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By A. S. Adams

A glance at the list of papers1 that have been published since 1920 on the general subject of flotation suggests the variety of ideas that exist regarding the underlying cause of the phenomenon. Among these ideas, we find several coherent theories, but none that adequately and completely explain the phenomenon. Ralston2 and Bains3 suggested an electrical theory which has to do with the attachment of mineral particles to a bubble by the attraction of unlike electrical charges. This theory has its root in the fact that a bubble of air in pure water is electrified in such a way that the surfacc is negatively charged while the body of the water is positively charged. This result, which was first discussed by Helmholtz, also obtains when the water contains anything except a high concentration of hydrogen ions, or ions which are trivalent or tetravalent. The theory also holds that the mineral particles have positive charges on their surfaces, and so there is attachment between bubble surface and mineral particles by the old law of electrostatics, which states that unlike charges attract. Contact Angle and Oil Attraction The contact angle—the angle formed by a fluid-fluid boundary when both are in contact with a solid-—has been indicted several times for complicity in the phenomenon of flotation. This angle is supposed to indirectly measure the surface energy of a solid. Thus if we have two fluids in contact with a solid, we may express the difference between the two fluid-solid tensions as equal to the fluid-fluid tension times the cosine of the angle between the two fluids.4 If the two fluids are in contact with the solid, this is, no doubt, an excellent way of establishing relative surface energies. However, in flotation, we deal with substances which are not wetted by water. What assurance have we, then, that the angle

Jan 1, 1928

By J. J. B. Rutherford

IT is now well known that troublesome intercrystalline corrosion may occur in austenitic stainless steels following exposure of the metal to a temperature within the range 1000° to 1500° F. (540° to 815° C.). The present paper describes a satisfactory method of estimating the extent of such corrosion, based on the measurement of the electrical resistance of a specimen before and after attack. This new method enabled us to study quantitatively the effect of several factors upon intergranular corrosion in the 18 Cr, 8 Ni type of alloy. The results show that susceptibility to this attack increases with increasing carbon content and grain size and appears to pass through a maximum for certain combinations of temperature of sensitization and period during which the alloy was maintained at that temperature; and are in complete accord with our interpretation of the mechanism of this phenomenon. The method is probably applicable to other metals or alloys subject to intercrystalline attack, such as the aluminum alloys of the duralumin type. The methods hitherto in use for estimating the degree of intergranular attack fall into three types: (1) microscopic examination,1 (2) macroscopic examination of fractures, and (3) determination of the time required for complete failure or disintegration .2 None of these lends itself very well to a measurement of the extent of corrosion. The first two are qualitative in nature and the third provides an arbitrary value largely dependent on individual judgment, since failure is a progressive phenomenon and not a sudden event. Our experience is that weight-loss determinations, although valuable in some types of corrosion investigations, bear no simple relation to intercrystalline corrosion in this type of alloy, as is to be expected since the phenomenon probably involves only the thinnest films between adjacent metallic grains.

Jan 1, 1932

By I. A. Lesk

The various materials utilized in the construction of integrated circuits, and the resultant materials interfaces, are discussed with emphasis on a materials system that is compatible with all types of integrated circuits and minimizes the number of different interfaces. Problems with interfaces may originate in the silicon, on its surface, and between other materials within the integrated-circuit package independent of the silicon. ThE difference between integrated-circuit theory and practice may generally be spelled out in terms of the difficulties in fabricating a desired structure. There are, of course, problems in forming the requisite materials, of the necessary composition and geometry, where needed. A distinct class of problem, however, is associated with interfaces— generally between different materials, but occasionally between regions of the same material. We require that each interfacial system perform its proper electrical, mechanical, and thermal function, and do so in an unchanging manner with time under the most severe operating conditions. In a practical sense, we deal in nonideal systems, such that it is generally not possible to form an interface exactly the way it was intended, even if we allow for a knowledge of the practical limitations of the fabrication system. Another way of looking at this situation is to realize that, when we form a group of interfaces under apparently the same experimental conditions, there are often differences of important consequence between them. Very high-magnification pictures, such as are obtained by an electron microscope, reveal fine structure that often differs over the area of a given sample, as well as from sample to sample. Low-magnification pictures look better, but don't eliminate the problem. The trend towards integrated circuits, and away from circuits fabricated utilizing separate components, is very strong in many areas of electronics. A typical silicon monolithic integrated circuit, still in place in the wafer on which it was fabricated, is shown in Fig. 1. The increased reliability which is being experienced through the use of integrated circuits can, to a large extent, be credited to the reduced complexity of the interface system that is present in the electronic system. A glance at Fig. 1, however, with all of its epitaxial and diffused p-n junctions, and interconnect system, shows that interfaces have been far from eliminated. Fig. 2, depicting a schematic cross-sectional view of a (partial) typical integrated circuit, illustrates in detail the numerous interfaces that occur in this type of structure. Besides the individual circuit elements, there are interfaces for isolation, and, Fig. 3, even a crossover requires a series of interfaces. What has been accomplished, however, irrespective of whether or not the total number of interfaces in the circuit is increased or decreased, is that the variety of interfaces is very much reduced. This is because there are fewer materials involved. Since the expense incurred in an R & D program to improve reliability is pretty much directly proportional to the variety of interfaces involved, it is economically advisable to work with integrated circuits for highest reliability. That is not to say that circuits built using standard components could not be made as reliable as integrated circuits, but that the expense involved because of the more complex over-all interface system would be much greater. Although electronic performance utilizing integrated circuits with all silicon elements (i.e., transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors) is adequate for many applications, there are numerous instances where thin-film passive elements must

