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KARL A. PAULY,* Schenectady, N. Y.-We are deeply indebted to Mr. Hobart for a record of the actual experience of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Co. with electrification. One of the essential features of this test is that it was made under actual operating conditions. In one of the western mining districts I was once discussing the electrification of a large hoist with a mining operator, who told me that they had made a very thorough test and that the results were such as to indicate that electrification was not warranted. When questioned regarding the test, he said that they had called on the mining college in the Territory for assistance, and one of the instructors and a group of students had made the test. They first cleaned the boilers and then operated them at a' continuous load, using the maker's guaranteed steam consumption per indicated horsepower as a guide in estimating the steam consumption under actual hoisting conditions. Such a test is absolutely valueless. The efficiency of the boilers 'is affected by the intermittent demands on the steam. The standby losses, as indicated by Mr. Hobart's paper, are quite equal to the actual fuel consumption required to do the work; very frequently, also, the cost of repairs is either omitted or underestimated. One noticeable feature of Mr. Hobart's tabulation is that there is no mention of steam consumption. Intentionally or otherwise, the steam-hoist builders have befogged the question by making a great point of the steam consumption of hoists. The operator is not at all concerned in steam consumption; it is the actual cost of operation that he is interested in, and it is a comparison between the cost of operation of the two systems, all factors being considered, that should determine the choice. The steam consumption, or its determination by test, is only one step in the problem of estimating the fuel consumption, which, in an actual installation, can be directly measured much more accurately, as was done by Mr. Hobart.

Jan 4, 1918

By B. M. Larsen, T. E. Brower

IN two previous papersl,2 dealing with the carbon-oxygen reaction, and the simultaneous content of each, in liquid steel in the furnace, we have made use of the quantity 0[O], defined as the excess oxygen beyond what would be in equilibrium with carbon then present if the pressure of carbon monoxide were I atm,; that is, if [C] X [O] is taken as 0.00222, 0[O] = [O] - 0,00222/[C] where [O] is the percentage of oxygen by weight as measured by the method described earlier.' This quantity 0[O] proves to be substantially independent of carbon content over the range 0.08 to 1.2 per cent, as well as of the basicity of the slag, and is nearly always within the limits 0.015 to 0.025 per cent when the bath is boiling normally and is in what we have termed a steady state. Apparently it must be at least about 0.014 per cent before boiling occurs; but this threshold value seems to depend upon the ease of bubble formation at the metal-hearth interface, hence upon the condition of the surface of the hearth. In any case, 0[O], on the average, changes considerably following any disturbance of the bath, as by addition of ore. The present paper deals with the average changes in ?[O] level following addition of Spiegel or crop ends, or after procedures to promote stirring, or by tapping of the steel from the furnace. The observations were made on a large number of commercial heats, and consequently are subject to the influence of various disturbing factors; the results have the compensating merit of showing the consistency obtainable under the limitations imposed by practical operation. VARIABILITY OF EXCESS OXYGEN IN NORMAL OPEN-HEARTH OPERATION The preceding general statements refer to the average value of ?[O] particularly in heats that are boiling actively; on individual heats, which are less active, there may be a variable time lag between the disturbance and its effect, which complicates the interpretation of what is going on. For instance, if in the normal refining process boiling is sluggish, the slag usually is gaining oxygen from the gas phase above it, or from added ore, faster than it is losing oxygen to the metal; yet when the bath starts to boil vigorously, the opposite condition may prevail for some time. The consequence of this lag is a variation of ?[O], the interpretation of which in a single heat may not be immediately obvious, This condition is illustrated in Figs. I and 2. In Fig, I, ?[O] at the beginning of the test period was near the lower limit of its usual range (dashed lines) in the steady state as a consequence of the lime boil, which had ended about as indicated. The bath is now cold, carbon drop is slow, and the first small ore feed causes only a small rise in 0[O]; as the temperature rises and as lime dissolves in the slag, and the bath becomes more active, the

