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By Albert Sauveur

IT is not without some hesitation, and even misgiving, that I venture into a discussion of the now classical Roberts-Austen Roozeboom diagram, lest I too fail, like so many other writers, in giving a satisfactory and logical explanation of these interesting curves. Roozeboom's original diagram is reproduced in Fig. 1. The generally accepted meaning of the various curves has been so often described before this Institute that it will suffice to recall it briefly before passing to my own interpretation of the changes involved.

Nov 1, 1906

By Ronald F. Ayers

The basic research for this study was conducted by Battelle's Columbus Laboratories in 1974. The high-sulfur content of coal threatens to erode its competitive position in the future. The impact of sulfur removal on final costs of eastern interior coal lies at the very heart of this market analysis. An extensive market survey was conducted that considered both traditional coal markets as well as anticipated future markets. Competition for coal from this province considers low-sulfur Western coal, nu- clear power, international oil and coal trade, as well as Appalachian coal producers. Based on projections of future energy consumption under several scenarios, a comprehensive market forecast for eastern interior coal was made to 2040. The study upon which this paper is based was completed by Battelle's Columbus Laboratories for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1974. It is but part of an overall effort by the Corps to evaluate the costs and benefits to the nation of waterway improvements. This study is primarily concerned with future coal markets for production from those counties near the Wabash River in the heart of the Eastern Interior Province. An objective here is to consider a most pessimistic energy (and hence, coal) demand for planning purposes.

Jan 1, 1978

By L. L. McDaniel

ROLLER—As one who has been privileged to read Mr. Poland's paper before its publication, I wish to express high praise for it and the record which it gives of the work done by the Research and Development Department of Revere Copper and Brass Inc. in developing a satisfactory furnace for the recovery of metallic zinc from secondary metals by distillation. I have also had the opportunity of studying the operation of the furnace when running on scrap brass at the Detroit plant of Revere, and I can therefore say from knowledge gained first-hand that the unit is efficient and economical when used in conjunction with distillation. However, when I read what Mr. Poland has to say in reference to the possibility of using the furnace for melting copper cathodes for the production of oxygen-free and tough-pitch copper shapes, I am constrained to be somewhat skeptical. No doubt the furnace can readily be modified so as to make it possible to melt cathodes, but that is only a part of what is required to produce refinery shapes. Because of its construction the atmosphere in the furnace is highly reducing and even without protective gases such as nitrogen the copper cathodes which are

Jan 1, 1950

By F. F. Poland

S. ROLLE*—As one who has been privileged to read Mr. Poland's paper before its publication, I wish to express high praise for it and the record which it gives of the work done by the Research and Development Department of Revere Copper and Brass Inc. in developing a satisfactory furnace for the recovery of metallic zinc from secondary metals by distillation. I have also had the opportunity of studying the operation of the furnace when running on scrap brass at the Detroit plant of Revere, and I can therefore say from knowledge gained first-hand that the unit is efficient and economical when used in conjunction with distillation. However, when I read what Mr. Poland has to say in reference to the possibility of using the furnace for melting copper cathodes for the production of oxygen-free and tough-pitch copper shapes, I am constrained to be somewhat skeptical. No doubt the furnace can readily be modified so as to make it possible to melt cathodes, but that is only a part of what is required to produce refinery shapes. Because of its construction the atmosphere in the furnace is highly reducing and even without protective gases such as nitrogen the copper cathodes which are

Jan 1, 1950

By Irwin Remson

Some unique hydrogeologic issues are inherent in the problems of siting, designing and licensing a mined geologic high-level nuclear waste repository. The problems involve hydrogeologically unfamiliar rocks for which little proven technology has been developed, long containment periods, elevated temperatures, and externally-imposed management constraints. In evaluating the existing national program, it should be recognized that hydrogeology is only one aspect of the total nuclear waste disposal problem, that the use of multiple barriers requires that the hydrogeologic system be considered in its entirety as a total system, and that engineering modifications can improve the isolation capabilities of certain barriers. Important research questions involve the mechanics of transport through dense fractured and unfractured rocks, methods for measuring vertical hydraulic conductivity, and a variety of geochemical questions. Current expectations for "high quality data" from either in situ or laboratory testing are unrealistic, and a modified approach to repository hydrogeology is needed. The dilemma is that the hydrogeological characteristics that make a potential host rock more satisfactory for respository siting are the same characteristics that are difficult to characterize and make the particular site more difficult to license. Finally, evaluation of the containment potential of any candidate site will become meaningful only with detailed underground exploration, mapping and testing in the host rock formations at the repository levels.

