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By Aug. J. Jr. Bowie

(Read at the Wilkes-Barre Meeting, May, 1877.) Brief Outline of the General Topography of the Gold Regions of California. THE topographical features of California, as demonstrated by the explorations of the State Geological Survey, are found to be exceedingly simple. Three equidistant parallel lines can be used in conveying a general idea of the physical geography of Central California. A straight or " main axial line," whose course would be north 31° west, passing through the culminating peaks of the Sierra for a distance of five hundred miles, can be assumed as the eastern boundary of the State. A second parallel drawn fifty-five miles west of the " main axial line" will skirt the western base of the Sierra Nevada, along the edge of the foot-hills. A third parallel run equidistant from the second will represent "as nearly as possible the western base of the Coast Ranges." These parallel lines divide the State into three belts, namely, the Sierra, the Great Valley of California, and the Coast Ranges. " This arrangement of the physical features holds good for a length of four hundred miles in the direction of the main axial line, comprising almost the whole of the agricultural and the greater part of the mining districts."* The section of the country which is of immediate interest to the miner is the western slope of the Sierras. These mountains, rising in a short distance from the Sacramento plains to elevations of over seven thousand feet, with occasional peaks ten and twelve thousand feet high, are cut by numerous deep and precipitous gorges or capons, through which drains the immense watershed of the Sierra, supplying the main rivers of the State and ultimately emptying into the Pacific Ocean. Between these capons, ridges or divides are formed, on top of * See vol. i, p. 5, Geological Survey of California. J. D. Whitney, State Geologist.

Jan 1, 1878

By R. R. Estill

THE rank of the Ruhr coal ranges from a high volatile bituminous coal to an anthracite, depending to some extent on the original depth of the seam. The average Ruhr coal corresponds to a soft bituminous American coal of a coking quality. The average thicknesses of individual coal seams being mined are also comparable (59 in. against 65 in. in the United States). However, consideration of seam conditions and mining conditions other than those just mentioned emphasizes differences rather than similarities with United States soft coal. In general, the Ruhr seams now being mined are much more folded and inclined than American seams. Dips of 20" and 30" are common in seams now being worked, and 30 pct of the coal reserves in the district are in seams dipping more than 35". Only on the tops and bottoms of folds do we find rather flat coal seams. In addition to the folding there is extensive displacement by cross faulting plus a certain amount of strike faulting of an overthrust nature, which results locally in doubling or omission of seams. Because of the long history of mining in the Ruhr, nearly all coal lying near the surface has long since been mined out, and we find that the average depth of mining is at present about 2300 ft below the surface. Deep mining, folding, and faulting result in seam conditions requiring a great deal more roof support than one finds in American soft coal mines. In fact only in the anthracite district and the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coal fields do we find somewhat similar conditions. It is easy to say, therefore, that the problem of mechanization of coal cutting and loading in the German mines is quite different from that which we have so effectively met in America with our mobile cutters and loaders, duck bill loaders, and a room and pillar system of mining our drift and slope mines.

Jan 12, 1950

By Oliver B. Hopkins

During the year 1936, a new high record was established for Peruvian production, the total amounting to 17,594,689 bbl., which brought the cumulative production of the country up to 205 million barrels. The 1936 figure represents an increase of 530,288 bbl. over that of 1935. The property of the International Petroleum Co. contributed 369,577 bbl. of this increase and the Lobitos property 158,233. Exploration work in the country was continued. The Selden Breck Co. examined a strip of the National Reserve in eastern Peru from Tambo del Sur to the Rio Pachitea. This company was granted a concession for a term of four years embracing approximately 50,000 acres near the confluence of the Rio Pachitea and the Rio Ucayali. During the year, the Peruvian Government commenced drilling a well on one of the reserved zones at Zorritos. At the end of the year, this well had reached a depth of 1300 feet. La Rrea-Parinas Estate.—Production on the La Brea-Parinas Estate of the International Petroleum Company, Ltd., reached an all-time high in 1936 of 15,126,491 bbl., an increase of 369,577 bbl. over the 1935 record. The total production from 1890 to 1936 was 163,668,014 barrels.

