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By C. D. Woodward

The Anaconda Copper Mining Co. purchases 25,000 kw. of electric power for its mining operations at Butte, Mont. This power is delivered, over duplicate feeders, in the form of 60-cycle, 2400-volt, three-phase current, to five compressor plants, where most of the energy is used for driving air compressors. At the compressor plants are located the switching apparatus for controlling the 2400-volt power and distributing it to the various mines. At these points, also, there are a number of motor-generator sets for converting the alternating current to 275-volt direct current for the haulage systems. Pole lines convey the powcr from the compressor plants to outdoor transformer substations at most of the mines. When it is not economical to distribute the power at the lower voltages in the mines, transformers and motor-generator sets are placed at strategic points underground. All power is purchased on a maximum-demand basis; therefore there is installed at one of the compressor plants an eight-element totalizing graphic wattmeter. This instrument records simultaneously the value of all power taken at the numerous points of delivery, which not only climinates the diversity factor but permits load dispatching between compressor and pumping plants, and thus materially reduces the maximum demand from the power system. As most of the mine hoisting is done by 90-lb. compressed-air winding engines, the air-compressor equipment for the winding engines and mining operations is quite extensive. The standard air compressor has a rating of 7500 cu. ft. per min. of free air, and most of the compressors are directly connected to synchronous motors. The synchronous motors are designed for 80 per cent. loading power factor, thus facilitating power-factor correction of total mine load. Consequently by cooperation with the power company, the voltage of the power received at the compressor plants is constant. In the mines there are installed an induction motor load of approxi-mately 10,000 hp., and 4500 kv.-a,, in transformer capacity. It is the practice to install 2200-volt motors in the mincs, except those rated below 50 hp, hence there are in operation underground about 5000 hp., in the

Jan 1, 1923

By AIME AIME

THE career of Erie V. Daveler, reelected director of the Institute last February, illustrates, among other things, the value of technical schooling and experience as a mining engineer as preparation for executive and administrative work. For twenty years after graduating in the mining course at the University of California, in 1907, he was actively engaged in operating mines and mills in the West. After two years cyaniding silver ores at Tonopah, Nev., he joined the staff of the Utah Copper Co. at Bingham, his first assignment being research in ore dressing. Since that time he has been associated continuously with companies allied with Utah Copper, through D. C. tackling who dominated the affairs of the

Jan 1, 1937

By Paul M. Tyler

FOR the same reason that water is not missed until the well runs dry, the roles of many industrial minerals in wartime are often overlooked. In contrast to the growing shortages of many metals, our supplies of most nonmetallic minerals are limited only by our machinery for taking them from the ground and by our processing facilities. With few exceptions, the demand for increased supplies has been met without fanfare or delay. Only Brazilian quartz crystals, certain kinds of mica, and, latterly, industrial diamonds are on the so-called strategic list, although asbestos, beryl, corundum, cryolite, fluorspar, crucible-grade graphite, ilmenite, iodine, kyanite, monazite, nitrates, rutile, and zircon have caused more concern among those responsible for procurement and are included in our preclusive buying programs. Such specialties are needed urgently, but they are far less important in the over-all picture than the more abundant minerals.

Jan 1, 1942

Edward A. UehlinG, New York City (communication to the Secretary*):—Mr. Baker's paper is one that brings up a subject of great importance, and if full statistics could be collectecl of the number of furnace-linings ruined by reason of bad distribution by skip-hoists, it would be found an astonishing array. Unfortunately a universal remedy has not yet been found. The fact that Mr. Baker has apparently succeeded in overcoming the trouble at Sydney, is no guarantee that the same remedy applied at another plant, where very different or even slightly different conditions prevail, mould cure the trouble. That it requires but a slight continuous difference of penetrability in the column of the descending stock of one section, over another, to produce channeling, is clearly demonstrated by Mr. Baker's experiments, by which he reversed the channeling from front to rear instead of remedying the trouble. Every change in the physical make-up of the charge necessarily requires a specific adjustment; even supposing this feasible, the regular working of the furnace is by no means assured, because with the high pressures now customary, the tendency of the ascending gases to plow their way through in a direct course, prevails, and having once opened up a passage, they will persist and cause trouble. Homogeneous filling-, hard driving and regularity of working are incompatible. The higher the furnace, the greater the

