level; the ore was extracted by means of the Morenci timbered slide method and was from 425 to 455 ft. below the surface over an area of about 22,000 sq. ft. This lift was finished in May, 1926. The second lift, on the 650-ft. level, was already in production by May, 1926, so extraction of ore was continuous. This lift was 48 ft. high and covered an area of about 30,000 sq. ft. The ore from this lift was extracted by means of a modified Morenci timbered slide method. This lift was finished in March, 1927. The direction

Jan 1, 1934

By S. A. Ford

I WOULD like to call the attention of our Bessemer steel manufacturers to a few facts in regard to the action of the manganese in. the Spiegel with the oxide of iron in the blown iron. The oxygen is united with the iron as a magnetic oxide, as Gautier asserts, and this oxide is reduced to a protoxide by one-atom of the manganese uniting with one atom of the oxygen of the magnetic oxide of iron. This oxide of manganese and the protoxide of iron thus formed unite with the silica which has been formed by the oxidation of the silicon in the pig iron. Mr. Snelus and others

Jan 1, 1881

By Joseph G. Debanné

Foreword The three case histories and the liquid fuels planning scenario presented in this paper span a twenty year period, from the pioneering days of computers in the petroleum producing industry during the mid-fifties, to the energy crisis era of the seventies. Inasmuch as two of the main actors, Ian McKinnon and I, are featured in all three case histories, while I am currently involved in the fossil fuels scenario, this paper provides four related and personal spot readings along an evolutionary path: from the one dimensional technical domain to the multi-dimensional techno-socio-economic domain of computer applications in the petroleum industry. Coincident with this evolution in the direction of increasingly comprehensive and powerful computer applications, the evolution in hardware/software capability and in analytical power are also kept in perspective. The three case histories are: 1. The Bonnie Glen-Wizard Lake Case (Calgary, Alberta, 1955-1957); 2. The TransCanada-Great Lakes Gas Transmission Case (Ottawa-Washington, 1966); 3. The Westcoast Transmission - El Paso Pipelines Gas Export/ Import Case (Ottawa-Vancouver-Washington, 1966-1967). The liquid fuels planning scenario is a demonstration exercise rather than a case history; however, it represents an important point on the evolutionary curve and, provides a concrete example of tech-

Jan 1, 1977

By T. N. McVay, E. E. Creitz

Rather large amounts of titanium minerals and some zircon and monazite are being recovered from dune sands about I. miles west of Jacksonville Beach, Fla. The Mining Branch of the Bureau of Mines, Southern Experiment station, has been interested in developing additional large deposits of similar sands in other areas of Florida. The results of a field study have been published1 concerning the sands occurring on Trail Ridge which runs north and south about 30 miles southwest of Jacksonville. This investigation was undertaken in order to identify the opaque titanium minerals occurring in Trail Ridge and because of the economic importance of Florida titanium minerals. Nature of the Problem The minerals present in the heavy fractions (sp gr > 2.94) of the sands are principally opaque minerals; staurolite, zircon, sillimanite, tourmaline, kyanite, rutile, a small amount of corundum, traces of the zinc spinel gahnite and garnet. Epidote, monazite, hornblende and ti-tanite are present in other dune sands but these minerals were not noted in the samples collected on Trail Ridge. All of the minerals except those which are opaque can be readily identified by the usual petrographic methods. However, Opaque minerals cannot be examined satisfactorily by transmitted light. Polished sections of the opaque-mineral grains were examined but these sections did not furnish useful information. Consequently, it was necessary to use means other than the usual petrographic methods to identify them. Previous Investigations of Heavy Minerals in Florida Sands Martens2 has described the heavy minerals in the Florida beach sands and has classified the opaque minerals as ilmenite with minor amounts of leucoxene. Miller3 studied a number of sands collected by Ross and Mertie in Florida. He states that the material from the Florida beach and dune sands that commonly has been called ilmenite has essentially the chemical composition of the material that has been called arizonite.4 The x ray diffraction patterns of several samples indicated that the supposed ilmenite is essentially amorphous, with only weak lines corresponding to ilmenite, and hence the material is unlike the type of arizonite from Arizona. Opaque Titanium Minerals Rutile is essentially titanium dioxide. However, as pointed out by Dana,5 important amounts of Fe+2 and Fe+3 as well as Cb and Ta are reported in some analyses.

Jan 1, 1949

By R. J. Pearce, I. Whittle, J. J. Stobbs

The oxidation kinetics of UCu5 in carbon dioxide have been studied over the temperature range 350° to 850°C. At any one temperature, two successive parabolic rate constants are obtained. Up to 650°C, the temperature dependence of the reaction is snzall and the first parabolic rate constant is higher than the second. At temperatures of 690°C and above, there is a very marked temperature dependence and the second rate constant is the higher. Metallo-graphic examination has shown that attack proceeds via internal oxidation. THE oxidation behavior of the U-Cu intermetallic compound, UCu5, in carbon dioxide was briefly examined during investigations aimed at selecting oxidation-resistant uranium-alloy coatings.' It was found that an extremely thick, coherent scale was formed coated at the scale-gas interface with a thin, apparently continuous layer of copper. A more detailed investigation of the oxidation of UCus has now been made. Previous published work2 has been limited to a brief examination of UCu5 in connection with the oxidation of a U-1 wt pct Cu alloy in carbon dioxide. No attempt was made to explain its behavior, but the work indicated that attack proceeded by intern oxidation, with the formation of a layer of copper on the surface of the specimen. EXPERIMENTAL UCus was prepared by arc melting the stoichio-metric amounts of high-purity copper* and uran-

Jan 1, 1965

I TOLD you above that you should save the melted material that you extracted by smelting the ore. In substance this is copper, lead, silver, and perhaps gold, but all are like substances mixed in one body without any distinction. Now if you wish to separate these and to reduce them to their pure qualities, it is necessary to proceed with each one according to its own methods. Now in this method of separating lead in order to extract the silver and gold from the copper, it is necessary to return to the smelting and to follow one of two methods.* The first is to smelt it again with the addition of lead or lead ore, and to make it all run through the channel into the large forehearth that was made in front of the blast furnace, and, as it cools off, proceed to remove layer by layer with the fork, as I told you before and as you did the first time, until the work lead is reached. Then you assay what you have extracted and see whether it contains silver. If you consider that it has enough per hundred to justify the expense, return it again to the smelting. Continue to do this until you have extracted all the unctuousness and the work lead still remains. If it contains little or no silver, you must be satisfied with your work; otherwise return it again to smelt, always accompanying it with lead or galena and do as you did the other times until it

Jan 1, 1942

By W. R. Hibbard Jr., T. Michalak

THAT the amount of deformation and annealing time influences the recrystallization temperature of cold-rolled copper has been well established. Evidence that the recrystallization temperature can be affected by the deformation texture has been reported by Brick and Williamson,% ho found that copper straight-cold-rolled to 99 pct reduction to produce one deformation texture and copper cross-cold-rolled to 99 pct reduction to produce a second and different deformation texture correspondingly recrystallized at different temperatures to different textures. The purpose of the present work was to study more thoroughly the effect of the deformation texture on the recrystallization of cold-rolled copper. Experimental Procedure The copper used in this investigation was commercial OFHC copper (nominally 99.985 pct Cu) in the form of 0.500-in. plate. Qualitative spectro-graphic analysis showed only a slight trace of iron and a trace of silver. No analysis was performed to determine the exact content of the iron and silver,

Jan 1, 1958