Jan 1, 1937

By E. R. Kaiser

ACTIVITY on long-range and on immediate wartime problems shared the attention of specialists in coal research during 1943. Programs of the principal coal laboratories were more adequately financed than in previous years, but all reported shortages of technical personnel. Expansion in coal research in the year to come will depend primarily on the availability of qualified research talent.

Jan 1, 1944

By Dean Goodermote, Carla S. Stone

I Introduction Coal fuels China. Roughly 70 percent of all commercial energy demand is supplied by domestic coal production and with the recent Chinese opening to the West, the Chinese Coal Industry may figure prominently in the export market as well. Because of the importance of China's coal industry to the future of China and the Pacific Rim energy balance, this paper reviews the industry and offers some cautious projections for its outlook. II Energy's Position in the Current Political and Economic Climate Traditionally, Chinese society has been dominated by the policies of its most important government leaders. Deng Xiaoping, Vice Chairman of the Communist Party is the current leader of China. Deng and his proteges are pragmatists. Although China's government structure is based on Marxist/Leninist tradition, Deng and his followers are promoting experiments with market economics and expanded relationships with Western Countries, which have encouraged foreign investment in China. Energy companies represent just one type of industry that is interested in helping the Chinese to develop their abundant natural resources. Although China's leadership is committed to a program of economic modernization, that program currently is experiencing what the Chinese government terms "readjustment". Readjustment cuts back in imports due to deficient foreign exchange and deemphasizes heavy industry, while it encourages agricultural and consumer goods output and, most imporant, energy production. Increased Chinese coal and oil production is essential both to fuel industry and, equally important, to provide foreign exchange. If sufficient energy production is not forthcoming, then economic growth will be severely retarded. China's 1979 per capita GNP of $260 is only slightly better than the weighted average achieved by low income countries of $230. (1) Delays in growth could lead to social unrest, threatening the position of the current leadership. Since there is no institutionalized mechanism for leadership succession and policy continuation, it is reasonable to assume that leadership changes could result in energy policy changes. III Energy Consumption Energy production is important to China's future economic health as highlighted by the World Bank. If China's economy grows rapidly, 5 percent to 6 percent during this decade, the Bank noted, a significant energy shortfall could occur as early as 1985. This state of affairs contrasts sharply with China's current position as a net hydrocarbon exporter. (2) To assure a healthy economic future, China's leadership is attempting to reduce its rate of increase in energy demand through conservation as well as to boost energy output. A massive conservation promotion program has been underway since 1979 and there is much room for improvement. China's industrial sector is only about half as energy efficient as is U.S. industry. (3) During the last two decades, each percent of increase in GNP has been accompanied by a 1.8 percent of increase in energy consumption. (4) This compares rather poorly with the United States where a less than one-to-one relationship exists. IV Energy Supply The short term prospects for oil production are uncertain. Production increases were rapid in the 1960's and early 1970's, averaging 20 percent annually, but most of this increase came from one field, Daquing. Now that Daquing's production has peaked and the offshore potential has yet to be developed, petroleum production has maintained a plateau of 2.1 million b/d, at least temporarily, of which approximately 15 percent is exported. (5) Output

Jan 1, 1982

By Andrews Allen

WE all remember when, a few years ago the preparation of coal was nothing but a matter of having somebody at the face or somebody in the railroad car pick out the impurities; also the sizes were generally' made" over a bar screen. Anything that was black was coal; and the only matecia1 picked out was the slate or rock-impurities that could be distinguished by eye or by hefting. This was all right as long. & coal could be sold at. a good price. After all, we are all in business to -make the most money honestly out of a certain acreage of coal and a certain plant. For this purpose what is required is the greatest possible recovery of marketable coal and the highest market price.

