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DAVID WHITE,* Washington, D. C.-This paper is very timely since the Philippine Islands are presumably open to the enterprise of the American driller, whereas much of the territory in that part of the world is closed to us. The United States has ambitious plans for the operation of a great merchant marine, which is to be oil burning in the main, and it takes but a glance at the world map to see the strategic advantage of oil supplies in the Philippines for such marine operations. It is a little difficult to understand why more attention has not been given to the Philippines, in spite of the difficulties attending development in these islands. A number of American oil companies are, I believe, at the present moment taking an interest in the possibilities of the Philippines. Important factors in the formulation of opinion regarding the importance of the oil deposits of the Philippines, as brought out by Mr. Pratt,1 are the point of view and the breadth of experience of the examining geologist. The average oil geologist, whose experience has been mainly in the Appalachian region, the Mid-continent, or Louisiana, or possibly even in California, on seeing the narrowness of the basins, the closeness of the folding, and the presence of igneous rocks here and there, would be likely to draw unfavorable conclusions as to the possibilities of the Philippine Islands. Geologists visiting that region should be familiar with the geological conditions of oil occurrence in Japan, Formosa, the East Indies, or in the Baku district, and their conclusions should be formulated with the knowledge and understanding of the occurrence of oil in those regions rather than in the United States.

Jan 8, 1920

Discussion of the paper of C. M. YOUNG, presented at the St. Louis meeting, October, 1917, and printed in Bulletin No. 129, September, 1917, pp. 1369 to 1384. CARL SCHOLZ, Chicago, Ill.-Mr. Young was kind enough to' allude to the development of a mine in which I am now engaged. Several months ago the Burlington Railroad decided to open a mine in the field Which they own in Franklin County containing some 15,000 acres .(6070 ha.) of coal, ranging in thickness from 8 to 12 ft. (2 to 3.6 m.). This proposition in itself is attractive to any mining engineer, but with the backing of a large company I saw an opportunity to do some novel work in the construction line, and for several months I have been investigating and working on the problem of developing what I hope will be the largest and best equipped mine in the State of Illinois. The shaft will be sunk at a place where the coal lies at a depth of 600 ft. (182 m.) and conditions both of the surface and of the coal are ideal in every way; the seam is almost level, and we had only 7 ft. (2 m.) of surface clay to go through. We are going to hoist by skips in order to reduce the rope speed. I believe that is a long step in the direction of economy, because we not only double the output of the mine by hoisting the contents of two cars atone time, but we reduce the proportion of dead weight. In our case there will be 20 tons of coal and 18,000 lb. of skip, or 55 per cent. net and 45 per cent. tare. That, of course, necessitates less than half the rope speed for the same tonnage, and we all know that speed means power and power means cost. Skip hoisting permits the use of solid-end gate cars, which is an advantage. The cost of these cars will be in the neighborhood of $250 apiece; They are well built, with roller-bearing wheels of the most up-to-date type, spring draw-bars, and refinements of-that character which are necessary to move the loads most advantageously.

Jan 1, 1918

By M. T. Martinson, I. W. Nicholson, C. J. Chindgren, F. P. Williams, L. C. Bauerle, S. F. Ravitz

The vanadiferous shales of southeastern Idaho and southwestern Wyoming constitute the largest known reserve of vanadium in the United States.' These deposits have never been exploited except for the relatively small amounts of vanadium recovered by the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. in the treatment of phosphate rock from southeastern Idaho. The maior domestic source of vanadium has been the sandstone ores of southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado. Early in World War 11, it appeared that these ores could not meet the greatly increased demand for vanadium, so the investigation described in this report was undertaken to develop processes for the recovery of vanadium from the Idaho-Wyoming deposits. The utilization of these deposits became unnecessary, however, because of greatly expanded production from the Utah-Colorado sandstone ores and the continued availability of vanadium from other sources, chiefly Peru. The major use of vanadium is as an alloying agent in the manufacture of high-quality steels. Vanadium constructional steels usually contain 0.05 to 0.20 pct vanadium, which refines the grain and increases the strength, elastic limit, and resistance to shock and fatigue. Vanadium tool steels not used in high-speed work contain 0.10 to 0.60 pct whereas high-speed tool steels contain 1.0 to 4.0 pct. Vanadium compounds are used as catalysts (principally for the oxidation of SO2 to sulphuric acid and of naphthalene to phthalic acid) and in the paint, chemical, ceramic, dye, and printing industries. The selection of the particular ore deposit to be exploited would involve consideration of many factors besides the metallurgical results that might be obtained. Chief among these would be the reserves of ore available, the grade of the ore, and the mining costs. As very little was known about any of these factors, it was necessary to investigate methods of treatment of all the ores under consideration, working with samples obtained in the course of the exploration work, even though they were not positively representative of the whole deposit from which they were taken. Because of wartime conditions prevailing when this investigation was started, first consideration was given to processes that could be put into operation most quickly and would involve minimum use of strategic materials, even though these processes might not be the most economical.