Jan 1, 1965

By R. J. Lipp, I. Iwasaki, R. H. Heerema

The presence of calcium ion in iron ore pulps that are upgraded by selective desliming can result in indiscriminate flocculation of both iron oxide and siliceous gangue slimes. In order to overcome this adverse effect, deflocculation by three complexing agents, namely ethylenediaminetetzaacetate (EDTA), sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), and sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP), was investigated. The precipitates and complexes of these agents with calcium ion were characterized by potentiometric and conductometric titrations, and the surface properties of quartz and goethite were studied in the presence of calcium ion and of the complexing agents by means of streaming potential measurements and flotation tests. The results were then correlated with selective flocculation tests on an artificial mixture of quartz and goethite. EDTA markedly improved the selectivity of flocculation when added in near stoichiometric amounts, whereas STPP was less effective and SHMP was totally ineffective due to strong, indiscriminate dispersion. Remanent calcium polyphosphates on the goethite surface interfered with the adsorption of starch flocculant.

Jan 1, 1983

By J. C. McCarthy, J. B. Stone

AT Fresnillo a series of veins that has yielded very large quantities of silver and other metals has been developed over a length of 6500 ft. and to a depth of over 3000 ft. In the course of this work striking changes in the mineralogy and metal content of the principal veins have been disclosed and are well illustrated by assay data and ore reserve calculations. This paper describes those changes and suggests their bearing on theories of ore deposition. LOCATION The Fresnillo mines and the adjacent city of Fresnillo are in the central part of the state of Zacatecas, 35 miles northwest of the capitol city of Zacatecas, once a great silver-mining center whose total production is said to place it fourth in the world. Another famous old silver district, Sombrerete, lies northwest of Fresnillo. Fresnillo is connected by a 5-mile branch with Fresnillo station on the Mexican National Railways line from Juarez to Mexico City. Lying near the southwestern edge of the central plateau of Mexico, Fresnillo is surrounded by a semi-arid rolling plain from which rise widely scattered low hills. One of these is Proano hill, an inconspicuous elevation rising barely 300 ft. above the plain, but in and around Proa[n]o hill are the Fresnillo mines, and it is marked now by a great gash cut by gloryhole mining. HISTORY According to an account written in 1834 by Francisco García, then Governor of the state of Zacatecas, Fresnillo was discovered in 1554, and a presidio was established there in 1568 to protect travelers on the road between Zacatecas and Sombrerete. Little is known of the earliest mining at Fresnillo. which seemingly began soon after its discovery, but by piecing together various accounts, it appears that mines there were working in 1717 and were notable active in 1751 under an administrator named Murguía, who left detailed notes describing them. In 1757, however, the mines became inactive because of difficulties with creditors and no doubt also because of increasing water troubles, and they remained abandoned until 1830. In 1830 the mines at Fresnillo became the property of the State of Zacatecas because the interest of Governor García had been aroused by the long disregarded notes of Murguía. Under Garcia's energetic leadership the mines were reopened, and silver production began in 1832 in spite of serious difficulties, including abnormal rains and an epidemic of cholera. In 1833 English capital was sought to allow installation of steam-driven Cornish pumps at the two principal shafts and to build the great hacienda de benefacio (the present Proano hacienda). The company formed in 1835 (Cia. Zacatecano-Mexicana) operated successfully until 1872, when its career was brought to an end by the political and economic disturbances