Jan 1, 1984

By R. C. Himes, K. Zanio, J. B. Wagner, J. W. Moody, J. F. Miller, W. Johnson

The recent research with which this paper deals has been concerned with the preparation of pure PbTe crystals suitable for control of radiative processes and othe.v electronic applications. The research has been directed toward the developrnent of methods for the preparation of puve, homogeneous, loul-ca,wier-density PbTe crystals suitable for use in the fabrication of optically pumped and electrically pumped diode lasers. Steps in the preparation of the crystals include 1) purification of the starting materials, 2) synthesis and purification of the PbTe, 3) growoth of PbTe crystals, and 4) adjustt~zertt of composition of the crystals This Paper describes the general preparation procedure employed and discusses some investigntiotzs of purification processes. THE as-received lead and tellurium are nominally 99.999 to 99.9999 pct pure. Assays furnished by the suppliers, obtained by emission spectrographic analysis, show only the presence of about 2 ppm Mg in the tellurium. Such analyses are not very informative, however, since they give no information on the concentrations of normally gaseous impurity elements such as oxygen. Both the lead and the tellurium in the as-received state usually contain appreciable concentrations of oxygen—primarily in the form of oxides on the surfaces of the material. To reduce the oxygen content, the lead is held in the molten state in hydrogen at -700°C for several hours. For this treatment, the lead is contained in a graphite boat which is rf-heated, and the hydrogen is passed through a liquid-nitrogen trap prior to use. Tellurium is subjected to multiple distillation in hydrogen to remove oxygen and other foreign impurities. If, in conducting the distillation, approximately the last 10 pct of the charge at each "stage" is left as the discard cut, purification of the tellurium proceeds as indicated in Fig. 1.l Tellurium used in this work has been distilled two or three times to reduce carrier concentration to about 10" per cu cm. The PbTe is prepared from the purified elements by reacting them in the molten state in sealed, evacuated, or hydrogen-filled silica ampoules. The charge is usually held above the melting point of PbTe (923°C) at 1000 C for 24 hr to ensure that it has been homogenized. Two methods have been employed for the growth of the required single crystals of PbTe: growth from the melt, which will be discussed first, and growth from the vapor phase. Large single crystals of p-type PbTe can be grown readily from the melt by the Bridgman method. For this method of crystal growth, the PbTe is synthesized in situ from proper proportions of the purified elements. Growth (dropping) rates in the range 1.3 to 6.5 mm per hr are employed. Material near the maximum melting composition (about 50.012 at. pct Te) is utilized to avoid composition change on freezing, and thus to obtain crystals of nearly uniform composition. Crystals prepared by use of procedures described up to this point were sufficiently pure and perfect that they could be used for the preparation of laser crystals in studies at Lincoln Laboratory.2-5 ADJUSTMENT OF COMPOSITION Good n-type crystals of PbTe cannot readily be grown from the melt. Further, growth from the melt of crystals of any compositions (n or p type) other than those near the maximum melting composition is difficult because of the large composition changes that must occur on freezing.'" However, melt-grown crystals can rapidly be brought to other desired compositions by isothermal equilibration through the vapor phase with a two-phase Pb-Te stock material, essentially as described by Brebrick and Allgaier.1 The work to be discussed has been concerned with the preparation of n-type crystals; thus, the two-phase stock which was employed contained excess lead, and all ensuing discussion is of the preparation and properties of n-type crystals. The equilibration was designed to the shift composition to the lead-rich limit of stability at the selected temperature. Initial treatment of the crystals at high temperature was employed to minimize the total time required for the equilibration. Final adjustments of the composition and state of the crystals were made by use of low-temperature heat treatment at temperatures in the range 200" to

Jan 1, 1968

Occasionally it is interesting, and sometimes useful, to review the past for early references to our industry, and to learn of the trials and travail passed through before it arrived where it now is - and the results of such a review follow. Some time ago one of our modern playwrights and poets, Arthur Guiterman, turned to coal, with the following result : Afar in the Carboniferous time I grew in Paleozoical slime, A lepidodendron with boughs on my stem And lepidostrobusea grew out of them. My roots in the mud of the ages I spread And up to the heavens I vaunted my head, I throve in the heat of tropical sun, And now I am coal at two dollars a ton.