Jan 1, 1905

By Charles C. Russell

Pressures developed by the coal during the coking process have been responsible for serious trouble to many companies that operate or build by-product coke ovens. The insidious nature of this trouble is indicated by the fact that oven operators, unless they have ascertained the characteristics of the coals they use, cannot determine the existence of dangerous pressures until after the damage has been done. A rather popular misconception is that ease of pushing of the charge at the completion of the coking period indicates that no dangerous pressure has been developed, but this is far from the truth; pressures developed during the coking period are often completely dissipated by the shrinkage of the charge in the completion of coking, and so any criterion based on the ease of pushing is futile. However, methods of testing coals are available that will definitely distinguish the dangerous coals from those that are safe, and such methods have been brought to a high degree of certainty. The operator should take no risk that involves either a lack of knowledge of the behavior of coals during coking or the failure to believe that certain of the coals or coal mixtures can cause damage to the oven structure. This merely tends to minimize the problem and leads to claims that coking coals of all kinds may be carbonized with no danger of damage to the oven structure provided some particular kind of byproduct oven is used. This lack of appreciation of the true situation is in itself one of the main factors leading to damage of coke-oven structures. Coals that develop more than a certain safe pressure cannot be used in by-product coke ovens without causing damage to the side flue walls. The following paper presents a highly certain method for the measurement of the pressures developed during the carbonization of coal—a method that is the culmination of many years of work on the problem in which a number of methods for the purpose were investigated and used. While actual pressures found may appear to be small when expressed in pounds per square inch, the number of square inches in each oven wall is so large that the total pressure on the oven wall becomes an enormous load.

Jan 1, 1940

By Charles C. Russell

Pressures developed by the coal during the coking process have been responsible for serious trouble to many companies that operate or build by-product coke ovens. The insidious nature of this trouble is indicated by the fact that oven operators, unless they have ascertained the characteristics of the coals they use, cannot determine the existence of dangerous pressures until after the damage has been done. A rather popular misconception is that ease of pushing of the charge at the completion of the coking period indicates that no dangerous pressure has been developed, but this is far from the truth; pressures developed during the coking period are often completely dissipated by the shrinkage of the charge in the completion of coking, and so any criterion based on the ease of pushing is futile. However, methods of testing coals are available that will definitely distinguish the dangerous coals from those that are safe, and such methods have been brought to a high degree of certainty. The operator should take no risk that involves either a lack of knowledge of the behavior of coals during coking or the failure to believe that certain of the coals or coal mixtures can cause damage to the oven structure. This merely tends to minimize the problem and leads to claims that coking coals of all kinds may be carbonized with no danger of damage to the oven structure provided some particular kind of byproduct oven is used. This lack of appreciation of the true situation is in itself one of the main factors leading to damage of coke-oven structures. Coals that develop more than a certain safe pressure cannot be used in by-product coke ovens without causing damage to the side flue walls. The following paper presents a highly certain method for the measurement of the pressures developed during the carbonization of coal—a method that is the culmination of many years of work on the problem in which a number of methods for the purpose were investigated and used. While actual pressures found may appear to be small when expressed in pounds per square inch, the number of square inches in each oven wall is so large that the total pressure on the oven wall becomes an enormous load.

Jan 1, 1940

By W. S. Ayres

I. INTRODUCTION. THIS cavern was discovered Oct. 22, 1904, by Mr. Charles H. Deutschman, in company with whom I made, May 29 to June 3, 1905, at the request of Mr. Howard Douglas, Superintendent of the Canadian National Parks, the first exploration of it for the Canadian government. The results were stated in a paper, orally presented, with lantern-views from my photographs, at the British Columbia Meeting of the Institute, Victoria,, B. C., July 5, 1905.* The present paper embodies also the results of a second examination, made Oct. 25 to 29, 1905. The accompanying map, Fig. 1, will serve as a guide to the following description. II. LOCATION. The cavern is situated at snow-line, at the head-waters of Cougar creek, on the west slopes of the Selkirks, about 2 miles north from Ross Peak water-tank, and 5.5 miles west from Glacier House, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It was then reached by an arduous climb from the water-tank, up the ravine of Cougar creek, for 8,000 ft. (2,000 ft. of altitude) over rock- and snow-slides, and through a thick tangle of alders. But an easy and very picturesque trail has, during the past summer, been opened by the government from Glacier House. Figs. 2, 3 and 4 represent views, not heretofore published, of the grand scenery of this region, so rapidly becoming the-object of attraction to thousands of tourists from all parts of the world. These views, as well as those shown in. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8

