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By Harry W. Brown

This paper presents results of static capillary pressure measprements made both by the restored-state and by the mercury-injection methods, and of dynamic capillary pressure measurements made by the Hassler technique. The results indicate a variation from sample to sample of the factor used to convert capillary pressure obtained by mercury injection to those applicable to a water-gas system. Static capillary pressures measured by the restored-state method were found to be in close agreement with dynamic capillary pressures, indicating that data obtained from static measurements may be utilized with confidenre in the solution of dynamic problems of fluid flow. Experimental data are presented on the use of "J-curves" for the correlation of capillary pressure-saturation relations for a number of cores from a particular geologic formation. It is shown that the correlation was improved in some cases by reqtricting it to rertain lithologic classifications. INTRODUCTION The Meaning and Importance of Capillary Pressure The coexistence of two or more immiscible fluids within the voids of a porous medium, such as reservoir rock, gives rise to capillary forces. Because of the interfacial tension existing at the boundary between two immiscible fluids in a pore space, the interface is curved, and there is a pressure difference across the interface. This pressure difference is termed the capillary pressure. The magnitude of the capillary pressure between two immiscible fluids which together fill a porous medium depends upon several factors: the textural properties of the medium, the wettability of the medium, the interfacial tension between the fluids, the respective saturations of the fluids, and the manner in which these saturations are attained. For a given pair of immiscible fluids in a particular sample of reservoir rock, the capillary pressure is a unique function of the fluid saturation, provided that the saturation of the fluid which wets the rock has previously been decreased unidirectionally from an initially complete saturation. Similarly, for a given pair of fluids at a particular saturation which has been achieved by a

Jan 1, 1951

By Harry W. Brown

This paper presents results of static capillary pressure measprements made both by the restored-state and by the mercury-injection methods, and of dynamic capillary pressure measurements made by the Hassler technique. The results indicate a variation from sample to sample of the factor used to convert capillary pressure obtained by mercury injection to those applicable to a water-gas system. Static capillary pressures measured by the restored-state method were found to be in close agreement with dynamic capillary pressures, indicating that data obtained from static measurements may be utilized with confidenre in the solution of dynamic problems of fluid flow. Experimental data are presented on the use of "J-curves" for the correlation of capillary pressure-saturation relations for a number of cores from a particular geologic formation. It is shown that the correlation was improved in some cases by reqtricting it to rertain lithologic classifications. INTRODUCTION The Meaning and Importance of Capillary Pressure The coexistence of two or more immiscible fluids within the voids of a porous medium, such as reservoir rock, gives rise to capillary forces. Because of the interfacial tension existing at the boundary between two immiscible fluids in a pore space, the interface is curved, and there is a pressure difference across the interface. This pressure difference is termed the capillary pressure. The magnitude of the capillary pressure between two immiscible fluids which together fill a porous medium depends upon several factors: the textural properties of the medium, the wettability of the medium, the interfacial tension between the fluids, the respective saturations of the fluids, and the manner in which these saturations are attained. For a given pair of immiscible fluids in a particular sample of reservoir rock, the capillary pressure is a unique function of the fluid saturation, provided that the saturation of the fluid which wets the rock has previously been decreased unidirectionally from an initially complete saturation. Similarly, for a given pair of fluids at a particular saturation which has been achieved by a

Jan 1, 1951

By Eugene Leonardon

THE search for oil has required, and without a doubt supplies, a tremendous amount of information on the structure, composition, physical properties, and history of sedimentary rocks. The earliest and most complete source of knowledge is the sample or core of the rock itself, the uses of which are well known. The purpose of this paper is primarily to discuss a new method for obtaining these cores, and to illustrate its use in connection with electrical logs. Most cores have been obtained through a special adaptation of rotary drilling, and the results have been remarkably good, considering the mechanical problems involved. Unfortunately, because of the time and expense, this method cannot be used for the entire length of the drill hole. Even though ingenious contrivances have been evolved in order to reduce the time spent in round trips, such as wire-line coring equipment, mechanical coring still remains too expensive to be carried out con-tinuously. In practice, therefore, one is finally compelled to estimate the probable depths of the more interesting horizons and, allowing a wide margin of safety, to core through those sections only. It is true also that interesting results have been obtained by examining the cuttings brought to the surface by the mud circulated in the well during the process of drilling. Be that as it may, the inescapable fact remains that key horizons may be passed inadvertently, for one reason or another, while the drilling operations are being performed. The only continuous record of the formations encountered is that furnished by electrical surveys. Obviously, it would be desirable to make the electrical survey first and to take the samples from the wall of the hole according to the indications on the electrical log. In this way, it would be possible to core only the exact sections desired, eliminating the otherwise inevitable estimates as to the point at which to start coring, and thereby reducing to a minimum this expensive operation. At the same time this method would provide a maximum' of useful samples.