Jan 1, 1942

By J. L. W. Birkinbine

This paper is a discussion of a part of the mineral wealth of the States of Oaxaca and Paebla, Mexico. It does not refer to the precious metals, sonie mines of which, in these States, are said to have been worked before the advent of the Spanish conquistadores in the sixteenth century, as my purpose is to invite attention to the exploration of deposits of coal and iron-ores in the Mixteca region. The prominence given to coal is warranted by the great effect of the scarcity of fuel upon the industrial development of Mexico. Under the progressive administration of President Porfirio Diaz, the Republic has made wonderful advances in the past three decades; and this progress would have been greater but for the limitations imposed by expensive fuel. In the spring of 1906 I was detailed by the Birkinbine Engineering Offices, of Philadelphia, to accompany A. B. Adams, of New York, in a reconnoissance of reported deposits of iron-ores in the State of Oaxaca. The result of this expedition was the formation, in 1907, of the Oaxaca Iron & Coal Co., of which Mr. Adams became, and has remained, President and General Manager, and I have spent the past three years as Chief Engineer of this company in Mexico, principally in western Oaxaca, where field-headquarters were established. GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION. Although the geographical and topographical features of the Republic of Mexico are well known, few realize that the majority of its population is domiciled in the States which immediately surround the capital city of Mexico, including the Federal District, Mexico, Tlaxcala, Morelos, Puebla,

Jan 1, 1911

By W. N. Poundstone, G. R. Spindler

A comprehensive report on extensive experimentation in degasification of the Pittsburgh Coal seam is presented. Detailed accounts of the procedures and results are given for permeability tests, vertical bore hole tests, measurement of gas flow from sealed drainage areas, horizontal rib hole tests, and water infusion tests. The removal of methane gas from coal seams in advance of mining is not a new idea with mining men—much attention has been given to the possibility for many years. In other parts of the world, a principal concern has been in the recovery and utilization of the gas and a number of successful projects have been developed in Europe and elsewhere. In this country, the principal motivation has been related to the safety aspect with some possible side benefits concerning costs and efficiency in mining as secondary objectives. To date, experimental work in this country has been largely or entirely exploratory to determine bed characteristics with respect to the liberation of combustible gases to investigate or establish the possibility of degasification in advance of mining and as an aid in projecting mine ventilation systems to provide for safe, effective and economical handling of combustible gases liberated during mining. With these objectives in mind, the School of Mines and Engineering Experiment Station at West Virginia University, in cooperation with the Christopher Coal Co. of Osage, W. Va., initiated some experimental work in May 1952 and the project has been more or less continuous since that time. The work has been centered entirely in mines of the cooperating company in Monongalia County, W. Va., and Greene County, Pa. LOCATION AND GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE AREA The principal mining in the area involved is in the Pittsburgh coal seam which lies at the bottom of the Monongahela series of the Pennsylvanian. The Pittsburgh coal in the area is generally uniform in its structure and physical characteristics. The bed thickness averages about 7 to 8 ft and the coal has a characteristic blocky structure as the result of pronounced face cleats and definite, but somewhat less pronounced, butt cleavage. It is a medium volatile coal, averaging about 37 pct, and is marketed principally as a steam fuel and for metallurgical purposes. The Pittsburgh coal outcrops along the Monongahela River and dips gradually, but not uniformly, slightly north of west (about N75°W). The westward extensions of the bed, from the areas contiguous to the Monongahela River which have been heavily mined, constitute the principal reserves and are all well below drainage with the depth of cover increasing with the distance from the river. In general, with deeper cover, it may be expected that methane liberation will be more of a problem in future mining as compared to areas mined previously; therein lies the interest in possible de-gasification in advance of mining. Fig. 1 shows the Pittsburgh coal area in the vicinity of Morgantown in Monongalia County, W. Va., and Greene County, Pa., in which the experimental work discussed is located. Fig. 2 shows the contours on the Pittsburgh coal in the test area. It will be noted that the first two bore holes for the experiments were at the edge of a bench or terrace with considerable change in the gradient in the immediate vicinity of the test holes and that the same general condition applies to later test areas. Mining is intensively mechanized in the area and in the mines involved in the experimental work with corresponding rapid advance of working faces a typical characteristic. In the areas now mined the total methane liberation ranges from moderate to relatively heavy, but the actual face liberation is extremely variable and may range from practically