Jan 1, 1935

Occasionally it is interesting, and sometimes useful, to review the past for early references to our industry, and to learn of the trials and travail passed through before it arrived where it now is- and the results of such a review follow. Some time ago one of our modern playwrights and poets, Arthur Guiterman, turned to coal, with the following result: Afar in the Carboniferous time I grew in Paleozoical slime, A lepidodendron with boughs on my stem And lepidostrobuses grew out of them. My roots in the mud of the ages I spread And up to the heavens I vaunted my head, I throve in the heat of tropical sun, And now I am coal at two dollars a ton

Jan 1, 1939

By Otto W. Nuttli

The magnetic method of prospecting is well suited to determination of faulting in the basement rock. In addition to establishing the horizontal position of the fault, it often furnishes valuable information concerning the depth and amount of faulting. Consider a simple case of a vertical fault, represented in cross-section in Fig. 1. Let AA' represent the plane of observation (ordinarily the surface of the earth), and BB'B"B"' the upper surface of the basement. Assume that the sedimentary rocks are nonmagnetic, so that the magnetic susceptibility of the material above the basement is zero. Let k indicate the susceptibility of the basement rock, a- the density contrast between it and the neighboring sedimentary rocks, and t the amount of vertical displacement.

Jun 1, 1955

By J. S. Ross

Few Canadians realize the role of their domestic industrial minerals industry because it is over-shadowed in production value by a large metallic minerals industry. But since 1960, Canada has had a reasonably well balanced, mature industrial minerals industry; and although the nation's sparsely scattered population has not been able to support an industrial minerals industry in a manner comparable to the domestic and foreign support given the metal mining sector, Canada is, nevertheless, exporting large quantities of higher priced nonmetallic minerals. Production of many of the basic minerals had been firmly established long before 1960, but it was not until the late 1950's that the output of cement, salt, titanium dioxide pigment and slag, sulfur, gypsum and sodium sulfate reached relatively high levels. Shortly after 1960, the significant potash and lithium chemicals industries were established and their effect is just now being realized.

Jan 11, 1964

By James Gayley

The lining of the hearth and bosh of a blast-furnace has naturally come to be considered its weakest part, being subject not only to abrasion, but also to intense chemical action. In order to provide against rapidity of wear, it was formerly customary to build the lining from the mantle to the top first, and to put in afterwards the hearth and bosh, drawing the latter into a recess that had been reserved for it in the upper lining. At some works this practice still prevails ; but through the progressive development of cooling-devices, it has become possible to protect the bosh so well as to make it the most durable part of the furnace. The main question now is, by which one out of several methods the best economy results can be obtained. The plain bosh-jacket, made of wrought-iron or steel, and frequently called the air-cooled jacket, was a great improvement over the crinoline-construction formerly in vogue; but it was difficult in many cases to persuade furnace-managers, that in order to secure its best effects, they must discard the thick bosh-walls and put in comparatively thin ones. Mr John M. Hartman, who did more perhaps than any one to extend the use of these jackets, invariably contended for a 13-inch wall, the thin wall being an essential part of this construction. Later, a coil of pipe was placed just inside the jacket, through which water, circulating freely, contributed further to the proper maintenance of the walls. Undoubtedly much better results have been obtained in practice where the iron jacket has been supplemented by a coil in this way. It is safe to say that this combination of water-coil and jacket is much better than external sprays on the jacket; but it does not prevent the brick-work from cutting entirely away, which enlarges the bosh to that extent and interferes with the economy and output of the furnace. In case of leakage or stopping-up of the pipes, they cannot be replaced. A leading blast-furnace manager who is now using this construction