Jan 1, 1939

By Eugene Leonardon

THE search for oil has required, and without a doubt supplies, a tremendous amount of information on the structure, composition, physical properties, and history of sedimentary rocks. The earliest and most complete source of knowledge is the sample or core of the rock itself, the uses of which are well known. The purpose of this paper is primarily to discuss a new method for obtaining these cores, and to illustrate its use in connection with electrical logs. Most cores have been obtained through a special adaptation of rotary drilling, and the results have been remarkably good, considering the mechanical problems involved. Unfortunately, because of the time and expense, this method cannot be used for the entire length of the drill hole. Even though ingenious contrivances have been evolved in order to reduce the time spent in round trips, such as wire-line coring equipment, mechanical coring still remains too expensive to be carried out con-tinuously. In practice, therefore, one is finally compelled to estimate the probable depths of the more interesting horizons and, allowing a wide margin of safety, to core through those sections only. It is true also that interesting results have been obtained by examining the cuttings brought to the surface by the mud circulated in the well during the process of drilling. Be that as it may, the inescapable fact remains that key horizons may be passed inadvertently, for one reason or another, while the drilling operations are being performed. The only continuous record of the formations encountered is that furnished by electrical surveys. Obviously, it would be desirable to make the electrical survey first and to take the samples from the wall of the hole according to the indications on the electrical log. In this way, it would be possible to core only the exact sections desired, eliminating the otherwise inevitable estimates as to the point at which to start coring, and thereby reducing to a minimum this expensive operation. At the same time this method would provide a maximum' of useful samples.

Jan 1, 1939

By W. C. Ellis, E. S. Greiner, M. E. Fine

C. H. Samans and W. R. Ham (Chicago, Ill., and Dix-field, Maine, respectively)-—For several years we have been studying transitions of this basic type in metals, alloys, glasses, etc. Usually, however, they are not so clearly marked as those which the authors have found, and hence are much more difficult to determine accurately. Since our studies indicate that most of them occur virtually unchanged (as far as temperature is concerned) regardless of the form in which the element appears, we believe that they are a characteristic of the atom. Specifically, we believe that there is an additional rotational degree of freedom possessed by the nucleus which has not been considered heretofore. This nuclear rotation is made up of several components, each related to the several quantum shells of electrons. In chromium there are four of these shells and hence four separate series of characteristic transition temperatures. The lowest temperature at which any transition occurs, based on the present state of our computations, is 125°K, 4° higher than the authors' value of 121°K. A convergence of this series, we believe, shows up at the higher temperature of 2085 °K, surprisingly close to the transformation temperature of 2103°K recently announced by N. J. Grant of M.I.T. for a body-centered to face-centered transformation in chromium. Likewise, our computations indicate a temperature of 311°K for the second transition temperature, reported by the authors as 310 °K. A convergence of this series, we believe, shows up at a higher temperature as the melting point at 2163°K. Although our work on these series must, in a sense, still be regarded as empirical, since we do not understand fully as yet just what the series mean, it is based on a reasonably firm picture. The individual constants, from which the various series are computed for each element, comes directly from the X-ray K absorption limit. Furthermore, the same basic method has accounted for transformation and melting temperatures in about 50 of the chemical elements, which is all we have tried thus far. In many cases the only known transformation is the melting point, but in others the occurrence of transformations or other transitions, equally as well marked as those of the authors, has been pointed out by others. These observations have assisted us greatly. Consequently we were very pleased to see the authors' excellent work in finding these two transitions in chromium. With these confirming data, our picture of this element is clarified considerably, so we expect that at least some of our work can be published in the near future. R. C. Ruder (E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Cu., Wilmington, Del.)—The authors' interpretation of these transitions in terms of 3d to 4s electronic structure transitions is most interesting. It would be interesting to have additional experimental evidence of such transitions from the temperature dependence of the Hall coefficient in the neighborhood of the property changes discussed in this paper. Simple theory15 suggests the Hall coefficient as a measure of the free electron (or s electron) concentration per unit volume. It has been shown that for paramagnetic'" and ferromagnetic1? metals the simple theory is in fact too simple. However, the existence of a discontinuity in the Hall coefficient would provide information which should aid both in our understanding of these transitions and the significance of the Hall coefficient in these metals. It was rather surprising that no significant paramagnetic effects were observed. In this connection the recent work of McGuire and Kriessman18 is cited. They measured the magnetic susceptibility of chromium from 20" to 1460 °C. They also observed no large change in the susceptibility although there might be a change in slope in the vicinity of the 40 °C transition. The existence of these 3d to 4s electronic transitions has been discussed in connection with the paramagnetic susceptibility behavior of nickel and nickel alloys.'"-" Assuming a correspondence principle between classical and quantum mechanical paramagnetic theory and using classical theory to calculate the effective Bohr magneton number from the Curie constant for substances obeying the Curie-Weiss law," it is found that the effective magneton number is a function of temperature. The process of calculation involves the inverse of the differential of the 1/x4 vs. temperature curve so that good and numerous data are necessary to obtain significant results. The data of Fallot23 show a discontinuous increase of about 12 pct in the effective magneton number between 850" and 900 oC, followed by a continuous increase up to the melting point. The data of Sucksmith and Pearce24 show a possible 8 pct increase. The older data of Terry25 and Weiss and Foex26 show a continuous increase. It is possible that small amounts of impurity atoms change these electronic transitions significantly. Fallot's23 data on a nickel alloy with 4.5 atomic pct Fe indicate that the discontinuity occurs around 1300 °C. Systematic investigation of the transition metals for transitions of this nature should provide information which would be very valuable for our understanding of these metals. The absence of antiferromagnetic structures in chromium has been shown by Shull27 using neutron diffraction techniques. M. E. Fine, E. S. Greiner, and W. C. Ellis (authors' reply)—The remarks by Drs. Samans and Ham are certainly very interesting, in particular those pertaining to the close agreement between the theoretically calculated values for transition temperatures in chromium and the experimental values reported by a number of investigators. This is a remarkable achievement and we shall look forward to a more detailed presentation of the method followed in their calculations. We do not believe that the transition in pure chromium near 40 °C remains temperature invariant with alloying, as was reported by Samans and Ham for a number of the substances that they studied. We have not done any work with alloys but base our belief on the results of earlier studies in which less pure chromium was included and considerably lower transition temperatures were observed. The transition tempera-