Jan 1, 1929

By Ralph M. Hunter

Until recent years, maintenance of surface coal handling facilities was a relatively simple task. Equipment consisted principally of conveyors, screens and crushers of comparatively simple construction. Electrical equipment consisted of motors and starters, with little, if any, interlocking. In most cases failure of any component affected only the grades of coal loaded so that even a prolonged breakdown did not affect mine operation materially. However, with the introduction of modern cleaning plants, the picture has changed. The equipment is much more complex and therefore more difficult to maintain. In many cases failure of any component of the plant prevents loading of coal. Even if provision is made to bypass, the quality of coal loaded is lowered, affecting markets. In the case of plants designed to permit full seam mining, marketable coal cannot be loaded without operation of the cleaning plant. Under these conditions it is apparent that considerable thought and effort toward better maintenance are justified. In order to assure continuous, efficient and economical operation, maintenance should receive consideration, not only after the plant is in operation, but while it is being designed. It is hardly necessary to say that the designer should strive for sturdi-ness and wearing qualities. It is sometimes not realized, however, that even the best parts will sooner or later require replacement or repair. The designer should, there- fore, give consideration to accessibility. Anyone who has had to do with cleaning plant maintenance is familiar with installations where several hours are required to get at a part that can be repaired or replaced in a few minutes, once it is accessible. As in most cases, experience is the best guide. The men who operate and maintain this equipment know the problems encountered. Whenever available, the opinions of these men should be sought and heeded. As an example, we might consider the refuse elevator on a Chance Cone. Our company is now operating three of these cones, the first of which was installed in 1941, and the latest in 1946. Exact records are not available, but well over 50 pct of delays charged to the Chance Cones have been caused by the refuse elevator. This elevator receives refuse from the cone and carries it to a point above the water level of the cone, discharging onto a dewatering and desanding screen. Since the elevator operates under water and necessarily has close clearances in the lower boot, it tends to jam on large pieces of refuse or tramp iron. The chain, buckets and boot are also subjected to the action of water, sand and refuse, which accelerate normal wear. In case of jamming or chain-breakage it is necessary to drain the elevator and the cone so that even a minor fault in the elevator causes a considerable loss of time for the cone. In our new plant, which will contain two Chance Cones, the refuse elevator has been eliminated. This was accomplished by raising the cone so that the refuse gates could discharge directly onto the dewater-

Jan 1, 1949

By Morgan Walker

INTERMITTENT injection of gas in gas-lift pumping is a variation of the common practice in that the gas is' .delivered to the well for a short, period, called the "on time," followed by a period during which none is admitted, called the "off time," instead of being admitted continuously at a constant rate or by intermittent flowing in which it is occasionally delivered to the well in just sufficient quantity to flow off the accumulated head of fluid. The term "gas" is used throughout this discussion but it should be remembered that in so far as the operation is concerned either air or natural gas may be used. The equipment at the well is the same as commonly used in gas-lift installations and gas may be admitted to either the tubing or the casing. It seldom occurs that all the wells on a lease can be pumped economically by intermittent injection from one header. Wells that. have flow characteristics which permit their being handled together have their intake lines grouped at a central compressor station. Well groups may consist of two or more wells. The total volume of gas delivered by each group of compressors goes to one well at a time through a quick opening valve, each well connected to the header receiving its charge of gas in turn. Special cases may require a deviation from this arrangement. The distribution of the gas to the different wells is effected by an automatic timing device which operates quick-opening valves on the intake lines. The timing mechanism may be actuated by electricity, liquid or gas pressure. The essential factor in the operation of the timing mechanism is that as one intake valve is closed another must be opened.

Jan 1, 1928

By Malcolm F. Hawkes

AUSTENITE grain size has long been recognized by metallurgists as an important property of steels because of its influence on toughness, hardenability, machinability and creep strength. Much research has been carried out on wrought steels to develop methods for disclosing austenite grain size, and to provide knowledge of the grain-size -characteristics of steels produced and heat-treated in various ways. Much less work in these fields has been done on steel castings; partly because, owing to the variable and complex microstructures of cast steels, it is frequently very difficult to obtain results that are not questionable. The object of this investigation, therefore, was to establish, for a wide variety of carbon and alloy cast steels, suitable methods for disclosing austenite grain size and some knowledge of the grain-size variations to be expected. The steel foundryman is interested in austenite grain size at two different stages in the manufacture of his products; one is just after the steel is cast, and the other is after any reheating operation carried out above the critical temperature range. In both, it must always be kept in mind that the grain size being sought is actually a previous austenite grain size, and that the austenite no longer exists once the steel has cooled to room temperature. The problem of the investigator is always to use evidence obtained from the structure at room temperature to deduce this previous austenite grain size, which was established the last time the steel existed at a temperature above the critical range. Since most steel castings today are at least annealed or normalized, the measurement of austenite grain size established by heat-treatment will be considered first. More than So commercially produced cast steels representing a wide variety of compositions and melting practices were used in the study. For each steel, grain-size determinations were made after each of three widely varying heat-treating schedules; namely, one hour at 1550°F, one hour at 1700°F, and six hours at 1700°F. The list of steels and results obtained on them will be found in the appendix. (See page 21.) A discussion of the knowledge gained on the applicability of various test methods and on grain-size characteristics of cast steels in general follows. MEASUREMENT OF AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE ESTABLISHED BY HEAT TREATMENT METHODS SUITABLE FOR DETERMINING AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE AFTER HEAT- TREATMENT AT ORDINARY TEMPERATURES AND TIMES It was desired, as one of the results of this investigation, to be able to recommend to steel foundries a method, or methods, of disclosing grain size best suited to accurate