Jan 1, 1893

By Ralph Arnold

The lure of possible new oil fields shut off development of the older Montana fields during the year 1928, cutting down the total production to less than the 1927 mark. However, with the production of oil worth approximately $7,000,000 during the past 12 months, Montana oil producers pushed their total up to $44,000,000 taken from two principal fields during the past 8 years. The highest prices in the United States for oil of similar gravity gave northern Montana producers a decided advantage and brought up the value of the oil to about the same value as the 1927 production, although the oil runs were 1,000,000 bbl. less. Production by Fields The discovery of two new oil fields in the Sweetgrass Arch, in north central Montana, in 1927, diverted attention from the Kevin-Sunburst field. Many operators turned their attention to wildcats and practically all of the drilling contractors were called into the new Pondera and Bannatyne fields. Although discovered in 1927, the Pondera field developed its first commercial production in March of 1928. Mild interest was followed four months later by a rush of operators, and by August practically every string of tools had been moved from the Kevin-Sunburst field to Pondera. The fall months found 40 wells drilling in this field and as the year closed there were 100 producers. Pondera field is remarkable in that every well thus far drilled within the structure proper has been a producer. Dry holes have been drilled around the field, but none within an area of four sections. Experts estimate that Pondera will produce 5000 bbl, of oil to the acre. The producing area now outlined by wells drilled is expected to produce around 15,000,000 bbl. of oil. Pondera crude brings $1.75. This field has one pipe line and a second line is being laid. Lack of a pipe line delayed development of the new Bannatyne field, south of Pondera, and also in the Sweetgrass Arch. Bannatyne has 11 producing wells scattered over an area of approximately three sections. Bannatyne is a sand field with a 70-ft. sand in the lower Jurassic, which core-drill tests show to be 60 per cent. saturated. With the completion

Jan 1, 1929

By L. L. Davis

Current research by the US Bureau of Mines to develop technology for improving efficiency and productivity in metal/nonmetal mines is described. The research program addresses a wide variety of problems associated with each of the major categories of mining: underground mining, surface mining, m situ mining, and premining investigations. An overview of the Bureau's research activities is given with emphasis on underground mining. In particular, two innovative and promising concepts currently under development are described: a unique shaft sinking system that uses an impact hammer for rock fragmentation, and a low-profile portable crusher for underground hard-rock applications.

Jan 1, 1982

By Wayne L. Dowdey

With proud humility and keen anticipation, I accepted the office of President of the Institute one year ago, and it is with a great deal of pride in you-our membership that I make this report. You are the reason for a productive and prosperous year for AIME. Superior, good or satisfactory results were experienced in 1978 from almost everything we did as a leading engineering technical society. I recognize and pay tribute to the WAAIME organization. Their work is vital to our efforts, and their programs have proven effective. WAAIME can depend upon our continuing support.

Jan 6, 1979

By G. Sachs, E. P. Klier, W. Beck

HYDROGEN embrittlement of steels has recently attracted much attention because it is asso- ciated with a variety of failures, especially those of aircraft structural components.' For instance, one of the undesirable properties of the ultra-high strength steels used for landing gears is their pronounced susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement during plating. The presence of hydrogen in these steels becomes particularly apparent through delayed or sustained load failures of parts which have been subjected to low loads for an extended time. A number of variables are involved in causing a reduction of strength and ductility through hydrogen

Jan 1, 1957

Direct Versus Indirect Control of the Economy FACED with placing the nation in a state of partial mobilization, it is expedient that it be done in such a way that the national economy and productive capacity are strengthened. The immediate adoption of direct controls such as Axed prices and wages, rationing, manpower controls, and allocations conceivably could destroy the basis of our free economy. Controls breed more of the same and since the present program is a long term project, it should be undertaken within our present business framework so far as possible or until total war makes it impossible.