Jan 1, 1952

By M. E. Wadsworth, K. C. Bowles, H. E. Flanders, R. M. Nadkarni, C. E. Jelden

The kinetics of precipitation of copper on iron of various purity were carried out under controlled conditions. The rate of reduction has been correlated with such parameters as copper and hydrogen ion concentration, geometric factors, flow rate, and temperature. The character of the precipitated copper as a function of flow conditions and rate of PreciPitation has been observed under a variety of conditions. ThE precipitation of copper in solution by cementation on a more electropositive metal has been known for many years. Basile valentine' who wrote Currus Triumphalis Antimonii about 1500, refers to this method for extraction of copper. Paracelsus the Great2 who was born about 1493 cites the use of iron to prepare Venus (copper) by the "rustics of Hungary" in the "Book Concerning the Tincture of the Philosophers". Agricola3 in his work on minerals (1546) tells of a peculiar water which is drawn from a shaft near Schmölnitz in Hungary, that erodes iron and turns it into copper. In 1670, a concession is recorded4 as having been granted for the recovery of copper from the mine waters at Rio Tinto in Spain, presumably by precipitation with iron. Much has been published in recent literature on the recovery of copper by cementation, the majority of the articles being on plant practice.5-24 The rest include articles on investigation of the variables involved25-28 and a review of hydrometallurgical copper extraction methods." This literature has established: a) The three principal reactions in the cementation of copper are Cu + Fe — Fe+4 +Cu [ 11 One pound of copper is precipitated by 0.88 lb of iron stoichiometrically. In actual practice about 1.5 to 2.5 lb of iron are consumed. 2Fe+3 + Fe — 3Fe+2 [21 Fe +2H'-Fe+2 + H2 [3] Reactions [2] and [3] are responsible for the consumption of excess iron. Wartman and Roberson'28 have established that Reactions [ I] and [2] are concurrent and much faster than Reaction [3]. b) Acidity control is important in the control of hydrolysis and the excessive consumption of iron. he commercial workable range is approximately from pH = 1.8 to 3." c) Iron consumption is closely related to the amount of ferric iron in solution. Jacobi" reports that, by leaving the pregnant mine waters in contact wi th lump pyrrhotite (Fe7S8) for 3 hr, all the iron was reduced to the bivalent condition and scrap iron consumption was cut to 1.25 lb scrap per pound of copper precipitated. He also reported that SO2 has been used successfully to reduce ferric iron to the ferrous state. d) The ideal precipitant is one that offers a large exposed area and is relatively free of rust. e) High velocities and agitation show a beneficial effect upon the rate of precipitation, as it tends to displace the layer of barren solution adjacent to the iron and also dislodges hydrogen bubbles and precipitated copper to expose new surfaces. Little work, however, has been published on the reaction kinetics of copper precipitation on iron. Cent-nerszwer and Heller20 investigated the precipitation of metallic cations in solutions on zinc plates. They found the cementation reaction to be a first-order reaction. The rate constant was independent of stirring for high stirring rates and they concluded that the rate is governed by a diffusional process at low stirring speeds and by a "chemical" process at higher stirring speeds where the rate reaches a constant value. This conclusion has been challenged by King and Burger30 who could not find any region where the rate was independent of the stirring speed, although the rate constant they had obtained for high stirring speed was greater than the maximum value of the rate constant reported by Centnerszwer and Heller (by a factor of six). King and Burger, therefore, concluded that the rate of displacement of copper was controlled only by diffusion. Cementation of various cations on zinc has been summarized by Engfelder.31 APPARATUS A three-necked distillation flask of 2 000-mm capacity was used as a reaction vessel. A pipet of 10-mm capacity was introduced through one of- the side necks, the sample of sheet iron, mounted in a rigid sample holder, through the other, the stirrer being in the middle as shown in Fig. 1. The whole assembly was immersed in a constant-temperature bath. The stirrer was always placed at the same depth in the solution. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Reagent-grade cupric sulfate (J. T. Baker Chemical Co., N.J.) was used to make up a stock solution containing 10 g of copper per liter which was then diluted to various concentrations as required. Experimental data were obtained by measuring the amount of copper and iron ions in solution at successive time intervals. The initial volume of the solution was always 2000 ml, 10-ml aliquots being removed each time for chemical analysis. Because the total volume change of the solution was less than 10 pct, no correction was used for solution volume change. Nitrogen was bubbled through the solution before and