Jan 1, 1961

By Ralph Smith

DEVELOPMENT of the lime industry in Ste, Genevieve County began in a crude way in 1840. According to information furnished by the Missouri Bureau of Geology, in the early days small vertical kilns built of stone were used, and wood was the fuel. Modern development began in 1904 when one company introduced steel shells lined with firebrick. Within a few years two more companies erected similar plants, and in 1925 a fourth company began operations. Thus there are today four lime companies at Ste. Genevieve, all operating at high capacity and with a gradually increasing production. GEOLOGY The limestone of Ste. Genevieve County, which has the chemical composition and purity required for lime burning, is the upper 80 or 90 ft. of Spergen formation. The Missouri Bureau of Geology, in its geological map of Ste. Genevieve County, gives the Spergen formation a total thickness of 160 ft., but only the upper portion is pure enough for lime burning, with an average raw-stone analysis of 98.7 per cent CaCO3; 0,35 Si02; 0,3 R203; 0.35 MgCO3; 0.3 SO3. The Spergen, one member of the Meramac group, Iowa series, of the Mississippian system, underlies an area approximately 12 miles long north and south, by 5 miles wide east and west (Fig. 1) in Ste. Genevieve County. The entire eastern two-thirds of Ste. Genevieve County is sedimentary, the formations dipping gently toward the east on an average grade of about 4 per cent, or 2 ½ °. Thus the outcrops of the various sedimentaries run approxi-mately north and south. A line running west from Ste. Genevieve crosses the outcrops of the sedimentaries, ranging from the top of the Mississippian to the Ozarkian geological system in a space of 12 miles. Thus with the gentle dip of 2 1/2° the 160-ft. thickness of the Spergen formation stretches out in its outcrop so that it is approximately one mile

Jan 1, 1938

By Ralph W. Smith

DEVELOPMENT of the lime industry- in Ste. Genevieve County began in a crude way in 1840. According to information furnished by the Missouri Bureau of Geology, in the early days small vertical kilns built of stone were used, and wood was the fuel. Modern development began in 1904 when one company introduced steel shells lined with firebrick. Within a few years two more companies erected similar plants, and in 1925 a fourth company began operations. Thus there are today four lime companies at Ste. Genevieve, all operating at high capacity and with a gradually increasing production. GEOLOGY The limestone of Ste. Genevieve County, which has the chemical composition and purity required for lime burning, is the upper 80 or 90 ft. of Spergen formation. The Missouri Bureau of Geology, in its geological map of Ste. Genevieve County, gives the Spergen formation a total thickness of 160 ft., but only the upper portion is pure enough for lime burning, with an average raw-stone analysis of 98.7 per cent CaC03; 0.35 Si02; 0.3 R203; 0.35 MgCO3; 0.3 S03. The Spergen, one member of the Meramac group, Iowa series, of the Mississippian system, underlies an area approximately 12 miles long north and south, by 5 miles wide east and west (Fig. 1) in Ste. Genevieve County. The entire eastern two-thirds of Ste. Genevieve County is sedimentary, the formations dipping gently toward the east on an average grade of about 4 per cent, or 2 ½ º. Thus the outcrops of the various sedimentaries run approximately north and south. A line running west from Ste. Genevieve crosses the outcrops of the sedimentaries, ranging from the top of the Mississippian to the Ozarkian geological system in a space of 12 miles. Thus with the gentle dip of 2 ½ º the 160-ft. thickness of the Spergen formation stretches out in its outcrop so that it is approximately one mile

Jan 1, 1938

By Philip B. Bucky

WITH the exhaustion of the sections of iron ore bodies amenable to opencut mining the iron ore miners raise the question: "How can we mine the extensions of these ore bodies in depth with the same costs as obtained in opencut work?" This question brings to the fore the relationship between mineral exploration and research on mining procedures. The iron miners must either find new de? posits amenable to their known methods of mining or develop new mining methods for deep deposits. It is understood that the oil companies will spend $30,000,000 next year in the search for new oil fields. How much the metal mining companies will spend in the search for new ore bodies is unknown, but without doubt the amount will run into several millions of dollars. If the mining companies that concern themselves with metals, nonmetallics, and fuels will set aside a substantial sum for fundamental and applied research in mining methods, they can not only lower their costs but increase their reserves thereby. Any increases in mining efficiency automatically result in increased ore reserves at no cost.