Jan 1, 1949

By P. M. Budge, William L. Fink, Kent R. Van Horn

The investigation of the phase relations of high-purity aluminum-base alloys is a part of the fundamental research program of the laboratories of the Aluminum Company of America. The results of a number of binary and ternary systems have previously been published in the Transactions of this society. The aluminum end of the binary aluminum-titanium system has been studied. This system has received relatively little attention. To the authors' knowledge, there are two previous papers on this subject. E. van Erckelensl determined the constitutional diagram reproduced in Fig. 1. According to this diagram, the liquidus represents the separation of TiA14, (Ti = 30.7 per cent.). He concluded that this is the composition of the compound, because in his work the eutectic horizontal terminated at 30.7 per cent. titanium and the metallographic examinalion of a sample of this composition revealed only one phase. According to the constitutional diagram developed by W. Manchot and A. Leber,² reproduced in Fig. 2 from data given in their article, the liquidus represents the separation of the compound TiA13 (Ti = 37.2 per cent. ). The composition of the compound was derived in a manner similar to that utilized by van Erckelens. Moreover, Manchot and Leber confirmed the composition of the compound by analysis of the constituent left as a residue after dissolving the alloys in weak sodium hydroxide solution. Although these are the only publications describing the constitution of the system, other investigators have studied the composition of the titanium compound. L. WÖhler3 says that there is a compound TiA13 which was later confirmed by W. Manchot and P. Richter4 and by

Jan 1, 1931

By Charles H. Jones

Jan 1, 1905

By Pol Duwez, Howard E. Martens

INTRODUCTION THE high temperatures encountered in the operation of jet engines have imposed most drastic requirements upon the materials used in their construction. There are two different approaches to the materials problem connected with the design of parts in contact with high temperature gases. The first approach is to use a material which will perform satisfactorily at a temperature comparable to that of the gas. The second approach is to use a cooling system so that the material is maintained at a temperature appreciably lower than that of the gas. Besides the conventional method .of cooling by means of a liquid in contact with the material exposed to a high rate of heat transfer, a less orthodox method consists of making the part to be cooled of a porous material, so that the cooling fluid can be forced through the pores. In this scheme, the temperature of the coolant moving in a direction opposite to that of the heat flow increases gradually while passing through the porous material, and the coolant forms a protective layer on the surface exposed to heat. This method, referred to as "sweat cooling," was proposed at the jet Propulsion Laboratory in September 1944, and the experimental work on the preparation of porous metals was started early in 1945. The sweat cooling method opens new lines of research in powder metallurgy by extending the field of application of porous metals. The porous metals available at the present time are used mostly as bearings or filters, and a rather limited number of alloys are made for these applications. In addition, the fabrication of bearings or filters does not require a very dose control of the permeability, while in the case of sweat cooling such a control is of primary importance. In designing a sweat cooled part it is imperative to assure a given rate of flow of coolant under certain conditions of pressure drop. Generally, the proper pressure drop and the rate of flow of coolant are deduced from heat transfer and design considerations, and consequently the permeability of the porous metal to be used is also determined. It is therefore necessary for the designer to have available a continuous series of porous metals covering a range of permeability as wide as possible. Contrary to the requirements established in the fabrication of filters, the actual pore size of a porous metal intended for sweat cooling is of little consequence, except for its effect on permeability. The tensile strength is likely to be of great importance for some applications. Since the tensile strength of a porous alloy decreases with increasing porosity, an important problem is to develop porous alloys having the maximum permeability with minimum porosity.