Jan 1, 1968

By L. L. Foley, C. V. Millikan

The discovery of Bromide production in the Fitts field, shallow production in Jackson County of Southwestern Oklahoma, abundant production in the Edmond field, and discovery of many small pools in all parts of the state, were the events that made petroleum history in Oklahoma in 1934. Wildcatting was much more active, as evidenced by a number of new discoveries. There was no important development in the older fields. The rapid decline of the potential of the Oklahoma City field was an important feature of the history of the year. The accompanying tabulation of oil fields (Table 1) is not complete. Many of the early records of operators and pipe line companies are lost and it will be impossible to work up complete statistics for a number of the older fields. The table includes most of the important fields of the state and includes fields of a number of different types. It is hoped that a great many additional fields may be worked up for next year's report. Fitts Pool.—The Fitts pool, in Pontotoc County, was discovered in 1933. Before the middle of 1934, the Pennsylvanian sands yielded -some oil at depths ranging from 1400 to 2800 ft. The Hunton series (Siluro-Devonian) produced most of the oil with considerable gas. In July, 1934, a well in sec. 25, T.2N., R.6E. was completed in the Bromide (Ordovician " Wilcox ") with an initial production of about 300 bbl. a day. Less than a month later a second Bromide sand well was completed in sec. 30, T.2N., R.7E., which made over 200 bbl. an hour. This started an active drilling campaign, which was accelerated when some of the major companies paid good prices for adjacent acreage. At the end of the year, 23 wells had been completed and the rate of development was increasing rapidly. It is a major oil field. The Fitts pool opened a new geological province for oil production. The structure is a faulted anticline in a graben. The producing formation (Bromide) and the Arbuckle lime below it crop out about 2 miles south of present production. The Hunton lime crops out about 2½ miles north. The field is in a sharply folded and faulted area on the northeast side of the Arbuckle uplift. Heretofore, it was generally considered not favorable for oil production, although some gas had been found in various places. The play has extended east into the McAlester coal basin, and southeast toward the

Jan 1, 1935

By Richard A. Mullins, James J. Merle

Systematic sampling and analysis in coal-washing plants results in product control and economical operation. A well-organized laboratory system reduces operating costs and increases sales if the operating and sales companies make full use of information it supplies. The operating cost of a control laboratory is less than 1 pct per ton of coal produced. THE system of laboratory control as practiced by the Ayrshire group of mines was begun with the construction and organization of the first laboratory in conjunction with the completion of its first wash-ery in 1941. The primary purpose of this laboratory was to maintain a check on the quality of the coal produced from the washing plant. The laboratory was equipped to determine proximate analyses, float-and-sink tests, and screen analyses, and was staffed by a chemist. an assistant. and a technician. Members AIME, are Assistant Preparation Manager and Chief Chemist, respectively, Ayrshire Collieries Corp. and Subsidiaries, Danville, Ill. Joint AIME-ASME Fuels Conference. French Lick. October 1949. TP 2855 F. Discussion (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before June 30, 1950. Manuscript received Aug. 22, 1949. Soon it became apparent (1) that product control could be accomplished, (2) that a substantial reduction in operating costs could be effected by close control of coal losses in the rejects, and (3) that information furnished by the laboratory was of continuous value to the operating and sales companies. Consequently the laboratory function was expanded to supply them with additional data as required. As the parent company expanded and new mines were added, control laboratories were established at each mine equipped with washeries, and a central laboratory was maintained at one of the mines that was located equally convenient to all of them. A well-planned control laboratory assures production of a uniform, high-quality product. Whenever coal of substandard grade is loaded inadvertently, the sales company can be informed and the proper channel of distribution made. Conversely only constant and strict laboratory supervision can insure proper production of the various grades. Knowing the product, the producer can keep out of many customers' arguments that may be both awkward and expensive. Double checking between customers and mine laboratories have solved many disputes' Some nager insist On buying coal On the analysis basis only, with penalties for substandard coal and premiums for coal above normal quality. A substantial percentage of the coal sold by the Ayrshire group is of this nature. The usual procedure is for the customer to sample and analyze the coal as it is unloaded at the plant, and the mine laboratory samples it as it is loaded at the mine for subsequent analysis by the central laboratory. Only the unloaded moisture is considered, rather than the average of mine and plant moisture, and the buyer sends duplicate samples to the central mine laboratory for this determination. The average of the two analyses determines the price of coal at the mine. In this particular case, the laboratory plays an important part in increasing realization for two reasons: (1) every attempt is made to maintain plant efficiency and product quality as high as possible, (2) check on analyses and sampling by the buyer or seller.