Jan 1, 1907

Carlisle: This is August 1960 and I am sitting across the table from Henry DeWitt Smith. We both took the mining course at Yale the same year; and here we are, over fifty years later, at Nantucket Island where we have spent quite a number of summers together. Now, let's start the questions with something about the center of your career. Let's say Tsumeb; not about the mine itself which people know, but some of the details on how you happened to take it over for Newmont. Mr. Smith: I first heard of Tsumeb, a famous German mine, through our own associates O'okiep Copper Co. From 1935 on, the local management at O'okiep, being reasonably close, kept the New York office informed. It served as a listening post for new mine development, as well as being a highly profitable copper mine in the northwest Cape Colony. We had all known of a famous German mine in South West Africa called Tsumeb. But it had a reputation for not welcoming visiting engineers. One engineer who went to this property for the Ministry of Supply in 1943, '44 and '45 was Arthur Storke. He was much impressed with possibilities of profitable operation. This mine had been operated by a German company since 1910. It was finally taken over by the Custodian of Enemy Property for the Union of South Africa.

Jan 11, 1963

By HENRY M. HOWEL

1. Introduction.-The first part of this papers treats of the causes and the restraining of piping in steel ingots; the second& considers the causes and the restraining of -segregation; and the third proposes certain precautions in engineering specifications concerning these two defects. Into their causes I have looked carefully, with the purpose of arriving at rational methods of restraining them, and at efficient ways of detecting. and measuring the harm which they cause, so as to benefit the public by reducing this harm at once effectively and with the least expense to the manufacturer, and therefore in the end with the least expense to the consumer. In Part I., I infer that the pipe is chiefly due to what I, call the virtual expansion of the outer walls of the ingot in the early part of the freezing. I find that the upper and smooth-faced part of the pipe probably forms while the interior is still molten, but that the lower, steep, and crystal-faced part probably forms in metal which is already firm. Of the five causes which may co-operate to limit the depth of the pipe, I find that three-blow-holes, sagging, and the progress of freezing from below upwards-are usually effective. I find that the pipe may be lessened by casting (1) in wide ingots,; (2) in sand molds, especially if these are pre-heated (this is rarely expedient); (3) at the tops instead of at the bottom; (4) slowly; (5) and with the large end up; (6) by the use of a sinking-head or other means of retarding the cooling of the top; (7) by permitting blow-holes to form; and (8) by liquid compression.) Most of these I consider in some detail, and in particular I dwell on the advantages of casting with the large end up, and I propose certain administrative arrangements to permit this.

Mar 1, 1907

By W. H. Bassett

THE ease and value of the application of spectrum analysis to industrial chemistry appears to be appreciated in few of the large works laboratories of this country. For 8 years, this analysis has been of great value to the authors in both analytical and metallurgical work. To the analyst the complete qualitative analysis of an unknown alloy, revealed by a spectrogram, is a sure basis for the planning of the most direct and rapid method of attack. As the determination of each element proceeds, the purity of precipitates may be checked as often as desired. The spectrograph proves invaluable in the recognition of impurities, the separation of which would entail a lengthy and difficult procedure, or when the weight of an unknown is less than is necessary to complete the desired determinations. A few hundredths of a gram will usually suffice for spectrographic analysis. In the separation of the rarer elements, the spectrograph will show, with precision, the point where each step has been successful. In zinc of certain classes, indium, gallium, and germanium have been isolated in this way; the presence of antimony in lake coppers has been proved; and bismuth has been detected in zinc and in alloys where the presence of a few thousandths of a per cent. would be harmful. An antimony precipitate in a delicate determination may contain a considerable proportion of tin or arsenic, both of which will be revealed. The spectrograph is consequently important to the metallurgist as well as to the analyst.