Jan 1, 1948

By Dennis J. McCarthy

TAX TREATMENT OF EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT EXPENSES Exploration Expenditures General Principles. Exploration expenditures are expenses incurred within the United States or the Outer Continental Shelf for the purpose of ascertaining the existence, location, extent or quality of any deposit of ore or other mineral. Section 617 of the Internal Revenue Code permits a taxpayer to elect to deduct these expenditures currently. In default of election, exploration expenditures must be capitalized and included in the basis of the mineral property for purposes of determining cost depletion. Entitlement to Deduction. In order to qualify for current deduction, exploration expenditures must be incurred prior to the commencement of the development stage, i.e., when mineral deposits are shown to exist in sufficient quantity and quality to reasonably justify commercial exploitation. Generally, expenditures for geological and geophysical investigations, reconnaissance, surveying, testpitting, trenching, drilling, driving of exploration tunnels and adits and similar types of work constitute exploration expenditures if incurred prior to the commencement of development. However, expenditures to further delineate the extent and location of an existing commercially marketable deposit are not exploration expenditures. Exploration expenditures may be incurred from within a producing mine to ascertain the existence of what appears to be a different ore deposit. Expenditures for property which is subject to an allowance for depreciation are not deductible under §617. However, depreciation properly allowable on assets used in exploration is an exploration expenditure. Election to Deduct Exploration Expenditures. The election to deduct exploration expenditures is made by deducting these expenditures in the return for the first taxable year for which such treatment is desired. The election applies to all properties of the taxpayer. Once the election is made all exploration expenditures, in the year of election and thereafter, must be deducted, unless the election is revoked with the prior consent of the Commissioner. The Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (TEFRA) made substantial changes in the treatment of exploration expenditures. For exploration expenses incurred after 1982 and before 1984 by a corporation, the amount currently deductible is limited to 85% of the expenditure. The remaining 15% must be capitalized and recovered over a five-year period. Although exploration costs capitalized under this provision are not part of the basis of the property for cost depletion purposes, investment credit may be claimed with respect to these expenditures. Further changes have been added by the Tax Reform Act of 1984 with respect to expenditures made after 1984. The Act reduces the amount of otherwise currently deductible costs from 85% to 80%. Additionally, it limits the availability of the investment credit for capitalized mineral exploration costs to deposits located in the United States. TEFRA also allows individuals a special method of recovery under which exploration expenditures may, at the election of the taxpayer, be amortized ratably over a 10-year period beginning with the year in which the costs are paid or incurred. If taxpayer does not use this method, the excess of the exploration expenditures actually deducted over the amount that would have been deducted if 10 year amortization had been elected is an item of tax preference subject to the alternative minimum tax.

Jan 1, 1985

By J. R. Cahoon, W. V. Youdelis

In a previous communication by one of us,1 a theory of inverse segregation was presented by which the maximum segregation and segregation distribution throughout a unidirectionally solidified, binary-alloy ingot could be calculated. The theory, which is based on the mechanism of volume contraction and interdendritic flow, quantitatively accounts for the observed maximum segregation in the A1 (rich)-CU' and Al-Zn2 alloy systems, and for the segregation distribution along the ingot lengths for the A1-Cu system.''4 One of the drawbacks to a more extensive use of the segregation equations is their complexity, particularly for the calculation of the segregation distribution throughout the length of the ingot, involving long tedious numerical calculations to obtain the segregation. Computer pro- grams, written in Fortran II for use on an IBM 1620 computer, have been developed by the authors (and are available from them), providing quick and accurate methods for the determination of the theoretical maximum segregation in any binary-alloy system, and also for the segregation distribution in any unidirectionally solidified binary-alloy ingot. The segregation distribution is controlled by the lengths of the various solidification zones'74 which are in turn controlled by the cooling rate, and are determined from temperature-distribution curves obtained during solidification. The theoretical segregation distributions shown in Fig. 1 illustrate the effect of the zone lengths on the distribution Curve 1, indicative of a slowly cooled ingot, represents an ingot having long solidification zones, while Curve 2, indicative of a rapidly cooled ingot, represents an ingot having relatively short zones. Although these distributions are calculated for an A1-10 pct Cu ingot, the shape of the distribution would be similar for any binary-alloy ingot. These curves show clearly why early workers obtained results which indicated that the maximum (chill-face) segregation approached zero at very fast cooling rates.3 Actually, the maximum segregation is independent of cooling rate,' but even at short distances from the chill face the amount of segregation drops considerably, particularly in a rapidly cooled ingot, making it very difficult to establish the amount of segregation occurring at the chill-face. The authors would like to thank Dr. J. A. Goldak for his assistance in the preparation of the programs. The financial assistance of the Steel Co. of Canada and of the National Research Council of Canada in the form of Scholarships to one of us (J. R. Cahoon) is gratefully acknowledged.