Jan 1, 1951

By Richard A. Mullins, James J. Merle

Systematic sampling and analysis in coal-washing plants results in product control and economical operation. A well-organized laboratory system reduces operating costs and increases sales if the operating and sales companies make full use of information it supplies. The operating cost of a control laboratory is less than 1 pct per ton of coal produced. THE system of laboratory control as practiced by the Ayrshire group of mines was begun with the construction and organization of the first laboratory in conjunction with the completion of its first wash-ery in 1941. The primary purpose of this laboratory was to maintain a check on the quality of the coal produced from the washing plant. The laboratory was equipped to determine proximate analyses, float-and-sink tests, and screen analyses, and was staffed by a chemist. an assistant. and a technician. Members AIME, are Assistant Preparation Manager and Chief Chemist, respectively, Ayrshire Collieries Corp. and Subsidiaries, Danville, Ill. Joint AIME-ASME Fuels Conference. French Lick. October 1949. TP 2855 F. Discussion (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before June 30, 1950. Manuscript received Aug. 22, 1949. Soon it became apparent (1) that product control could be accomplished, (2) that a substantial reduction in operating costs could be effected by close control of coal losses in the rejects, and (3) that information furnished by the laboratory was of continuous value to the operating and sales companies. Consequently the laboratory function was expanded to supply them with additional data as required. As the parent company expanded and new mines were added, control laboratories were established at each mine equipped with washeries, and a central laboratory was maintained at one of the mines that was located equally convenient to all of them. A well-planned control laboratory assures production of a uniform, high-quality product. Whenever coal of substandard grade is loaded inadvertently, the sales company can be informed and the proper channel of distribution made. Conversely only constant and strict laboratory supervision can insure proper production of the various grades. Knowing the product, the producer can keep out of many customers' arguments that may be both awkward and expensive. Double checking between customers and mine laboratories have solved many disputes' Some nager insist On buying coal On the analysis basis only, with penalties for substandard coal and premiums for coal above normal quality. A substantial percentage of the coal sold by the Ayrshire group is of this nature. The usual procedure is for the customer to sample and analyze the coal as it is unloaded at the plant, and the mine laboratory samples it as it is loaded at the mine for subsequent analysis by the central laboratory. Only the unloaded moisture is considered, rather than the average of mine and plant moisture, and the buyer sends duplicate samples to the central mine laboratory for this determination. The average of the two analyses determines the price of coal at the mine. In this particular case, the laboratory plays an important part in increasing realization for two reasons: (1) every attempt is made to maintain plant efficiency and product quality as high as possible, (2) check on analyses and sampling by the buyer or seller.

Jan 1, 1951

By P. E. McKinney

DEVELOPMENTS in engineering during the past decade, particularly as applied to marine construction, mining machinery and other purposes in which corrosion offers a serious problem, have created a large demand for a non-ferrous metal highly resistant to corrosion and at the same time useful in general construction work as a substitute for steel without materially decreasing the factor of safety or increasing the weight of the various parts over that ordinarily used in the case of mild steel. To obtain the combination of desired properties many compositions have been proposed and used with excellent success, but at the present time probably the most popular and most widely used combination is the non-ferrous alloy commonly called manganese bronze. This is nothing more than a high brass to which have been added, by the proper method of alloying, comparatively small percentages of aluminum, iron, or manganese with the definite purpose in view of strengthening the alloy and rendering it more dense and close-grained than the average yellow-brass casting. In the manufacture of manganese bronze a great deal has been said about the importance of using only the highest grades of raw material and the beneficial or detrimental effects, as the case may be, of various impurities, as well as the importance of adding the ingredients according to various formulas proposed; but in most of these cases the literature on the subject has dealt principally with the manufacture of this alloy from virgin metals And raw materials of the highest purity. It is the purpose of this paper to deal particularly with the possibilities that lie in the proper development of methods for manufacturing such an alloy by more economical methods than those which have usually been discussed in other literature on the subject. Shortages have recently existed in raw materials needed for many products entering into the various branches of engineering work, particularly the non-ferrous metals, and during the next few years of reconstruction the country will be flooded with many

Jan 2, 1919

By P. E. McKinney

Developments in engineering during the past decade, particularly as applied to marine construction, mining machinery and other purposes in which corrosion offers a serious problem, have created a large demand for a non-ferrous metal highly resistant to corrosion and at the same time useful in general construction work as a substitute for steel without materially decreasing the factor of safety or increasing the weight of the various parts over that ordinarily used in the case of mild steel. To obtain the combination of desired properties many compositions have been proposed and used with excellent success, but at the present time probably the most popular and most widely used combination is the non-ferrous alloy commonly called manganese bronze. This is nothing more than a high brass to which have been added, by the proper method of alloying, comparatively small percentages of aluminum, iron, or manganese with the definite purpose in view of strengthening the alloy and rendering it more dense and close-grained than the average yellow-brass casting. In the manufacture of manganese bronze a great deal has been said about the importance of using only the highest grades of raw material and the beneficial or detrimental effects, as the case may be, of various impurities, as well as the importance of adding the ingredients according to various formulas proposed; but in most of these cases the literature on the subject has dealt principally with the manufacture of this alloy from virgin metals and raw materials of the highest purity. It is the purpose of this paper to deal particularly with the possibilities that lie in the proper development of methods for manufacturing such an alloy by more economical methods than those which have usually been discussed in other literature on the subject. Shortages have recently existed in raw materials needed for many products entering into the various branches of engineering work, particularly the non-ferrous metals, and during the next few years of reconstruction the country will be flooded with many