Jan 2, 1922

By F. C. Clapp

Although many oil fields have been, and still are being, discovered in Oklahoma, the geology and structure of most of them have not become familiar to the general public because of the delay in securing government geological surveys and the reluctance of oil companies and other intercsted parties to give out their "inside information " Therefore, until official surveys are available, it behooves us to publish geological results as soon as possible. Fortunately the writer has been authorized by the Cement Field Oil Co. to publish his data on the Cement field, Caddo County, at this time. Locality and Description The Cement field is situated in the part of Oklahoma known generally until recently, as "Healdton fields," and lies 60 mi. (96 km.) northwest of the Healdton field proper. Like the Healdton field, it forms an approximate ellipse, trending northwest and southeast through the village of Cement on the St. LouisSan Francisco Railroad, on which it is reached in 21/2 hours from Oklahoma City. In its geological structure, the field constitutes an anticline over 13 mi. (21 km.) long and from 1 to 3 mi. wide; the point of greatest width being not far from its intersection by the above-named railroad. The major axis trends north 75' west from the village of Cement; but eastward appears deflected (if field interpretations are correct) to about south 45" east. About 5 mi. south lies an approximately parall el syncline, which may be conveniently called the Cyril syncline, the south and west boundaries of which may be distant many miles, but forming a closed basin south of the Cement anticfine. The positjon of the offsetting synclinal axis, which is believed to lie north and east of-Cement, has not been discovered. TOPOGKAFHY In the southwest part of the state, nearly all maps of Oklahoma show two mountain areas—Arbuckle and Wichita—which are conspicuous geological and topographic landmarks. In addition, some maps show a third, and smaller, range, named the Keechi Hills, in the vicinity of Cement. These hills also form a conspicuous feature in the landscape; but for some reason they have been neglected by geologists, and the

Jan 1, 1921

By Eckley B. Coxe

I wish to call the attention of the Institute to a peculiar variety of anthracite which occurs in the Buck Mountain vein at our collieries at Drifton, and in the same and other veins in different localities in the anthracite coal-fields. It is known among the workmen as iron-gray or cast-iron. It has a dull, greasy appearance, as if a piece of ordinary anthracite had been rubbed with a dirty and greasy rag and allowed to dry. It was formerly considered a very impure coal containing a high percentage of ash, and was picked out of the coal and thrown away. But the following analysis of it and of its ash, made by Mr. J. Blodget Britton, of Philadelphia, shows that such is not the case, the percentage of ash not being much higher than that of the ordinary anthracites as they are prepared for market. ANALYSIS OF COAL. Water,.........4.36 Fixed carbon, by difference,.. 84.90 Volatile combustible matter,. . 3 48 Ash,..........7.26 100.00 The carbon proved to some extent to be of the nature of graphite, and slowly combustible. ANALYSIS OF ASH. Silica,.........25.66 Sulphur,........ .17 Alumina,........27.03 Phosphoric acid,.......21 Ferric oxide,.......42.83 Alkali, undetermined matter and Lime,.........1.56 loss,.........60 Magnesia,........1.83 Manganous oxide,......11 100.00 We recently collected a quantity of the substance and made a fire with it, in an ordinary stove, which was kept up several days. We found that it burned with intense heat, and apparently as freely as our other coal does. Mr. Britton is probably right in his view, that the difference in appearance is not due to impurities in the coal, but to the fact that the carbon is in a more or less graphitic form, as many of the standard coals are no purer. I bring this before the Institute as I know that a large quantity of this valuable fuel is thrown away every year, on account of its supposed impurities.

Jan 1, 1879

By Herty, C. H.

One of the numerous requirements of many grades of present- day steel is that the steel shall be free from non-metallic inclusions. These inclusions may be composed of oxides, sulphides, complex oxy- sulphides, and nitrides, which enter the steel with the furnace charge, result from sulphur absorption from the furnace gases, or are formed in the steel during the deoxidation process. Although few' data are available which indicate in any quantitative manner the specific effects of inclusions in steel, there is a large mass of circumstantial evidence which points to the advisability of producing steel free from these impurities for many purposes. At the present time there is a growing feeling among metallurgists that non-metallic inclusions should be divided into two distinct types: (I) those readily visible under the microscope at ordinary magnifications; and (2) those in colloidal suspension or in solid solution. Both types are profoundly influenced by the character of the charge, the manipulation of the furnace slag, and the method of deoxidation. The work described in this bulletin deals primarily with inclusions visible under the microscope at ordinary magnifications, but the steels made by the various methods of deoxidation are being used LO study certain effects which may be ascribed to the second classification, named above. This latter work will be the subject of further bulletins on the effect of deoxidation practice on the physical properties of the steels involved.