Jan 1, 1964

By H. L. Gilbert, C. T. Anderson, W. J. Kroll

In a previous paper,' the use of a split graphite tube resistor as a heater element for high-temperature furnaces has been described. The principal advantages of this type of construction are: I. The quadruple resistance or voltage compared with the top-bottom clamp resistor furnace. 2. Free expansion of the resistor. 3. The ease of protection from oxidation by air. 4. The firmness by which it may be held in the compact split clamp. This construction appeared to be well adapted for the fusion of high melting metals which require fusion in a vacuum. Zirconium metal had previously been melted at the Albany Laboratory of the Bureau of Mines in a vacuum arc furnace on a water-cooled plate, using a movable tungsten top electrode.% When larger furnace capacities were desired, this type of construction proved to have its limitations as the largest tungsten rods available were about 7/8 in. in diameter. The supply of direct current of high amperage for producing the desired arc characteristics was also not available. Considerable difficulty was also found in compensating the atmospheric pressure on the flcxible tubing of the movable electrodc, at the same time keeping its movement sufficiently free to enable the striking of an arc on any part of the metal briquet. Among the various materials used for the electrodes in conducting experiments in the vacuum arc furnace was graphite. It was found that zirconium fused in a graphite cup with a carbon arc was contaminated to only 0.2 pct carbon. It was therefore decsed to melt zirconium directly in graphite crucibles. A high-frequency furnace was first used in the attempt to melt the zirconium in graphite crucibles. The high-frequency heating coil was placed outside a silica tube which was evacuated by means of an oil diffusion pump backed up by a mechanical pump. The graphite crucible was thoroughly degassed at 19oo"C before use. Considerable difficulty was experienced in operating at such temperatures in vacuo because, as shown by Zintl,3 carbon vapor formed and reacted with silica accortling to the reaction: SiO² + C = SiO + CO. The silicon monoxide which is volatile at these high temperatures reacted with the zirconium, thereby contaminating it with silicon and oxygen. The presence of carbon monoxide was detected by means of a gas discharge tube placed in the vacuum system as indicated by the pale blue glow of the tube as soon as carbon vapor started to react with the hot silica. The reaction between the carbon vapor and hot silica was avoided by the use of split cylindrical molybdenum shields which were inserted between the graphite crucible

Jan 1, 1949

August 10 to 14, 1914, inclusive Headquarters will be at the Hotel Utah. The following program of the meeting has been arranged y the Local Committees: Monday, August 10.-Members and guests will register at the Secretary's desk in Room C-38, Hotel Utah, and receive the official badges, booklets and programs of the meeting. At 2:30 P. M., there will be an organ recital at the Mormon Tabernacle, after which members and guests will be taken for a trip around Salt Lake City in sight-seeing motor cars. At 8:30 P. M., the ladies will assemble in the lobby of the Hotel Utah, where they will be met by the members of the Ladies' Entertainment Committee, and will be taken for an automobile drive about the city. At 8:30 P. M., a technical session will be held in the ballroom of the Hotel Utah. The following papers will be presented: F. W. BACORN: An Amendment to Sales's Theory of Ore Deposition. C. W. GOODALE: Drumlummon Mine, Marysville, Mont. I. B. JORALEMON: The Ajo Copper-Mining District. STUART CROASDALE: Leaching Experiments on the Ajo Ore. FRANK R. VAN HORN: The Occurrence of Bournonite, Jamesonite, and Calamine at Park City. HOWLAND BANCROFT: Dip Chart. M. N. ALLING: Ancient Auriferous Gravel Channels of Sierra County, California. B. S. BUTLER AND H. D. MCCASKEY: Copper Ores of the New London Mine. GEORGE A. PACKARD: Rope Idlers in the Raven Shaft. ARTHUR CROWFOOT: Development of the Round Table at Great Falls. FREDERICK LAIST AND A. E. WIGGIN: The Slime-Concentrating Plant at Anaconda. W, L, AUSTIN: The Treatment of Copper Ore by Leaching Methods. W. L. AUSTIN: Leaching Copper Products at the Steptoe Works.