Jan 1, 1919

By H. I. Smith

THE recently developed potash industry in southeastern New Mexico, though based on a relatively new discovery, marks the latest and perhaps culminating phase of the effort to obtain a domestic source of potash that began with the leaching of wood ashes more than 300 years ago. In the search for mineral potash in America, the Geological Survey has played a conspicuous part and has paved the way for much of the private activity that now bids fair to free the nation of foreign domina¬tion in supplying the nation's potash requirements. HISTORICAL REVIEW A pamphlet published by Thomas Stephen in 1758 pictures the industry in its early struggling condition.1 Just before the Civil War, a deposit of mineral potash had been found in Germany and its value as a fertilizer had been discovered. On this account and because the supply of wood ashes had decreased, the Ameri-can potash industry gradually lost its importance. During the next 50 years, with European potash available with little effort and with satisfactory substitutes on the market for the manufacture of soap, the interest of the American people in American potash declined. In 1910 this interest was suddenly revived by the abrogation of American potash contracts in Europe. Congress passed an act, approved by President Taft March 4, 1911, providing for "researches with a view to determining geological conditions favorable to the presence of deposits of potash salts." Appropriations were made to the Geological Survey and the Bureau of Soils to carry out the provisions of this act. The work of the Survey was directed toward the finding of commercial bodies of natural soluble potash salts; the Bureau of Soils was more concerned with the processes of extracting potash from industrial wastes and organic sources. Private agencies also became interested in the program. The Geological Survey has continued its search throughout the ensuing period of more than 20 years and has studied many types of deposits in many parts of the country.

Jan 1, 1933

By Thomas S. Bishop

From time to time the mining engineer will be faced with the necessity of having to make a haulage study to determine not only the most suitable method of hauling material but also the most effective and economical type of equipment to use for his particular operation. Specifically, this chapter outlines a general description of various types of haulage units and their components, guidelines on the selection of equipment, material both operational and cost wise to be accumulated, discussions on the various factors involved in the development of the estimated production and cost analysis, examples of the above, and the necessary reference material. This material and examples are given in such a form as to permit the engineer to proceed on almost a step-by-step basis in the determination of the applicable haul speeds and other related portions of the haul cycle and resulting number of trips per hour. In recent years, the analytical methods used for the application of the various haulage units have undergone a considerable change. Several vehicle manufacturers and a few of the mining companies employ electronic digital computers to speed up the calculations and improve the accuracy of production estimating. The haulage computer program simulates the travel of the vehicle over the described haul roads by calculating incremental velocities, travel times, and travel distances from the known torque vs. speed characteristics of the vehicle. This is, in a sense, a numerical integration of the vehicle's performance and, of course, varies for each and every application. These travel times are then combined with easily estimated fixed times such as loading, turning and dumping, spotting, and any indicated delay times, resulting in a total cycle time for the vehicle. Usually, the travel times comprise the major portion of the time cycle; therefore, the concise computerized calculations eliminate much of the guess work in estimating vehicle productivity. Field studies have correlated this analysis

Jan 1, 1968

PHILIP D. BLOCK, JR., vice president of Inland Steel Co., visualizes a fine future for the Menominee Range of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. He sees a future unclouded by threat from foreign ore imports or the development of low grade ore processing in Minnesota. The statement was made during the opening of Inland's new Cayia mine near Crystal Falls. Inland, according to the vice president, is planning to use an increased amount of the high phosphorous ores found on the Menominee Range. He said that other steel companies will probably do the same, because the steel industry has learned how to use ores of high phosphorous content. He said: "I do not mean to imply that we can use an unlimited amount of high phosphorous ores or that we can burden our blast, furnaces with 100 pct high phosphorous ores, but we have reached the point where we can absorb a much larger percentage of these ores without any detrimental effects. Foreign ores and lowgrade Minnesota ores cost too much to offer real competition, Block said. Transportation costs from the Menominee range to steel producing centers in Chicago and on Lake Erie are less than for any other range in this country. In the meantime, the American operators of the Bomi Hills iron ore mine in Liberia, have reportedly signed a new agreement with the Government. Several months ago, President Tubman of Liberia expressed a definite dissatisfaction with the original contract. Informants state that the agreement only needs the approval of the Export-Import Bank, which loaned Liberian Mining Co. $4 million to develop the iron ore properties. Majority stockholder of the Liberian Mining is Republic steel, with 61.57 pct of the stock. Under the new contract, the Liberian Government will start to share in the profits when the indebtedness is liquidated and the return of invested capital accomplished, or April 1, 1957, whichever is earlier. Under the old agreement the Liberian Government received a 5 cent per ton royalty and an additional sum based on the price of pig iron. The royalty rate reached more than 17 cents per ton this year. After debt liquidation the Liberian Government will receive 25 pct of net profits for the first five years; 35 pct for the next ten years; and 50 pct thereafter. Until the Government starts to share in profits it will receive a royalty of $1.50 per ton in U. S. currency, in addition to royalties provided for in the old agreement.