Jan 1, 1957

By P. G. Hallof

Only recently has the term Induced Polarization found its way into geophysical literature. Schlumberger first mentioned the possible use of the induced polarization effect in one of his early papers. Later, induced polarization was the subject of several university theses, such as Seigel's at the University of Toronto and Bliel's at the Michigan School of Technology. In addition, a group at the New Mexico School of Mining and Technobgy has done work on induced polarization. There is very little to be found in print on the subject of induced polarization. Several papers have been presented at meetings, the 1958 AIME and SEG* conventions, for instance, on laboratory measurements of the effect and theoretical considerations useful in the interpretation of field results. This paper is the first attempt to present actual field results which show the usefulness of induced polarization as a prospecting technique. There are several phenomena that can cause polarization when electrical current is passed through the ground. In a paper presented at the 1958 SEG* meetings Professor T. R. Madden of M. I. T. demonstrated that only two of these gave rise to appreciable effects. The first is a result of the membrane and diffusion effects in a sandstone that contains appre- ciable amounts of clay minerals. The unbonded charges associated with the clay mineral forma material that passes positive and negative ions with different mobilities. When current is passed through such a system for some period of time, polarization results. The second phenomenon, which gives rise to very much larger polarization effects, is the one used in the new prospecting technique. These effects are a result of the blocking action or polarization of metallic or electronic conductors in a medium of ionic solution conduction. This electrochemical polarization, called "the over-voltage effect" by electro-chemists, occurs whenever electrical current is passed through a volume of rock which contains metallic minerals such as base metal sulphides. This polarization at metallic interfaces in ionic solutions depends upon the chemical energies necessary to allow the ions to continue the flow of current by giving up or receiving an electron from the metallic surfaces. The energy stored in this reaction isanalogous to that stored when a condenser is charged. If a d. c. current flowing through such a system is interrupted, the polarization can be detected as a small, decaying current that flows after the applied current is discontinued. The decaying potential measured is a result of the current flow caused by charges returning to their equilibrium positions from the positions they assumed under the applied potential field. Because of the polarization, there is an excess of change at each metallic interface. There is an alternate method of measurement of the induced polarization effect. The electrical

Jan 1, 1961

By CHARLES M. A. STINE

IN fighting a war the all-absorbing intent is to win. There is little time to analyze the rush of events or to appraise their consequences beyond the war's end. The united objective is, rightly, success for our arms. Yet under the pressures of a great war there may be compressed scientific, economic and social developments that might have taken many decades to achieve under less urgent conditions. Their effects on our lives and all civilization may be more wide-reaching and lasting than any military conquest. They constitute one of the must imperative incentives to victory. No American, least of all any scientist worthy the name, conceivably could endorse war as a justifiable means to progress. The destruction of life and property wrought by the present war far exceeds the havocs of a century's earthquakes. Most of mankind is burning itself on an altar of paganism. Nonetheless, one fact is inescapable Despite the recurrent malady of war history's overall course is forward. Mankind has the habit of rising phoenix-like from its own ashes to attain greater heights. Progress is immortal.

Jan 1, 1942

By Roy E. Dickerson, W. M. O Connor

The production of crude petroleum of the Bacuranao field, Cuba, fell off rapidly because no new wells Mere drilled. In December 1938, the total was 15 bbl. per day. The estimated average from this serpentine field for the year is 20 bbl. per day. The Motembo area produced an estimated average of 160 bbl. per day. Production in July was 215,946 gal of gasoline, or 165 bbl. per day. In August production was higher because a new well in the concession, the Luisa Marcela, produced 189 drums the first day and required pit storage. The Atlantic Refining Company of Cuba started a deep test upon a long, narrow, surface-defined anticline 3 km. south of Remedios, a town on the north coastal plain of Santa Clara province, in December 1938. The Atlantic Refining Co. is doing extensive seismograph arid gravity-meter work in Matanzas arid Santa Clara provinces. The Shell company was rigging for a deep test in western Havana province at a location about 2 km. west of the town San Antonio dc los Banos New Petroleum Law More serious attention was given by some of the major oil companies to the development of petroleum in Cuba as a, result of the passage of a Petroleum Law ill that country on May 9, 1938. Under the old mining lam of Cuba, which gave no special treatment to petroleum, the usual provisions giving reasonably satisfartory guarantees to encourage investmerit of foreign capital were either entirely lacking or were 30 ambiguously expressed as to require legislative action. Under the new law, Government royalty is fixed at 10 per cent with the provision that it will be reduced to 9 per cent on crude petroleum that is refined in Cuba. Royalty to the surface owner is 1 per cent. A surface tax on a sliding scale from 10¢ to 406 per hectare per year is applicable to all exploitation concessions granted under the law or adapted to its provisions. So export tax is payable upon petroleum. Stability of taxation