Jan 11, 1950

By John Wellington Finch

In August, 1927, the writer examined certain copper deposits in New Mexico1 which occur in beds of sandstones and shale, and in connection therewith reviewed the literature upon deposits of this type. Such deposits are known and have been reported upon at various points in Texas, Oklahoma, Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, but in New Mexico they have been given more development than elsewhere and apparently occur there more conspicuously than in the other states. Some 25 years ago the writer examined deposits of similar origin in northern Arizona and more recently other deposits in western and southwestern Colorado, and these examinations have led him to realize how widely scattered are the deposits and how generally noncommercial they are. On superficial development, to one without a comprehension of their geologic nature, they are alluring on account of occasional small amounts of high-grade ore and much misplaced capital has been expended upon them. This paper, therefore, aims to present briefly certain theories of genesis, some details of which may possibly be new, and to lead up to practical conclusions which may be useful to other geologists and engineers. A bibliography of the more important literature upon such deposits is given below.2 Coffin's Bulletin upon the Radium, Uranium and Vanadium Deposits of Colorado, published in 1921, is a particularly clear discussion. The most comprehensive recent statement is Butler's.

Jan 1, 1928

By H. Foster Bain

This is the third volume of the collective index of the Transactions Each volume is indexed and the indices of Volumes I to XXXV have been collected into a single index volume, similarly the indices of Volumes XXXVI to LV are collected in a single volume This index covers Vol¬umes LVI to LXXII, and the three index volumes together cover all the volumes of Transactions published from the organization of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers in 1871 until the end of 1925.

Jan 1, 1926

By Edgar Bain

OF THE important phenomenon of the hardening of steel, Professor Sauveur1 says: "It would seem as if the methods used to date for the elucidation of this complex problem have yielded all they are capable of yielding and that further straining of these methods will only serve to confuse the issue, the point having been reached when this juggling, no matter how skilfully done, with allotropy, solid solutions, and strains is causing weariness without advancing the solution of the problem.. The tendency of late has been to abandon the safer road of experimental facts and to enter the maze of excessive speculations, in which there is great danger of some becoming hopelessly lost. The conclusion seems warranted that new avenues of approach must be found if we are to obtain a correct answer to this apparent enigma. With some degree of fitness we may say, this of other problems. It seems likely that one of the new avenues of approach to many metallographic problems is the study-of crystal structure, or more accurately, the atomic arrangement by means of the X-ray spectrometer. The crystal structure of some materials has been carefully worked out by the mineralogist, but his methods are, in general, unsuited to commercial metals and a method that yields even better information is at hand as the result of work on the diffraction of X-rays by Laue and the Braggs2 and later by Hull,3 St. John, and others. It should be understood that the contour of free crystals, which is the subject of measurements by the crystallographer, is the result of the atomic structure and, in general, bears a simple and obvious relation to it. The use of the X-ray spectrometer4 has been described frequently, so the procedure will not be given here.

Jan 2, 1922

By Edgar C. Bain

Of the important phenomenon of the hardening of steel, Professor Sauveurl says: It would seem as if the methods used to date for the elucidation of this complex problem have yielded all they are capable of yielding and that further straining of these methods will only serve to confuse the issue, the point having been reached when this juggling, no matter how skilfully done, with allotropy, solid solutions, and strains is causing weariness without advancing the solution of the problem. The tendency of late has been to abandon the safer road of experimental facts and to enter the maze of excessive speculations, in which there is great danger of some becoming hopelessly lost. The conclusion seems warranted that new avenues of approach must be found if we are to obtain a correct answer to this apparent enigma. With some degree of fitness we may say this of other problems. It seems likely that one of the new avenues of approach to many metallo-graphic problems is the study of crystal structure, or more accurately, the atomic arrangement, by means of the x-ray spectrometer. The crystal structure of some materials has been carefully worked out by the mineralogist, but his methods are, in general, unsuited to commercial metals and a method that yields even better information is at hand as the result of work on the diffraction of x-rays by Laue and the Braggs2 and later by HullI3 St. John, and others. It should be understood that the contour of free crystals, which is the subject of measurements by the crystallographer, is the result of the atomic structure and, in general, bears a simple and obvious relation to it. The use of the x-ray spectrometer4 has been described frequently, so the procedure will not be given here.

Jan 1, 1923