Jan 1, 1952

SEC. 1. This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Inc.; and its abbreviated title A. I. M. E. SEC. 2. The objects of this Institute, as set forth in its certificate of incorporation, are: "To promote the arts and sciences connected with the economic production of the useful minerals and metals, and the welfare of those employed in these industries by all lawful means; to hold meetings for social intercourse and the reading and discussion of professional papers, and to circulate by means of publications among its members the information thus obtained, and to establish and maintain a place for meeting of its members, and a hall for the reading of papers and delivery of addresses, and a library of books relating to subjects cognate to the sciences and arts of mining and metallurgy." ARTICLE II MEMBERSHIP SEC. 1. The membership of this Corporation shall include all those who on the third Monday in February, 1928, were members and all others subsequently elected and qualified in accord with the By-laws of the Institute at the time of such election. SEC. 2. The membership shall be divided into such classes as may be from time to time fixed by the By-laws. ARTICLE III DIRECTORS SEC. 1. The business, financial, professional, technical, scientific and social interests of the Institute shall be managed by a Board of Directors, elected annually by letter ballot in the manner specified in the By-laws, to serve for the terms as set forth in the Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE IV AMENDMENTS SEC. 1. Proposals to amend this Constitution may be made by resolution of the Directors or by written petition signed by at least ten members. Such proposals must reach the Secretary not later than October fifteenth. The Board of Directors shall consider them and, in case of petitions, the proposers shall be notified of the opinion of the Board in regard to them, when they may cither withdraw their proposals, or accept any changes suggested, or insist on the original form. All proposals when in final form shall be mailed to all members on or before January first, with the election ballots, and with a ballot in proper form for voting on the amendment in its original or amended form. Ballots shall be received by the Secretary until the second Tuesday in February. The Tellers of the election shall count these ballots,

Jan 1, 1929

By Pol Duwez, Paul Pietrokowsky

The crystal structure of the compound TisGeS has been determined from X-ray powder diffraction data. Related silicon and tin compounds have been found to be isomorphous. Unit cell dimensions, axial ratios, and parameters for equivalent atomic positions are given. THERE is, at present, only meager information pertaining to the solid state reactions of titanium with the elements in group 4B of the periodic table (silicon, germanium, tin, and lead). The only two compounds whose crystal structure has been established are TiSi² and TiGe² (references 1 and 2 respectively). These two compounds are isomor-phous and have an orthorhombic symmetry D242h— Fddd. The titanium-rich regions of the constitution diagrams of titanium-silicon, titanium-tin, and titanium-lead have been investigated by Craighead et al.³ While valuable information concerning the alpha solid solubility of these three elements in titanium was obtained, no light was shed on the existence or nature of the titanium-rich compound in these systems. The present study is concerned with the crystal structure of the intermediate phases Ti5Si ?, Ti³Ge³, and Ti5Sn³, which were found to be isostructural. The alloys were prepared by mixing the pure metal powders in the desired proportions, pressing the mixture into pellets, and melting them in an electric arc furnace in the presence of a helium atmosphere.& After melting, the specimens, weighing approximately 5 g, were sealed in evacuated quartz vials, homogenized at 1038°C for three days, and quenched from that temperature. Powder diffraction patterns were made with a 143.2 mm diam Debye-Scherrer X-ray camera in which the Ievins and Straumanis film arrangement was utilized. Filtered copper radiation was used throughout the entire investigation. A study of the powder patterns of a series of alloys of various compositions indicated the presence of a compound around a composition corresponding approximately to a ratio of 3 titanium to 2 silicon, germanium, or tin. From a visual examination of the diffraction patterns, it was evident that the silicon and germanium alloys were iso- morphous. For small angle reflections, the powder pattern of the tin compound was analogous to that of the silicon and germanium compounds, but after the first ten reflections, the similarity was no longer clear. The powder pattern of the germanium compound was selected for indexing, since it exhibited a weak small angle reflection and clearly resolved doublets in the back-reflection range. Good agreement between observed and calculated values of (1/d)² was found by indexing the pattern on the basis of hexagonal symmetry. For the hexagonal system:

Jan 1, 1952

By R. I. Jaff, H. R. Ogden, D. J. Maykuth

A phase diagram for alloys containing from 0 to 66.9 pct Mn was determined. Two compounds, tentatively labeled 6 and y, were found in this range. The 6 compound is located at about 66.9 pct Mn and melts congruently at 1330°C. The ? compound has a composition near 53 pct Mn and originates in a peritectic reaction at 1200°C between liquid and 6. ß and Y enter into a eutectic reaction at 1175°C. The ß phase field terminates in a very sluggish eutectoid reaction between a and ? at 550°C. MANGANESE is one of the important alloying addition elements to titanium. As a ß-stabiliz-ing addition for a-ß and ß alloys, it provides high strength with adequate ductility.' Two of the earliest commercial alloys contain manganese as a major alloying component.' The earliest published data on the constitution of Ti-Mn alloys was that of Wallbaum,~ who reported the existence of the compound TiMn2. The transformation range of commercial-purity Ti-Mn alloys was investigated by Craighead, Simmons, and Eastwood' who found limited a solubility and a lowering of the ß transus to about 790°C at 7 pct Mn. Preliminary work by the authors of this paper, using high-purity titanium, confirmed the ß-stabilizing action of manganese and showed the existence of several intermediate phases in the Ti-Mn system." More recently, McQuillan3 determined the ß transus temperatures for high-purity Ti-base alloys containing up through 4.4 pct Mn. These data are given in Fig. 1. The present investigation covered alloys made with a high-purity base. The constitution of titanium-rich alloys made with commercial titanium has been reported4," by Holladay, Kura, and Jackson. The alloy range covered in the present investigation was from 0 to 69.5 pct Mn. This alloy range extends slightly beyond the composition of the first congruent-melting compound encountered on proceeding from the titanium end of the system. A description of the materials and methods used in the determination of the diagram is given in the Appendix. The partial phase diagram determined for the Ti-Mn system is shown in Fig. 2. Details on equilibria in the titanium-rich alloys are given in Fig. 3. Liquid-Solid Relationships Observations on the cast structures of the arc-melted ingots showed that the terminal solid solution of manganese in ß titanium enters into a eutectic reaction with an intermetallic compound labeled ?. As will be shown later, this compound has a composition around 53 pct Mn. The eutectic reaction temperature was determined as 1175°C by thermal analysis which also showed that the ? phase originates in a peritectic reaction at 1200°C. Fig. 4 shows typical eutectic structures for alloy compositions on both sides of the eutectic composition which is located at 42.5 pct Mn. In alloys over the range of 45.4 through 69.5 pct Mn, a second intermetallic compound, labeled 6, was identifield as the primary phase. This phase consistently increased in amount as the manganese content approached 66.9 pct, and, as shown in Fig. 5, an alloy structure containing 66.9 pct Mn consisted essentially of the 6 compound. Thermal-analysis data indicate a melting point of about 1330°C for the 6 intermediate phase. At 67.0 pct Mn, small quantities of a new, higher manganese-content phase were observed in the form of Chinese-script eutectic particles. Comparison of Fig. 6a and b shows an increasing quantity of this phase as the composition was increased to 69.5 pct Mn. The formation of peritectic ? in arc-melted alloys containing 45.4 pct Mn and above appears to be almost entirely suppressed, as shown in Fig. 7a and b. This is because of the narrow freezing range available for its formation by peritectic reaction and because of the very high cooling rates obtained in