Jan 1, 1939

By W. M. O Connor, Roy E. Dickerson

The production of crude petroleum of the Bacuranao field, Cuba, fell off rapidly because no new wells Mere drilled. In December 1938, the total was 15 bbl. per day. The estimated average from this serpentine field for the year is 20 bbl. per day. The Motembo area produced an estimated average of 160 bbl. per day. Production in July was 215,946 gal of gasoline, or 165 bbl. per day. In August production was higher because a new well in the concession, the Luisa Marcela, produced 189 drums the first day and required pit storage. The Atlantic Refining Company of Cuba started a deep test upon a long, narrow, surface-defined anticline 3 km. south of Remedios, a town on the north coastal plain of Santa Clara province, in December 1938. The Atlantic Refining Co. is doing extensive seismograph arid gravity-meter work in Matanzas arid Santa Clara provinces. The Shell company was rigging for a deep test in western Havana province at a location about 2 km. west of the town San Antonio dc los Banos New Petroleum Law More serious attention was given by some of the major oil companies to the development of petroleum in Cuba as a, result of the passage of a Petroleum Law ill that country on May 9, 1938. Under the old mining lam of Cuba, which gave no special treatment to petroleum, the usual provisions giving reasonably satisfartory guarantees to encourage investmerit of foreign capital were either entirely lacking or were 30 ambiguously expressed as to require legislative action. Under the new law, Government royalty is fixed at 10 per cent with the provision that it will be reduced to 9 per cent on crude petroleum that is refined in Cuba. Royalty to the surface owner is 1 per cent. A surface tax on a sliding scale from 10¢ to 406 per hectare per year is applicable to all exploitation concessions granted under the law or adapted to its provisions. So export tax is payable upon petroleum. Stability of taxation

Jan 1, 1939

By T. Sterry Hunt

The Jones Mine (or Johannes Mine, as it was originally called, from a former proprietor), situated near Springfield, in the township of Caernarvon, Berks County, Pennsylvania, has long been known as a large deposit of magnetic iron ore, associated with more or less copper pyrites, and with malachite and chrysocolla. It occurs in a belt of soft schistose rocks which rest upon the Laurentian gneiss of the Welsh Mountain,' and to the northward are soon concealed by the unconformably overlying Mesozoic sandstone of the region. These metalliferous strata belong to the Primal slates of Rodgers, which, in many other localities in this region, include similar deposits of iron ores associated with more or less copper, and often accompanied by chloritic and argillaceous schists, and, more rarely, by serpentine and small lenticular masses of crystalline limestone. To this same horizon belong the iron ores of Boyertown, Fritz's Island, and Roudenbusch, near Reading, Wheatfield, Cornwall, and Dillsburg (all of which are found along the northern border of the Mesozoic belt of