Jan 1, 1947

By S. D. Brady

In Monongalia County, West Virginia, the Pittsburgh and Sewickley beds lie west of the Monongahela River and underlie practically all the western end of the county. The average thickness of the Pittsburgh bed is 8 ft., where it is being mined at present, sometimes running up to 9 ft. The Sewickley bed is 4½ to 6 ft. thick and lies 90 to 100 ft. above the Pittsburgh bed. As the Pittsburgh bed had a known value, a large part of it was bought up without consideration of the Sewickley bed. When the Monongahela Railway was built up the west side of the Monongahela River, other interests bought up the Sewickley bed, as it was found to be equal in quality to the Pittsburgh, with slight local exceptions. The two beds, therefore, were owned by different people, and naturally each owner opened his mine and ran it without regard to the working of the other bed. Consequently, considerable portions of the upper bed were seriously affected for economical mining, especially on Scotts Run. In recent years there has been a tendency, influenced by the decision of the West Virginia Supreme Court, on the part of the operators in Monongalia County to try to coordinate their projections in the layout of their mines. A typical geologic section, according to the report of the West Virginia State Geological Survey on Monongalia County, agrees with Fig. 1. It is apparent that the rock above the Sewickley bed and between the Sewickley and Pittsburgh beds is of a rather friable ~lature, therefore it is easily broken in pillaring. About the only difference between this section and the geologic section in the Lowsville district is that in the latter district the rock between the coals is a denser sandstone and contains little shale and limestone and no evidence of Redstone coal. It is a laminated sandstone, and although it makes a harder mass, it is easily broken. While working in the Lowsville district, the author had an opportunity to examine a neighboring mine in the Sewickley bed, which was over a section being pillared in the Pittsburgh bed. The two mines belong to dif-

Jan 1, 1931

By Job Goostray

IN THIS paper, as in so many other discussions of historical nature, there is little chance for original material and much has had to be rewritten from older papers, documents, accounts, reports, and the like, some of which are of doubtful authorship or contain conflicting statistics. Fully aware of these little historical pitfalls, the authors have tried to quote the origin where possible, and also to seek further confirmation when the statement warranted it, but cannot assume responsibility for certain facts and dates. The Encyclopedia Britannica was frequently consulted. The authors wish to acknowledge assistance from MacKintosh-Hemphill Co.-formerly the Fort Pitt Works-and also from officials of the Watertown Arsenal who loaned valuable books and gave much necessary information. They are particularly indebted to Colonel Dixon of that institution. The data on modern guns were furnished by Mr. F. Brauer of the Watertown Arsenal; Mr. H. S. Chaffee assisted by obtaining records and data of work carried on by the Builders' Iron Foundry of Providence, R. I.