Jan 1, 1947

By M. G. Corson

THE iron-silicon alloy series has always been one of the most puzzling among the binary alloys. Examining the well known mechanical properties of the iron-rich alloys only we meet the following situation: The ultimate strength and yield point of alloys worked and annealed under the usual conditions represent nearly a straight line function of the silicon content up to 4.5 per cent. silicon (Fig. 1). Starting at the ultimate strength of 35,000 lb. and at a yield point of 16,000 lb. for pure electrolytic iron, one reaches a maximum strength of 93,000 lb. and a maximum yield point of 74,000 lb. at 4.5 per cent. silicon. This corresponds to an increase in ultimate strength by 13,000 lb. per each per cent. of silicon added and nearly the same rate applies to the yield point. The data mentioned are taken from the investigation by T. D. Yensen,1 and while they do not exactly corroborate the results obtained by earlier investigators, they seem to be the most correct. Plastic properties of the alloys are controlled by a much more complicated relationship. Up to 2.5 per cent. Si, the elongation stays close to 50 per cent. (in 2 in.) and the area reduction amounts to 85 per cent;, a situation that forms the usual feature of all alloys representing strictly solid solutions. The plasticity of the latter is always nearly equal to that of their base metal. Beyond 2.5 per cent. silicon, the situation becomes much more complicated. Yensen observed an enormous drop in elongation and area reduction at about 2.65 per cent. silicon, where the first hardly reaches 10 per cent. and the second is still lower; he found, however, a considerable recovery in plasticity at about 2.8 per cent. Si and up to 4.5 per cent. Si it is represented by 20 per cent. for the elongation and 30 per cent. for area reduction.

Jan 1, 1928

By A. E. Jenkins, A. Jostsons

Isothermal sections of the Ti-0-H phase diagvam at 600°, 700°, and 800°C have been constructed from equilibrium hydrogen pressure measurements over a range of Ti-0-H alloys containing up to 34 at. pct 0. Oxygen reduces the hydrogen solubility at fixed hydrogen pressure but increases the terminal solubility in the a solid solutions at the a/(a + P) phase boundary. Metal-lographic studies of alloys annealed below the eutectoid temperature show that oxygen also increases the ter-ninal solubility of hydrogen in the a solid solution in equilibrium with the hydride phase. The effect of oxygen on hydrogen solubility is discussed in terms of the electronic and geometric structure of interstitial solid solutions. THE isothermal solubility of hydrogen in a Ti-0 alloys at 800°C has been measured by Hepworth and ~chuhmann' who subsequently used ternary Gibbs-Duhem integrations to calculate oxygen activities in binary Ti-0 alloys. The present study aims to extend Hepworth and Schuhmann's measurements to alloys richer in oxygen and to a range of temperatures. This paper presents the results of hydrogen equilibrium pressure/concentration measurements in Ti-0 alloys as well as observations on the effect of oxygen on the terminal solubility of hydrogen in a titanium. The thermodynamic properties of binary Ti-0 alloys, derived from these measurements, will be published separately.' EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Specimen Preparation. Ti-0 alloys were prepared from iodide-refined titanium and titanium dioxide obtained by hydrolysis of redistilled titanium tetrachlo- ride. Specimens containing up to 16 at. pct 0 were prepared by electromagnetic levitation3 whereas a conventional tungsten arc furnace with a water-cooled copper hearth was used to melt oxygen-rich alloys. The specimen homogeneity was indicated by the constancy of lattice parameters of samples from various parts of the ingot as well as by the sharpness of the reflections on X-ray powder patterns. Oxygen-rich specimens in the composition range (20 to 34 at. pct), where ordering has been ~bserved,~ were annealed for 300 hr at 600°C prior to use in hydrogen solubility measurements. Apparatus. The hydrogen pressure/concentration measurements were made with a modified Sieverts apparatus shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1. Specimens were placed in a clear silica tube and impurity pickup by direct reaction with silica was prevented by lining the heated end of the silica tube with thin molybdenum sheet. A double silica tube was required to eliminate loss of hydrogen by diffusion through silica at high temperatures and high hydrogen pressures, the space between the tubes being maintained at a hydrogen pressure equal to that above the specimen. Hydrogen was purified by diffusion through a Ag-Pd tube.= Hydrogen pressures were measured with a mercury McLeod gage in the range 0.001 to 4 Torr