By L. A. Roe, E. A. Elevatorski

Wollastonite, named after William H. Wollaston, an English chemist, is a calcium metasilicate, CaSiO3; CaO: 48.30%, SiO2: 51.70%. It has a short history as an industrial mineral. The earliest production of wollastonite is reported to be from a deposit near Code Siding, located north of Randsburg, CA. At this locality small tonnages of wollastonite were quarried during 1933-34 and 1938-41, and processed into mineral wool. This operation was largely experimental and virtually no United States production was again reported until the 1950s when a large deposit near Willsboro, NY, was developed by the Cabot Corp. A processing plant was placed onstream in 1953, with nearly continuous production to date. It is currently operated by NYCO, a division of Processed Minerals, Inc. Since 1958, wollastonite deposits in the Little and Big Maria Mountains of Riverside County, and in the Panamint Range of Inyo County, both in California, have operated intermittently for production of both ornamental and commercial wollastonite. During 1980, the United States was the major producing country, furnishing about 75% of the world's output. Current production comes from Finland, Mexico, India, and Kenya. Small amounts have been shipped intermittently from the USSR, New Zealand, Republic of the Sudan, Republic of South Africa, and Namibia (South-West Africa). The principal use of wollastonite is in the manufacture of plastics. Other uses are for paints, ceramics, adhesives, fluxes, glazes, thermal insulation board, and refractory products. Mineralogy Pure wollastonite, CaSiO3, has the composition of 48.3% CaO and 51.7% SiO2. However, it is seldom found in the pure state due to the ease with which it takes into solution the metasilicates of manganese, magnesium, iron, and strontium. Predominantly, wollastonite occurs as a contact metamorphic deposit forming between limestones and igneous rocks. Commonly associated minerals are garnet, diopside, epidote, calcite, and quartz. It has a specific gravity of 2.8 to 3.0, and hardness of 4.5 to 5 on Mohs' scale. When pure, it has a brilliant white color, but with impurities it may be grayish or brownish. Luster is vitreous to pearly. Melting point of wollastonite is about 1540ºC. Wollastonite occurs in coarse-bladed masses, rarely showing good crystal form. It is usually acicular or fibrous, even in the smallest of particles. The most unique property of crushed and ground wollastonite is its cleavage. Fragments of crushed wollastonite tend to be needle-shaped, imparting a high strength, and this property is the basis for many of its uses. The fiber lengths are commonly in the ratio of 7 or 8 to 1, length to diameter. The average diameter of wollastonite is 3.5 µm. Some crystals of wollastonite fluoresce under short-wave or longwave ultraviolet light, or both, with colors ranging from yellow-orange to pink-orange. Specimens may also show phosphorescence. The acicularity of wollastonite is a property of considerable importance to the marketplace. The plastics industry makes utilization of high aspect ratio grades of wollastonite (20:1) for reinforcing thermoplastics and thermoset polymer compounds. The naturally high pH of 9.9 (10% water slurry) is a prime property to the coatings industry. The coatings industry uses milled grades of wollastonite as a pH stabilizer in interior and exterior PVA and acrylic latex systems. Processed wollastonite can have a G.E. brightness of 90 to 93. Chemically, wollastonite is inert and this property makes it useful as a filler and reinforcing agent. There are two polymorphs of calcium silicates: wollastonite, a low temperature form, and pseudowollastonite, a high temperature

Jan 1, 1983

By Walter M. Small

Austria produced approximately 800 cisterns of 10,000 kg. each (56,000 bbls.) of crude oil of a 0.9428 sp. gr. during 1935. Of this Gosting II well near Zistersdorf, owned by the Erdolproduktions-Gesellschaft m.b.H., produced 86 per cent of the total, averaging a little over 1.8 cisterns, or about 125 bbl., per day. Gosting IVa of the same company was put in production early in December and produced a total of about 70 cisterns (4900 bbl.). Gosting IV was a failure, but a directional hole drilled from the same derrick produced Gosting IVa. Gosting I, a well owned jointly by the company above mentioned and the Raky-Danubia, was deepened late in the year and made about 2800 bbl. of oil at the rate of 70 bbl. per day. Completions during the year were as follows: In the Gosting pool, Gosting IV and IVa, drilled with rotary tools, the latter producing from Sarmat at a depth of 934 meters (3065 ft.); Kronberg I, of European Gas & Electric Co. with cable tools in Flysch at a depth of 566 m. as a dry hole; in the Oberlaa gas pool, one cable-tool well of the same company at a depth of 266 m. as a dry hole and one Fauck-Haiek system well of the Vacuum Oil Co. at a depth of 483 m. as a dry hole; one rotary hole of the European Gas & Electric Co. at Enzersdorf a/d. Fischa plugged and abandoned in Sarmat after a blow out and gas eruption at a depth of 699.5 meters. The status of drilling wells at close of the year is as follows: In the Gosting pool, Erdol Bohr- und Verwertungs G.m.b.H., north of the producing area, was drilling with rotary at 990 m., Raky-Danubia is rigged up to deepen the old Windisch-Baumgarten hole, Rohoel-Gewin-nungs A.G. (Vacuum-Shell combination) rigging up rotary south of the production, and Steinberg-Naphta G.m.b.H. (Musil) was deepened with light rotary to 830 m.; at Enzersdorf a/d. Fischa, the European Gas & Electric Co. E-2 rotary-drilled hole stood at 1533 m. in Miocene waiting

Jan 1, 1936