Jan 3, 1925

By T. D. Thomas

In this paper, major attention is given to misfires in mines where electric multiple shot-firing is the system used. Misfires are sometimes caused by one action or condition and at other times by a combination of two or more. They may be divided into two classes: (1) those caused by workers in the mines, (2) mechanical or manufacturer's causes. The second cause will be discussed first. Misfires Caused by Faulty Detonators The important part of an electric blasting cap, to the user where multiple shot-firing is done, as in the steep-pitch, thiek-vein, anthracite mines, is the bridge wire. In single shot-firing this factor is not apparent, but in mines where multiple firing is done any variation in the resistance of the bridge wire, where full or even rated battery capacity is required, will most likely cause a misfire. The reason for this is obvious. If the resistance in the bridge wires is not the same, some of the detonators will fire because of their greater comparative resistance. Variance in resistance of bridge wires is caused by a slight difference in the diameter of the bridge wire, also by a difference in the composition of the bridge wires. Again, where the bridge wires have become rusted, there will be a variance in resistance. About the year 1922, one of the large coal companies was greatly alarmed by the number of serious and fatal accidents caused by misfires. The general manager issued an order that these accidents must be greatly reduced, and if possible, entirely prevented. The officials at the mines had to determine the various causes of misfires and have them corrected. The rock contractors who use large quantities of 60 to 80 per cent. explosives and do all firing electrically were thoroughly instructed as to the proper methods of doing their work, and closer supervision was given to their work. The manufacturer's representatives stressed the importance of the use of galvanometers; accordingly these were purchased and used. Larger firing lines were installed under the supervision of a demonstrator of the company manufacturing the caps and explosives. However, misfires again occurred and it was evident that the source of the trouble was not wholly

Jan 1, 1930

By Samuel S. Wyer

The art of natural-gas compressing is now over 25 years old, and has grown at practically the same rate as the increase in domestic natural-gas consumers. There are now over 200 natural-gas compressing stations in North America, aggregating more than 320,000 hp. of compressor capacity and representing a property value of more than $22,000,000, and compressing more than 85 per cent. of all the gas used. The age and magnitude of the art make it evident that the use of gas compressors is a recognized integral part and universal custom of the natural-gas business. The public also is not without its rights and vital interests in this problem. Approximately 1,700,000 domestic natural-gas consumers in North America are dependent upon gas compressors for their natural-gas service. That is, if the use of compressors were to be prohibited, the majority of these consumers would be unable to secure adequate natural-gas service. Each consumer represents between four and five persons, and it therefore follows that the comfort and well-being—as far as natural-gas service is concerned—of at least 8,000,000 persons would be affected if the use of natural-gas compressors should be prohibited. These 1,700,000 consumers have invested, in services, house piping, fixtures, and appliances, an average of about $90 each, or an aggregate of $153,000,000, which is much more than the companies' investment in gas compressors. Furthermore, in all cases where the rate paid by the consumers is fair to the gas company—considering the value of the service rendered by the gas company—the consumers are entitled to continued service and protection of the investment they have made on the faith that the gas service would be continued in the future. Since "Customs adopted and acquiesced in, if not in conflict with federal or State legislation, have the force of positive law,"l and ('Courts will take notice of whatever ought to be generally known withxn the limits of their jurisdiction,"2 there ought to be no question as to the un-

Jan 1, 1916

By R. G. Jones, W. L. Kinney, R. E. Schilson, R. S. Wilson, G. A. Clark, H. Suralo

This paper describes the field opeturluns at the Fry in situ combustion project in Crawford County, 111. Field operations may be divided into three phases—-preliminary engineering studies of 1960 and 1961, ignition, and, finally, operation of the test. The Fry combustion project was a pilot test of cocur-rent in situ combustion on a 3.3-acre inverted five-spot. In the summer of 1960, air injection tests were conducted using old wells in the area and a new air injection well drilled especially for the test. In the summer of 1961, four new oil wells were drilled on a 3.3-acre pattern for the pilot test. All old wells in the near vicinity of the pilot test were abandoned to preclude any possibility of gas escaping to adjacent formations. A compressor plant was also installed at the test site in 1961. Air injection tests and other engineering studies were made. At the conclusion of these tests, ignition was accomplished with a 40 kw electrical igniter. Operation of the Fry combustion test was little different from the usual oilfield operation with the exception of the high rate of air injection. No difficulty was found with the openhole completion. There were no unusual corrosion or emulsion problems until bottom-hole temperatures exceeded 150F. Four cores were drilled into the burned-out portion of the reservoir with no mechanical difficulties. INTRODUCTION A cocurrent or conventional in situ combustion test was conducted on the Fry unit of the Marathon Oil Co., in Crawford County, Ill. Besides testing combustion in the Fry type of reservoir, the test was intended to evaluate various operating procedures. This paper presents a discussion of the Fry combustion test field operations. The geology of the reservoir and the test performance are discussed in other papers.'.' HISTORY OF THE FRY UNIT The Fry unit consists of 11 leases totaling 337 acres in an area in which oil was originally discovered in 1906. Production from this reservoir, as from all Robinson sand reservoirs in the area, was very high during the first few years. As the dissolved-gas energy was dissipated, early attempts to retard the decline consisted of vacuum, air, and gas repressuring, and recently, most of the area has been subjected to water flooding. Following early air repressuring, the Fry waterflood unit was formed and water flooding initiated in July, 1952. In the area in which the Fry combustion test was conducted, a peripheral water flood of a 160-acre area was developed as shown in Fig. 1. Between 1956 and 1960, it became apparent that the water flood was unsuccessfd. In looking for a suitable site for an in situ combustion test, the Marathon Oil Co. selected the Fry unit as possessing those features most desirable for such a research project. Field operations associated with the Fry combustion test began in the spring of 1960.