Jan 8, 1914

By Harry M. Conger

It is a pleasure for me to keynote this first Western Regional Minerals and Coal Conference here in the Black Hills of South Dakota. It is pleasing for two main reasons. First, Homestake Mining Company has been associated with the Black Hills since 1875 when gold was discovered following Custer's trek through the Hills during 1874. Second, the future mineral development of the Black Hills will depend, to a great extent, on minerals and metals covered in this conference. The metals and minerals that are featured in this conference have unique similarities--and important differences--and therefore, will be of great interest to all who are involved in our industry in this area of the country. Precious metals have always been, and likely will always be, subject to political influence; they are only partially affected by the demands of our industrial economy. Energy minerals, while more directly affected by industrial stimulus, are also politically sensitive. In this regard, the need for a minerals policy affecting the energy sphere has been made very clear to us in the last five years. More importantly, the lack of a national policy and purpose relating to our total future energy needs has severely affected the overall economy and security of this country. Very briefly today, I would like to outline for you my thoughts on the future of these most important minerals. I will start by a discussion of precious metals, primarily my favorite precious metal, gold. A brief history of gold will be helpful in setting a perspective for forecasting its future although it is difficult to give a brief description of a metal that has been prized by man for over 6,000 years. Until recently, as you know, gold was held by the Federal government as a metal to be owned by the government only and

Jan 1, 1983

By W. G. Whildin

This paper will be confined to a discussion of the methods in use in the property of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co. in the Panther Creek valley. Only the methods used in mining the Mammoth vein will be .considered, as the methods in use in the smaller veins are adaptations of the same. Typical cross-sections of the coal basin are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. The Mammoth vein varies in thickness. It is 21 ft. at one colliery, 50 to 125 ft. at another, and over 200 ft. at still another. Its normal thickness is 35 to 40 ft. At some points in the Panther Creek basin the Mammoth vein is made up of three splits-the Bottom, Middle, and Top, while in other portions the dividing strata between the benches amount to only 1 ½ to 2 ½ ft., and the vein is practically in one. The section of the Mammoth vein shown in Fig. 4 was taken at the Greenwood colliery, and shows a thickness of 60 ft. The miners know it by benches, as follows:. The Three-Foot, the Four-Foot, the Eighteen-Inch Slate, the Bony, the Grey Slate, the Grain Clear, the Five-Foot, the Seven-Foot, the Slaty or Dirty benches, the Blue Slate, and the Top bench. The present-day methods of mining are an outgrowth of the experiences of the last 100 years in this territory. The first attempt at mining, according to the company's maps, was made at Summit Hill in 1792, when open cuts and pits were made. Later the pillar-and-breast method was introduced. This and other methods will be discussed hereinafter. Drifts, slopes, and shafts, according to the requirements and physical conditions, are the main openings, from which the gangways are driven. The gangways (haulageways) and airways are driven along the strike of the vein; the gangways in the various veins on the same level being connected by tunnels through the intervening rock. The gangways and airways in thick veins are heavily timbered ;throughout. The sets of timber, consisting of a collar and two legs, are spaced 5 ft. apart, and later, after the ground :has settled, additional sets, called "liners" or "relief sets," are placed between, to relieve the strain on the original timbers, so that the result is a set of timber every 2 ½ ft.