Jan 1, 1946

By G. Osuch, G. Derge, G. M. Pound

Using a new dternating-current potentiometer circuit and a specially designed four-terminal cell, the specific conductance of molten Cu2S-FeS mattes was measured as a function of temperature, from the liquidus to 1500°C, over the complete range of composition. The high conductivities, about 1500 ohm-I cm-l for FeS and 100 ohm-l cm-l for Cu,S, indicate that the conduction is electronic rather than ionic. Molten FeS has a negative temperature coefficient of specific conductance, resembling metallic conduction. Molten Cu,S has a positive temperature coefficient, resembling semiconduction. The binary roughly follows an additive rule of mixtures with respect to both magnitude and temperature coefficient of specific conductance. Metallic bonding in the liquid is postulated to explain these phenomena. MUCH has been learned in the past about the nature of liquids and the ionic or molecular species in solution by means of electrical measurements. Thus, dielectric constants','2 have given information about molecular liquids such as water and benzene. Measurements of dielectric constant usually are impossible in electrically conducting liquids, such as aqueous solutions of ionic salts and molten ionic salts. However, measurements of electrical conductance and ionic transference have provided much knowledge about the latter systems.a-" In recent years, the ionic nature of certain molten metallurgical slags has been established by Derge and Martin7 through electrical conductance and electrolysis measurements. Chipman, Inouye, and Tom-linsonq ave studied the electrical conductance of molten FeO and report a high specific conductance of about 200 ohm-' cm-' (compared with 4 ohm" cm-' for an ordinary ionic liquid such as molten NaCl) and a positive temperature coefficient of conductance. They interpret these results in terms of p-type semiconduction by analogy to the situation in solid FeO.Y imnad and Derge" have studied cell efficiency in the electrolysis of molten FeO-SiO, systems and conclude that ordinary ionic conductance increases with SiO, content. Very recently, interest has been revived in the electrical conductance of liquid metals and liquid metallic solutions. Scala and Robertson1' report a close resemblance between the liquid and solid states with respect to thermal, structural, and compositional relationships. Molten sulphides have not received a great deal of attention. Bornemann and von Rauschenplat" measured the specific conductance of molten Cu2S as a function of temperature with a four-terminal cell using direct current. A high specific conductance and a positive temperature coefficient were found in that investigation." Using a two-electrode apparatus, Savelsberg" electrolyzed various molten sulphide mixtures. He concluded that pure molten Cu,S and FeS were electronic conductors but that the mixtures exhibited some ionic conduction. In the present investigation, the specific conductance of the industrially important Cu-Fe sulphide mattes was measured as a function of temperature and composition in order to investigate the mode of electrical conduction and the structure of these molten mattes. An alternating-current circuit was used to eliminate the effect of any possible electrode reactions. Apparatus The Conductance Cell: Due to the high specific conductance of the systems studied (10' to 10" ohm-' cm-'), the classical two-terminal cell and Wheat-stone bridge apparatus could not be used. A four-terminal cell was developed in order to eliminate lead resistance, and an ac potentiometer circuit was designed to give rapid and sufficiently accurate measurements of the cell resistance. A diagram of the conductivity cell is given in Fig. 1. The molten matte is contained in a dense alundum crucible, and spectrographic graphite rods that dip into the molten matte serve as the four conductance terminals. Two of the graphite rods on opposite sides of the cell serve as current-carrying leads, and the other two graphite rods are null-current probes that detect the potential drop across the cell. These graphite rods are contained in silica tubes, and the lower constricted portions of the two silica tubes define the column of liquid whose electrical resistance is being measured. The electrical resistance of the broad ex-

Jan 1, 1956

By Frank H. Probert

The mining laws relating to winding-ropes in some of the German provinces are very strict, and severe tests have to be periodically made to see that the ropes in use come up to the prescribed standard. A few notes on the method of testing the ropes and the results obtained may be of interest to the members of the Institute. Permission must be given by the Inspector of Mines to put up a winding-plant; and previous to installation a full report made by the manager, clearly setting forth all details of the shaft, the pit-head, engines and appliances appertaining thereto has to be sent to the mining officials. Accompanying each subsequent report, further details, such as the name of the firm supplying the rope, construction, quality of steel, date of installment, weight per meter, length, particulars of the safetycatches, cages, etc., must be given. At least one spare rope must be kept at ever? shaft ready for use in case of emergency. The rope must hang in the shaft, with cage attached, not less than twenty-four hours before it is used for winding; and it must have undergone a severe test in the manner hereafter described. The laws prescribe that when a rope is continually in use it must be tested every three months; but if the rope is only used every few days it must be tested at least every six months, in the presence of the superior officer; and notification of the date of testing has to be sent to the Bergrath two days before the test is made, in order that he can personally superintend the operation if he chooses. Should winding have been stopped for a long time, it is not necessary to test every six months; but before the rope can be used again it must be tested.

Jan 1, 1901

By H. R. Shidel

THIS paper summarizes the results obtained from the preliminary cementing of wells in an effort to cut off the bottom water. The object of this work was two-fold: (1) To prevent the oil sand from becoming flooded. (2) To plug off bottom water, thereby preserving the individual well and reclaiming production. Valuable suggestions and help have been given by the following named: Messrs. Kyle and La Velle, of the U. S. Bureau of Mines; Magnolia Petroleum Co.; Freed Oil and Gas Co. The cementing work was carried out under the personal supervision of L. J. Snyder. In an unpublished paper on the "Water Problem in the Augusta Field," S. K. Clark reaches the following conclusions: (1) That the great amount of water present is bottom water, occurring in the Varner sand, the main producing or the 2500-ft. horizon. (2) That the only striking connection between structure and water is in the area of the marked fault on the Ralston, E. C. Varner, and F. Varner leases in sections 8, 9, 16 and 17. (3) That the oil occurs in porous streaks, generally separated by fine-grained, well cemented sand, which is barren. Possibly two, or three such pay streaks may be found. That under a pay, fine-grained sand occurs, which is presumably barren at the time of drilling, but soon reveals water. The writer takes partial exception to the last point, because well defined shale, slate, lime, or hard sand breaks have been encountered in a great many cases, separating the pay streaks under which water is often found. This is not an invariable occurrence, as cases have been noted when the oil has been followed immediately by water in the same stratum. In an effort to overcome the water menace, the following methods of plugging were tried: (1) Plugging with wood, lead, and limit plugs. (2) Plugging with sand pumpings.