Jan 1, 1966

By Paul F. Kerr

The insufficiencies of our mineral resources are becoming well known, and the national political conscience seems to be troubled at last by our dependence upon mineral commodities which must come from other lands. This realization places increased responsibility upon the industrial, educational, and governmental groups whose task it will be to solve the problems of mineral supply. As we all know, from the time that man first sought mineral deposits until recent years, prospectors have been largely responsible for mineral discoveries. Today the era of the prospector is almost over. The human ants that have literally examined all accessible outcrops and have tested the gravels of nearly all stream beds in the United States have left undiscovered few worthwhile mineral deposits within the scope of their recognition. The pages in the history of mineral exploration are now being turned from the era of the surface prospect to the era of the hidden de- posit.

Jan 1, 1949

By B. W. Dyer

In 1924, the Crescent Eagle Oil Co., while drilling the salt section of the Paradox formation in Grand County, Utah, encountered a salt that did not appear to be sodium chloride. This salt was analyzed and showed the presence of potash minerals, both sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgC12.6H2O). Because of the high potash content of the sample, there was considerable speculation: (I) as to whether the hole had been salted, and (2), if not, the extent, richness, and the depth at which the deposit occurred. The discovery caused a large amount of activity in the area. During the next few years, 68 potash prospecting permits were issued by the Government, 24 under the Act of 1917 and 44 under the Act of Feb. 7, 1927, each including about four sections of land. Several holes, all shallow, were drilled for potash. A number of holes were drilled for oil into the salt horizon and the cuttings collected at the oil wells were examined petrographically and chemically. The shallow test holes were not sufficiently deep to reach the potash horizon and revealed nothing of value, but several of the oil test holes gave some indication of where potash might be found. Location and Geology of Deposits The potassium and magnesium salts have been found in various places from the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad tracks about seven miles west of Thompsons, in eastern Utah, to Cane Creek, a tributary of the Colorado River— a distance north and south of about 35 miles. In this locality, there appear to be five separate deposits: the Crescent Eagle area, which is in T. 22 S., R. 19 E.; the Salt Valley area, in the vicinity of the north-south line of T. 23 S., between R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; the Seven Mile area, in the eastern part of T. 25 S., R. 20 E.; the Cane Creek area, on the Colorado River, in T. 26 S. and T. 27 S., R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; and the Salt Wash area, in T. 22 S. and T. 23 S., R. 16 E. and R. 17 E. (Fig. I.) The Crescent Eagle and Salt Valley areas are in the Salt Valley anticline, some of the wells being in the fault graben and others outside. Structurally, the Salt Valley anticline is very complex, and can be described in general terms as a northwesterly plunging collapsed anticline about 15 miles long. In the Crescent Eagle area, the valley graben is about 1 1/2 mile wide and the salt probably forms a plug, the apex of which is in the vicinity of the Crescent Eagle well. Owing to the complex structure, there has been every opportunity for flowage in the salt to cause local thinning or thickening of beds. The regular succession of formations in the general area* is: Cretaceous Mancos Dakota Jurassic Morrison Summerville Entrada Carmel