Jan 12, 1914

By Joseph D. Weeks

Manganese has, until recently, been most highly esteemed as a good thing to keep out of steel. Its value in the process of mannfacture has been fully recognized, but after it has played its part in the crucible or the converter, then the less of it the better. It is true that the mission of this metal and its influence upon the character of steel has been a source of much controversy. Our own Holley, in one of his special reports on ferromanganese: I, states that ''it has been suspected by some, and believed by a few, while it is still denied by many, that manganese as an ingredient in steel has not only a body-giving and toughening influence, but a positive neutralizing influence upon any excess of hardening or cold-shortening substances, as phosphorus." In another paper on the same subject he states that " it should appear from such facts as we have that manganese toughens" the structural steels, "increases their soundness and prevents red-shortness." Notwithstanding these rather guarded assertions as to its value, the general belief, it will be found, is with Dr. Siemens, that manganese is " merely a cloak to hide impurities," and its presence in steel has been endured, not welcomed. But whatever may have been the difference in opinion as to the

Jan 1, 1885

By John Dasher

Chemical processing is descended from alchemy, which developed our major lixivants. The profession might have done more if it had been less preoccupied with turning base metals into gold-a process that still hasn't been developed. Georg Agricola, over 400 years ago, gave us ten recipes for "aqua valens" to part gold and silver, and described cementation of gold and silver on base metals. His text stood for 200 years, by which time heap roasting, leaching and cementation were winning copper from pyrites at Rio Tinto and the Barba furnace was distilling mercury from the ores of Almaden.

Jan 1, 1971

EDUCATION is a business; and, if the consumer is satisfied with the product, no one has any grounds for complaint. "Pretty well satisfied" about slims up the attitude of the mining industry toward the young graduates presently entering the field. Yet, with amazing regularity the controversy over the five-year curriculum recurs in educational circles. The educational mills grind out their products, some higher grade than others, depending on individual proclivity. The cycle continues almost without interruption. Arthur Taggart, however, takes his bowie knife to some of the sturdiest limbs of the tree of knowledge in his article on engineering education on page 770 of this issue. As all who know him might suspect, the pruning is not restrained. With one swing of the knife, such practically-labeled courses as Mine Design are stricken from the tree and transplanted to the field of Graduate Education. Emphasis on the basic sciences and the study of man through courses in history, economics, and literature are recommended to constitute an undergraduate curriculum. Such courses show the least depreciation and therefore give the student the most for his money. Partial justification for this dramatic departure from tradition is explained by the increasing number of companies giving training courses. Why make the student pay for what he can get paid for learning after graduation, the author argues. Other leading educators espouse this doctrine. Dean S. C. Hollister of Cornell, for the Committee on Adequacy and Standards of Engineering Education, recommended to ECPD in 1951 that emphasis be placed on the basic sciences. "Sifting back through the curriculum, it seems clear that instruction in the basic sciences, if taught in a manner such that knowledge of them makes available working tools, contributes the most sustaining part of the curriculum", reported the committee. Note that he would utilize practical problems from the fields of engineering in teaching the sciences. In our opinion the important thing to learn in college is how to think the engineering approach. Recitation on traditional solutions of classic problems sharpens the memory, not the ingenuity of the student. The engineering schools of the nation recognize the advantage of great emphasis on fundamentals, and the inclusion of cultural courses in the curriculum. However, industry presently requires graduates to have a substantial knowledge of the tools of the trade upon graduation. This means that the colleges are forced to pare to the bone to encompass the required studies in the time allotted. In addition, there is the limitation of student money. College educators also claim that entering freshmen are often improperly prepared in such subjects as writing and mathematics. These considerations make it difficult for the critic of the engineering graduate to make any headway with the educators. Actually with the mounting problems imposed by lower grade and more complex ores, a new breed of engineers is needed. The impetus for this new product must come from industry. If there was a concerted effort from industry for an improved type of engineer, the colleges would modify their aims to meet the demand for the kind of individual desired.

Jan 1, 1952

By Gerald Edmunds

THE development of "fiber" or preferred orientations, during the plastic deformation of metals, and the relation of such structures to the anisotropic characteristics of worked metals has become a subject of common knowledge among metallurgists. Very little has been published, however, relative to variations existent throughout the cross-sections of rolled strips,1 and the influence that such variations may have. This paper presents such a study on a rolled zinc alloy.2 The significance of small differences in surface structure is shown in relation to bending properties. Experience with zinc and its alloys has shown that the outer radius of the bend, which is subject to tensile deformation, is the common region of failure. In considering relations of structural characteristics to bending properties it will suffice, therefore, to consider the ease and possible extent of tensile deformation resulting from various orientations. It is necessary in this connection to assume that on the average the individual crystals of a polycrystalline material act substantially as if their movements were unobstructed by the surrounding grains. This assumption is not strictly valid, but the error involved is unlikely to affect seriously the qualitative conclusions derived from its use. The mechanism of the plastic deformation of zinc crystals has been described by Mark, Polanyi and Schmid3 and by Mathewson and Phillips,4 and is regarded as ' being accomplished by block movements or