Jan 1, 1968

By B. Silliman

THESE ores occur in the Laurentian rocks in the town of Clifton, St. Lawrence County, New York. The Clifton Mining Company have opened these magnetites upon their estate of 23,000 acres, on the waters of the Grasse River, an affluent of the St. Lawrence, which flows for about nine milt",3 across the estate, exposing a section of the formation, and affording ample water-power at numerous points. In approaching this district from De Kalb Junction, upon the Watertown and Ogdensburg Railway, the observer passes from the zone of the specular ores, which abound to a great extent in Jefferson County, across a belt of non-metal-liferous limestones, continuing for some miles intermingled with metamorphic rocks, and gradually giving place to heavy beds of granitic and porphyritic gneiss, the weathered surfaces of which present a gray and rough appearance, from the washing out of the feldspar; leaving the quartz very prominent, and completely disguising the real character of the rock, which, when freshly broken, has a lively reddish appearance from the predominance of flesh-colored and red feldspar. Beds of fine-grained quartzite appear also intercalated in the granitic gneiss. These are the dominating rocks of the magnetite region, but the magnetite is always found, so far as the speaker's observation extended, associated with beds of calcite, carrying hornblende, black and green, biotite, and brown garnet interspersed with yellow and magnetic pyrites. The strike of these rocks is about northeast, and their dip about 40' to 45' southeast

By J. B. Cohen, M. B. Beaver, R. J. Black

RECENT investigations have shown that face-centered cubic metals may deform by twinning. Blewitt, et al' found that at 4.2"K the mode of def~rmation of single crystals of copper changed at large strains and markings formed on (111) planes. Later they- emonstrated by X-ray diffraction and metallography that the markings were twins and showed that favorably oriented single crystals of copper deformed by twinning at 78°K. They also observed twinning in silver and gold deformed at 4.2 and 78°K. Wagner3 obtained evidence for twinning from the peak shape of diffraction lines of silver cold-worked at 78°K, but twins small enough to cause such effects are not likely to be detected metal-lographically. In the work reported here lamellar structures were observed in deformed silver-gold alloys. They appeared to be mechanical twins, but metallography could not establish this conclusively. Their tendency to form depended on strain rate, temperature and composition. Specimens of silver-gold alloys (0 to 83 wt pct Au) were deformed plastically. One set was worked by hammering under liquid nitrogen, at room temperature and at intermediate temperatures. Another set was compressed slowly in liquid nitrogen to the same reductions as those produced by hammering. Tensile specimens (0.015 x 0.120 x 1.5 in.) of various compositions and approximately equal grain size (0.011 to 0.016 cm) were tested at -195°C and at room temperature. In microsections of all specimens deformed by hammering at —195°C thin lamellae appeared, Fig. 1. They were aligned in definite directions in each grain. In some grains they had two orientations. Where lamellae intersected, a displacement was apparent. Near the center of the left margin of Fig. 1 shear has taken place beyond the fully developed intersecting lamella. Many lamellae resembled Neumann bands in alpha iron. They were parallel to one side of triangular etch pits in the matrix (as in Figs. 1 and 2). The individual lamellae were narrow and had little substructure. This suggested that they did not result from concentrated local slip. The shape of etch pits within the lamellae differed from that of pits in the matrix, as can be seen in Fig. 2; this indicated a difference in orientation. Specimens slowly deformed at —195°C contained regions in which the lamellae were clustered. In these specimens some lamellae were bent and presumably had formed before the termination of the deformation. Structures of greater width than the lamellae were also seen.4 More lamellar structures formed on impact than during slow compression to a given reduction. This was true of all compositions. The structures became less abundant with increasing temperature of deformation. None was observed after extension to fracture at room temperature, but they could be pro-

Jan 1, 1959

By Dorsey Hager

THE possibility of oil and gas production in Alabama has been little considered as yet. Gas and some oil have been found in northwestern Alabama, near Birmingham, in the Pennsylvanian beds, but the oil and gas possibilities in the Cretaceous beds are not generally appreciated. The recent activity of oil companies in that State has attracted much attention, and in this paper the main structural and the general stratigraphic features are described. Four favorable areas are outlined. These contain folds of major interest. There are other favorable areas which have not been mapped. Commercial pools discovered in this area would have the advantage of being near tidewater. Mobile, Ala., on the Gulf, of Mexico, would be the logical site for refineries and shipping facilities. A pipe line could readily be laid to that city from the Hatchitigbee and the Jackson areas. The logical outlet for the Geneva and the Gordon areas would be Panama City, Fla., on the Gulf of Mexico.