Jan 1, 1948

By B. W. Dyer

In 1924, the Crescent Eagle Oil Co., while drilling the salt section of the Paradox formation in Grand County, Utah, encountered a salt that did not appear to be sodium chloride. This salt was analyzed and showed the presence of potash minerals, both sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgC12.6H2O). Because of the high potash content of the sample, there was considerable speculation: (I) as to whether the hole had been salted, and (2), if not, the extent, richness, and the depth at which the deposit occurred. The discovery caused a large amount of activity in the area. During the next few years, 68 potash prospecting permits were issued by the Government, 24 under the Act of 1917 and 44 under the Act of Feb. 7, 1927, each including about four sections of land. Several holes, all shallow, were drilled for potash. A number of holes were drilled for oil into the salt horizon and the cuttings collected at the oil wells were examined petrographically and chemically. The shallow test holes were not sufficiently deep to reach the potash horizon and revealed nothing of value, but several of the oil test holes gave some indication of where potash might be found. Location and Geology of Deposits The potassium and magnesium salts have been found in various places from the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad tracks about seven miles west of Thompsons, in eastern Utah, to Cane Creek, a tributary of the Colorado River— a distance north and south of about 35 miles. In this locality, there appear to be five separate deposits: the Crescent Eagle area, which is in T. 22 S., R. 19 E.; the Salt Valley area, in the vicinity of the north-south line of T. 23 S., between R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; the Seven Mile area, in the eastern part of T. 25 S., R. 20 E.; the Cane Creek area, on the Colorado River, in T. 26 S. and T. 27 S., R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; and the Salt Wash area, in T. 22 S. and T. 23 S., R. 16 E. and R. 17 E. (Fig. I.) The Crescent Eagle and Salt Valley areas are in the Salt Valley anticline, some of the wells being in the fault graben and others outside. Structurally, the Salt Valley anticline is very complex, and can be described in general terms as a northwesterly plunging collapsed anticline about 15 miles long. In the Crescent Eagle area, the valley graben is about 1 1/2 mile wide and the salt probably forms a plug, the apex of which is in the vicinity of the Crescent Eagle well. Owing to the complex structure, there has been every opportunity for flowage in the salt to cause local thinning or thickening of beds. The regular succession of formations in the general area* is: Cretaceous Mancos Dakota Jurassic Morrison Summerville Entrada Carmel

Jan 1, 1948

By J. Lemish

Considerable research has been conducted in Iowa in recent years on carbonate aggregate reactions in concrete. Groups outside the state have become active in the past few years after recognizing that certain carbonate aggregates are reactive in concrete. The paper reviews the nature and extent of the problem and a summary is given of research by the author and his associates. In recent years considerable research has been conducted in Iowa on carbonate aggregate reactions in concrete. The research is part of a general study on the behavior of carbonate rocks as concrete aggregates sponsored by the Iowa State Highway Commission. Research on carbonate aggregates has not been extensive in the past. Laughlin1 published one of the first papers on carbonate aggregates in 1928 and was followed by others, notably H. S. sweet,' B. Mather et al.,3 and K. Mather4 who emphasized the petrographic and physical aspects of carbonate aggregates. The recognition that certain carbonate aggregates are reactive in concrete has led to increased participation in research in the past few years by groups outside of Iowa. Significant contributions have been made by Swenson and Gillot,5 Hadley,6 and Chaiken and Halstead7 in work which emphasizes the expansion of carbonate rocks in alkaline environments and the reaction of carbonate minerals or dedolomitization with alkalies. It is the purpose of this paper to review briefly the nature and extent of the problem and present a summary of the research by the author and his associates. EXTENT AND NATURE OF THE PROBLEM The problem is the deleterious behavior of certain carbonate aggregates in concrete. It was first recognized in Iowa over 20 years ago when poor service records of certain highways were correlated with aggregates produced from the Glory and LeGrand quarries. Deleterious behavior of carbonate aggregates have been reported in Canada and, more recently, in New York and Virginia. As more knowledge is gained concerning the problem, distress in concrete related to carbonate aggregates may be recognized over a widespread area. The problem may potentially exist in the Midwest, the Northeast, and other parts of the country underlain by thick sections of carbonate rocks readily available for utilization as aggregates. The nature of distress in Iowa highways is a general weakening and deterioration of concrete characterized by progressive cracking and spalling away from joints and edges (Fig. 1). The distress generally occurs after 15 years of service and becomes progressively worse. Specimens of such concrete lack the toughness of sound concrete and break easily under the hammer in the manner of a soft brick. The matrix is generally highly carbonated and dark borders, or reaction shells or rims outline the argillaceous carbonate aggregate fragments (Fig. 2). Cracks observed in cores cut across the aggregates and concrete matrix. Although localized volume change (expansion) is associated with spalling, there is no definite field evidence in Iowa that excessive growth of concrete slabs has occurred. The experience with carbonate aggregates in Iowa indicates that the concrete deterioration is not the same as that induced by the alkali-aggregate reaction associated with siliceous aggregates. The principal difference is that in Iowa the distressed concrete is weakened throughout the slab. In concrete affected by the alkali aggregate reaction, the