Jan 1, 1931

By A. Schild

The effect of heating a producing well on the rate of oil recovery has been analyzed in the simple case of a well producing oil by a radial drive and in the steady state. Differences of production rates with and without borehole heating have been calculated and plotted; these measure some of the benefits of the thermal recovery process. A striking feature is that the production increase tends rapidly to a constant value for large production rates. Some concrete examples, including a rough comparison with field data. are discussed. Heating requirements have been calculated and plotted on the assumption that the heaters used are 100 per cent efficient. Heating has been thought of as applying only to low volume wells producing heavy oils. However, the calculations suggest that the thermal process considered might be profitable even for some wells producing large quantities of light oil, especially in unconsolidated formations where fracturing is not possible. In the case of wells producing other fluids with the oil or of wells producing partly or wholly by gravity drainage, the theory developed does not apply in detail. It can be expected, however, that any general qualitative be-havior will remain valid. Under normal temperature conditions, high viscosity emulsions sometimes form around the wellbore, lowering the permeability in the vicinity of the well and impeding the production of oil. Borehole heating often prevents such emulsification. This important effect is not easily amenable to mathematical analysis and has not been included in the theory presented here. It should therefore be kept in mind that the benefits due to borehole heating may in fact exceed the values given by the following calculations. INTRODUCTION The recovery of viscous, low gravity oils can often be stimulated by applying heat to the production zone. The higher temperature lowers the viscosity of the oil, increasing its mobility, and therefore its rate of production. One thermal method of recovery 1,2,3,4. consists in operating a heater inside a producing well and, at the same time, producing oil from the well. In this paper a simple theoretical model is analyzed to study the effect of such heating on the recovery of oil. The reservoir mechanics of the process is the only aspect of the problem which is considered here. The details of the heating system are ignored, and it is simply assumed that the heater raises the temperature in the immediate vicinity of the producing well to a pre-assigned temperature T w. Although heating requirements are calculated, these refer only to the heat supplied to the formation and to the oil being produced; they do not include heat losses due to the inefficiency of the heater. A short outline of the theory follows: The heat supplied to the producing well flows out into the formation by means of thermal conduction. At the same time, the flow of oil carries heat by convection from the formation towards the producing well. After sufficient time has elapsed, a steady-state is reached where the temperature, the velocity of the oil, etc., no longer vary with time but are functions of position only. In the steady state the temperature decays like an inverse power from the high value Tw at the wellbore to the original reservoir temperature T. at some distance away from the well. The effect of the high temperature and low oil viscosity near the producing well is the same as if the oil were produced at reservoir temperature To but through a producing well of a larger radius. From this point of view, the energy and money being expended to provide heat

Jan 1, 1958

By George Harrington

THIS paper is a brief description of the design and equipment of a new coal mine in southern Illinois, which has many features not common practice in shaft coal mining and which is laid out and equipped for such unusually large capacity that it promises soon to become one of the largest mining operations of its kind. Shaft sinking for the mine, New Orient, was commenced in May, 1921, by the Chicago, Wilmington & Franklin Coal Co. In October, 1924, the plant was practically completed and was producing over 6000 tons of coal per day. There is good prospect that within a few years, when the mine is fully developed and manned, the output will attain a daily rate of 12,000 tons. The coal seam at New Orient lies approximately horizontal, about 500 ft. below the surface, and may be said to run from 9 to 12 ft. in thickness. The tendency in Franklin County has been toward large mining units (5000 to 6000 tons per day) with great care being given to protection against fire and explosion hazards, and usually with quite elaborate surface plants permitting careful preparation of the coal into graded sizes comparable with those made in the anthracite region. The field is unionized, with uniform conditions of wages for various classes of work, hours, etc., and the Illinois mining laws are quite specific with regard to fireproofing and safety measures. These conditions make it difficult for any but well-equipped and well-operated mines to meet the competition of the numerous fine properties of which this county can justly be proud. The coal company's property was already developed on the western side by the Orient. mine-a much visited and written about operation (with which many of you are possibly familiar through the Department of Mines' film "The Story of Coal ") which until recently held the 8-hr. production record with 8218 tons and usually ran quite consistently with production of slightly over 6000 tons per day. Experience at Orient was naturally one of the greatest influences in determining the location and character of the New Orient.