Jan 2, 1918

By Eric Jette

IN order to control a chemical process by other than empirical, rule of thumb methods, two types of knowledge concerning the reactions involved must be available: (1) the thermodynamics of the reactions, and (2), by no means less important for efficient operation, the mechanisms and kinetics of the reactions. Information on the thermodynamic side enables the operator to decide upon initial and final conditions, whether heat must be .added or removed from the system, whether the reactions proceed farthest in the desired direction at high pressure or low, etc. Knowledge of the mechanisms involves the determination of the individual steps by which an initial set of reactants, under given conditions, proceed to give the desired final products and kinetic studies upon which the mechanisms are based give the speed at which each of these reactions or steps take place. Thus thermodynamic studies of a 'reaction enable the operator to control the direction and extent to which the reaction can proceed, while kinetic studies enable him to control rates and thus the time' efficiency of the operations. The thermodynamics set the limit to which the reacting system approaches; the kinetics tell how fast the system actually approaches this limit. The two types of information are complementary and not antagonistic even though in discussing the mechanism the introduction of thermodynamics is entirely needless and generally of no assistance, while in thermodynamic studies mechanism need not even be mentioned.

Jan 1, 1931

By A. T. Sweet, C. E. Plummer, H. W. St. Clair, S. F. Ravitz

The ammonium sulphate process for recovering alumina from clays was proposed by Rinman, Buchner, and others many years ago, and more recently various modifications have been investigated both here arid abroad.l-Is The process, as it is being investigated by the Bureau of Mines, involves the following essential steps: (I) sulphating the alumina in the clay by baking with ammonium sulphate at approximately 4m°C., (2) leaching with water to extract aluminum sulphate and ammonium sulphate, (3) crystallization of ammonium alum, (4) conversion of the alum to aluminum hydroxide by the ammonia gases given off during the baking, and (5) calcining the aluminum hydroxide to alumina. The over-all reaction between kaolinite (the most important alumina mineral in most clays) and ammonium sulphate during the baking step may be expressed as follows: Al2O8.2SiO2.2H2O + 4(NH4)2SO4 = (NH4)2SO4.A12(SO4)3 + 6NH3(g) + SH2O(g) + 2SiO2 [i] There is definite evidence. as is shown later. that the aluminum occurs in the baked product as anhydrous ammonium alum rather than as aluminum sulphate, provided the baking temperature is not much above 4o0°C. It is probable that the reaction takes place in the following steps: (NH4)2SO4 = NH3 -(- NH4HSO4 [2] Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O + ;}NH4HSO4 = A12(SO4)3 + 3NH3 + 5H2O + 2SiO2 [3] A12(SO4)3 + (NH4)2SO4 = (NH4)2SO4.A12(SO4)3 [4] In onc modification of the process, the ammonium sulphate is first decomposed according to Eq. z, and the clay is treated with the resultant ammonium acid sulphate. Reaction I is highly endothermic. On the basis of the best available data, the following values have been estimated for the changes in heat content and free energy in calories per mol: -AH = 331,040 - 34T -AF = 331~040 - 78.3T log T - 671.8T The heat required' at 25OC is 320,900 cal. per mol, or 5650 B.t.u. per pound of alumina. The theoretical equilibcium pressure of NHa, based on the free-energy equation given above, increases very rapidly as the temperature rises above 3o0°C., and reaches one atmosphere at 43s°C. Ammonium alum solutions are almost ideal for crystallization. A saturated solution of ammonium alum contains 126. grams of AlzOa per 1000 grams of water at 90°C. and only 16.5 at 20 C. Hence most of the alum crystallizes out when the