Jan 1, 1954

HONORARY Membership in the Institute is limited to twenty and the roster is now only fifteen, so Dr. Reynders becomes a member of a select circle. All of his life, following graduation from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1886 at the age of twenty, lie has been connected with the steel industry. For about thirty years he stayed with the same company, the Pennsylvania Steel Co., until it was acquired by the Bethlehem Steel Corp., in 1916. For many years he had been vice-president and general manager. Before he attained that position, Dr. Reynders organized and remained in charge of the bridge-building department of the company, and during his professional life he has directed the construction of many

Jan 1, 1938

THE Bergbüchlein and Probierbüchlein occupy a unique position in the literature of mining and metallurgy, for, they are the first printed books on any aspect of the two related professions. The first printed book on any subject has an allure that may not be entirely warranted by the strict historical significance of its contents. Among the books of the first century of printing there are very few that contain information that was new at the time of publication. Much' of what they recorded had been previously circulated in manuscript form. Printed books are nevertheless of great value because they mark the time when the author's words, free from errors-or at least with the same errors-became available to large numbers, of readers, who thus could easily and cheaply acquire a common background for their future work. Moreover, though there is occasionally some doubt as to the exact year of publication'(as in the case of the present works), it is generally easier to date a printed work than a manuscript, and thus to provide a fixed coördinate in history. The Bergbüchlein, "The Little Book on Ores," is the first printed work in the field of mining. It is an introduction to mining geology, which means that it was not addressed to the practicing expert but was intended to rouse the interest of beginners in the various aspects of a future vocation. It touches on the theories of the generation of ores, introduces and defines some of the most frequently encountered technical terms of the profession, and indicates what knowledge and tools are required for successful prospecting and mining. It also describes the ores of the seven most important metals. For those parts that deal with theory the author accepted uncritically the traditional teachings of the alchemists and the astrologers; his hints on where to find promising ores are based partly on superstition; but, there is enough factual,

Jan 1, 1949

By Warren B. Weeks

Continued development in the deeper fields discovered during 1937 and 1938 was largely responsible for the 16 per cent (2,913,400-bbl.) increase in production, bringing the 1939 output to 21,376,230 bbl., the largest for South Arkansas since 1929. The older settled fields continued to decline and Rodessa was added to this classification. Magnolia field accounted for much of the increase, with Schuler field showing only a slight increase. There were 248 wells drilled during 1939, five more than during the previous year. Of 198 wells drilled in proven fields, 21 were dry; 46 of the 50 wildcats drilled were dry. The old depth record of 8332 ft. was increased to the present record of 9028. Trend of Prospecting Production from the porous " Reynolds " oolite zone of the Smackover limestone continued to be the objective of prospecting. During the year 20 seismograph, 3 gravity meter, 1 magnetometer, 1 soil analysis and 1 electromagnetic crews were reported in the state. The geophysical work was largely concentrated in three southern counties: Columbia, Lafayette and Union. As indicated in Table 2, the same three counties received most of the important drilling tests. At the end of the year only three seismograph crews remained in the areas. The area for prospecting Smackover limestone was greatly narrowed during the year by the failure of two "fault zone" wells to find satisfactory permeability in the oolite zone, and by the relatively thin sections of porosity found in wells drilled in townships 18 and 19 South. Geology Most of the wells listed in Table 2 afforded additional control on structure of the lower beds, but gave little new information on stratigraphy. Of the 248 wells drilled, 3 ended in Tertiary, 34 in Gulf, 1 in Paluxy, 29 in Glen Rose, 15 in Travis Peak, 15 in Cotton Valley, 139 in Smackover, 2 in Eagle Mills and 10 in Carboniferous. The age of the beds between the Travis Peak formation and Carboniferous is still questionable. Most

Jan 1, 1940