Jan 2, 1925

By H. W. Krotzer

ADOPTION on a commercial scale of electrolytic deposition of metals brought with it the problem of providing an acid-proof cell or tank. Where the electrolyte contained only a dilute solution of sul-furic acid, wooden, tanks with lead linings were gen-erally adopted. There were cases, however, where a lead lining was impractical as a result of the presence of nitric acid in the electrolyte or because of the method of handling the current for deposition. purposes. Wherever lead was unsuitable for this work, asphaltic mastic was used in its place. This material, in addi-tion to possessing acid-proof qualities and being an insulator for electrical current, is also cheaper than lead. The only reason that prevented the common adoption of mastic for all work of this type was that it was still an unknown, unproved. material; while lead, although more costly, could be relied on. There are several electrolytic tank-houses equipped with acid-proof mastic linings now in operation. The first large one was the series tank-house of the Balti-more Copper Co., where the mastic used was composed of natural asphalts and a silica aggregate. These lin¬ings are now seventeen years old and still in service. The next large plant was that of the Chile Exploration Co., at Chuquicamata, Chile, ,and it is with this that this article deals. Another plant of more recent date is that of the Nichols. Copper Co., Laurel Hill, L. I., and specifications for the new electrolytic tank-house of the Union Miniere du Haut Katanga call for mastic lining. It is also being tried out on a smaller scale or for experimental purposes by many of the larger metal-lurgical companies. Thus while mastic linings were adopted originally to meet operating conditions that prohibited the use of lead, they are now in a position to compete successfully with the standard lead linings that are in general use. The Chile Exploration Co. plant, with a total area of over a million square feet, giving satisfactory ser-vice under the most adverse climatic and metallurgical conditions can be truly called the pioneer in this work. ,This article will deal with the development of the acid-proof mastic linings in Chuquicamata from the original experiments begun in 1912 up to and including the final successful installation that has now been in service for a number of years.

Jan 4, 1927

Charles Mather MacNeill, President of the Utah Copper CO. and of the Chino Copper Co., and a life member of the Institute since 1899, died at his home in New York on March 17, after a very brief illness with pneumonia. Mr. MacNeill was born at Oak Park, Ill., in 1871, and began his connection with mining enterprises immediately after graduating from high school, his first position being that of cashier with the Pueblo Smelting and Refining Co. He later went to Aspen, Colo., as manager of the Holden lixiviation plant. In 1893, he went to Cripple Creek as manager of the Lawrence Reduction Works, in which Mr. Holden and the late Capt. J. R. DeLamar were large owners. It was at this plant that Mr. Jackling became associated with him. The plant was destroyed by fire and, early in 1894, Mr. MacNeill became associated with Messrs. Spencer Penrose and Charles L. Tutt in a plan to finance and erect a chlorination plant at Colorado City, Colo., for the treatment of Cripple Creek ores. This plant was erected and was known as the Colorado-Philadelphia Reduction Works. Mr. MacNeill was general manager of the plant, Mr. Tutt having been president and Mr. Penrose, secretary and treasurer. The plant was very successful and was expanded, hally being reorganized under the name of the United States Reduction & Refining Company. Late in 1903, or very early in 1904, D. C. Jackling called the attention of Messrs. MacNeill and Penrose to the copper properties in Bingham Cañon, Utah, which have since become the main properties of the Utah Copper Co. After extended examinations and milling tests, these properties were bought, Mr. MacNeill becoming president of the Utah Copper Co., Mr. Penrose, secretary-treasurer, and Mr. Jackling, general manager. Mr. MacNeill remained president of the company to the time of his death. Mr. MacNeill was also a director, a member of the executive committee, and was largely interested in the Ray Consolidated Copper Co.; he was also president and a member of the executive committee of the Chino Copper Co. He had a variety of other mining interests, but the ones mentioned were distinctly the meost important. He was a director

Jan 1, 1923