Jan 1, 1944

By R. A. Pasternak, B. Evans

A dynamic technique for the determination of solubilities of gases in metals has been explored, using the N-Nb system as a test case. An initially clean sample, maintained at constant high temperature, is exposed to the gas at low pressure: the rate of sorp-tion and the corresponding change in sample resistance are measured continuously. A pronounced decrease in the slope of the resistance concentration curve is observed at the terminal solubility. The rate of gas uptake by the sample was determined in an ultrahigh-vacuum flow system equipped with a servo-control which maintains constant pressure in the sample chamber; the system and the technique have been described in detail elsewhere. 1,2 The sample was held at constant temperature during sorption by maintaining approximately constant power input into it; this results in constant temperature, since the emissivity of a metal is independent of moderate concentrations of dissolved gas. The simple electrical circuit used both for heating and for resistance measurement is shown in Fig. 1. The power input into the filament is where R is the filament resistance, RL is an adjustable resistance in series with the filament, and VT is the constant dc potential of the power source. If RL is set equal to R at the beginning of an absorption run, the power input becomes insensitive to subsequent resistance changes; for example, an increase of 20 pct in sample resistance is accompanied by a decrease in power input of less than 0.8 pct; i.e., the

Jan 1, 1967

By J. R. Long, A. H. Roberson, T. R. Graham, R. S. Dean

Experimental work on the properties of high-purity alloys of the copper-man-ganese-zinc system has necessarily required extensive metallographic work to determine the equilibrium conditions in this system. Previous work on these alloys is fragmentary and, unfortunately, based on alloys made with impure grades of manganese, thus introducing significant amounts of iron, silicon, aluminum and carbon. Since these elements are known to affect equilibrium conditions, it became desirable to re-examine these alloys made from the pure metals. The alpha solid solution field was of particular interest and, therefore, was chosen for the initial work, which was outlined to determine the composition limits of this field. Previous Work Heuslerl conducted an extensive survey of the liquid-solid regions of this system and also made an estimate of the solid-phase boundaries at 340°C. The pertinent part of his diagram is given in Fig. I, but it is of limited usefulness, since it applied to a single temperature only and is based on impure alloys under admittedly nonequilib- rium conditions. Bauer and Hansen,2 likewise working with impure alloys, have determined the phase boundaries for alpha-beta brasses containing small amounts of manganese and indicate an increase in the extent of the alpha field with increasing manganese. This is not in accordance with Heusler or with data obtained on pure alloys.3 They also described a third constituent precipitating in the alpha plus beta field below 350' to 400°C. but did not identify this constituent. Guillet4 and Heike and Ledibur6 have also noted this precipitate. Each of these investigators recognized that impurities present in the manganese could and did have an effect on the structure and properties of their alloys. Corson6 in particular pointed out the hardening effects of silicon, aluminum, and carbon in copper-manganese alloys and Heusler reported that his alloys containing more than 25 per cent manganese were extremely brittle. In all probability this brittleness was due to the impurities present. This early work, therefore, should be taken as a general guide for preliminary studies only, and high-purity alloys may be expected to produce different results. The work of the Bureau of Mines laboratories with electrolytic manganese has been briefly summarized by Dean7 but includes only a short section on this system. Later work3 outlined a limited portion of the alpha field in the neighborhood of 65 per cent copper, 10 per cent manganese, and 25 per cent zinc. The present work was under-

Jan 1, 1945

By R. A. Flinn, John T. Norton

A CONSIDERABLE number of experiments in recent years have definitely established the fact that the internal friction or mechanical hysteresis of a metal under cyclic stress is a property that is highly "structure sensitive." Because of this fact, it has been suggested that an observation of this property, which often is referred to as "damping. capacity," might be a useful indicator of structural. changes taking place when a metal or alloy is subjected to any of a number of metallurgical treatments. Damping capacity is of interest to both engineer and metallurgist, but from a rather different point of view, and the information that each desires from such observations is of a different nature. The metallurgist is in search of various external indications of changes taking place in the interior of a metal; changes which are in themselves not directly observable. Even if the observed phenomenon cannot be explained in fundamental terms, it may be empirically related to certain characteristics of the material and prove of real value in research. Internal friction os mechanical hysteresis occupies such a position, and, although it is nor well understood in terms of basic metallic theory, an observation of itt changes can serve in a very useful capacity. Of course, there is nothing new in the measurement of damping, but the use of this property in metallurgical research constitutes a vast field, which has received all too little attention: The present work is essentially of an exploratory nature in this field and is an attempt to evaluate the process as a research tool. The phenomenon of age-hardening was chosen as a typical example of a structural change and one method of measuring damping was examined in considerable detail.

Jan 1, 1938