Jan 1, 1961

By V. C. Perini

The 1943 designation of districts for the Transactions† has caused some confusion because of the elimination of the West Central Texas district and the allocation of the counties of this district to the North Texas district and the North Central Texas district. The North Central Texas district as herein defined includes the counties of Brown, Callahan, Cole-man, Comanche, Coryell, Eastland, Erath, Fisher, Hamilton, Hood, Jones, Lampasas, Mills, Nolan, Palo Pinto, Parker, San Saba, Shackelford, Stephens, Stonewall, Summerville, Taylor, Throckmorton and Wise. These counties as listed are the counties of District 7B, State Railroad Commission. This district covers the south central crest and the west flank of the Bend flexure north of the Llano uplift. The west flank of the Bend flexure is on the east boundary of the Permian Basin of West Texas. The North Texas district, District No. 9, State Railroad Commission, includes the counties of Archer, Clay, Cooke, Foard, Hardeman, Jack, Knox, Montague, Wichita, Wilbarger and Young. The area of this district covers the crest and south flank of the Red River uplift and the north central crest of the Bend flexure. The greater part of the oil and gas produced in the past from the North Central Texas district has been from Pennsyl-vanian strata. Some oil and gas has been produced from the lower Permian (by the latest selection of the Pennsylvanian-Permian boundary') and minor amounts from the Mississippian and Ordovician sediments. Increasingly important quantities of oil and gas are to be expected from the older sediments by deeper development in proven fields and by new discoveries. Most of the oil and gas in the district has accumulated in localized, well-defined structural traps in limestone and sandstone reservoirs and in traps due to stratigraphic changes in sedimentation, mainly porosity traps in limestone and sandstone lenses, both usually associated with some structural feature. The Stripper Well Premium Plan as adopted by the office of the Federal Price Administrator has been an aid to the producers of stripper wells. The producers are pleased to receive the subsidy to prolong the plugging of wells, but they are not too pleased with the subsidy plan in principle. Most independent operators are in favor of, and think they are entitled to, an increase in the market price for oil. The price is not adequate to meet the requirements of the average independent operator with the continued advance in production, development and wildcatting costs. Old and new pipe lines for oil and gas leading out of the state are removing reserves at an alarming rate. Curves showing the rate of discovery versus production and pipe-line deliveries in and out of the state make a cross that sooner or later will be fatal to the state. Wildcatting not only needs a price increase but every other available incentive and encouragement.

Jan 1, 1945

By E. L. Oliver

IN OFFERING a few comments and suggestions on trends in mining practice, and the methods and tools of tomorrow's mining, perhaps it will be appropriate to start with the subject of education. Charles Kettering, one of the best-known scientists and experimentalists in the automotive industry once said, in effect, that tech- 111ca1 schools have to be carefid not to teach a lot of hard and fast rules that may have been true once, but aren't so any more, or won't be presently. Possibly the mining school of the future will concern itself less with what has happened and more with what is going to happen. It will be built about or around problems. Such a school will be judged, not by the number of its students but by the quality of its improvements. To such a school the industry will send for men to solve particular problems. The industry will doubtless at some time sup- port such a school financially though a lot of hard work will be required to organize miners to undertake such financing, primarily because the mining industry, other than that concerned with iron and steel, is too loosely knit. Each company tends to its own knitting too closely for its own good. Wouldn't it be splendid if the mining industry would finance a "problem school" as suggested by Mr. Kettering and others.

Jan 1, 1939