Jan 10, 1918

By Donald E. Cummings

MEASURES appropriate for the control of the silicosis hazard in mining cannot be formulated precisely, but sufficient has accumulated during the past quarter century to permit the suggestion of useful, though partly empirical, rules for its alleviation. The industrial hygienist today recognizes that the peril incurred by the inhalation of harmful dust is a function of two variable factors-the degree of harmful exposure and the specific susceptibility of the exposed individual to pulmonary injury. Control of the danger arising out of prolonged contact with pernicious air- borne particulate matter is consequently best exercised by influencing both of these recognized variables. Obviously the problem has two broad aspects-one, medical; the other within the province of the engineer. I-FACTORS COMPRISING THE DEGREE OF INDIVIDUAL SUSCEPTIBILITY Thorough investigations conducted among miners who have labored for years in the presence of recognized silicosis hazards usually reveal an impressive difference in the injury incurred by men whose exposure to dust has been nearly identical. After a quarter century underground, one individual is short of breath and incapacitated with miners' complaint, while a fellow workman suffers no pulmonary embarrassment and is in good health. Physicians ascribe this oft-observed difference in reaction to individual susceptibility and express a universal regret when they deplore the fate that chose to make the predisposed youth a miner rather than a farmer. To trust the health of miners to fate at the present time is even more unfortunate, because many of the factors that influence man's susceptibility to dust are known, and can be accurately determined by competent medical methods. Among the most important factors comprising susceptibility to injury by dust are the anatomical peculiarities of the individual's respiratory mechanism, his physiological response to the inhalation of dust, his previous dust exposure, the existence of pulmonary infections or other pathological processes in his lungs, his age,

Jan 1, 1938

By Oscar Weiss

An aerial magnetometer survey was carried out by the author's geophysical organization over the Vrede-fort dome, where Witwatersrand beds are wrapped around a granite plug 25 to 30 miles in diameter. The well-known magnetic shales of the Lower Witwatersrand system (to be referred to as LWW) give strong negative anomalies over the out-cropping portion of the dome. This is unusual as these same shales cause positive anomalies over large areas near Johannesburg and along a strike of 130 miles between the East Rand and Klerksdorp. It is suggested that the negative polarization is caused by heat and stresses connected with the doming. This negative polarization of sedimentary beds, which usually cause positive anomalies, is a good example of how "magnetic lows" can be caused by "structural highs." Significant magnetic anomalies should be tested by gravity and seismic methods irrespective of the sign of the anomalies. South of the line X — Y (see Fig 2 and 5) the gravity anomalies are smaller over the LWW beds and magnetic anomalies suddenly become weaker and even change signs by becoming positive. This peculiar phe- nomenon is explained by faulting which truncated the nearly vertical LWW shales at depth. In this manner the mass of the LWW beds has been reduced together with the weakening of the negative magnetic anomalies by positive poles which occupy the truncated end. Furthermore, by uplifting the beds between f1 and f2 (Fig 2) positive polarization becomes predominant, thus causing positive magnetic anomalies. General The Vredefort dome is one of the internationally known geological structures, which, among others, has attracted the attention of numerous American geologists. It was for this latter reason that our aerial magnetic results over this structure were selected by us for publication in the United States of America. A full description of the exposed geology has been published by Nell and readers are referred to this paper, which is subject to only slight modifications inasmuch as the subdivision of the Witwatersrand system (to be referred to as WW system) is concerned. The Vredefort dome is about 60 miles southwest of Johannesburg. The WW system, after being exposed in the vicinity of Johannesburg, plunges with southerly dips beneath the Vent-ersdorp and Transvaal systems. Along a section southwest from Johannesburg, as shown diagrammatically in Fig 4, we see no outcrops of the WW system until the Vredefort dome, where the Upper and Lower WW system are wrapped around an almost circular arc of a granite mass. Here the whole WW system is overturned around the perimeter of a huge granite plug 25 to 30 miles in diameter. Less than half of the circumference of this dome is exposed; the rest is covered by Karroo dolerites and sediments. The determination of the exact shape of the concealed part of the dome has been a matter of considerable interest and obviously geophysical methods were eminently suited for obtaining this information. A good start was made with a gravimeter survey carried out by the Geological Survey of the Union of South Africa.2 Our own

Jan 1, 1950

By J. W. Spretnak, G. W. Cunningham

A study has been made of the growth and disappearance of voids in the interface of pressure bonded copper. The formation of visible voids is primarily due to spheroidization and coalesence of microvoids produced during the application of pressure. The microvoids could be prevented from forming by the application of high pressures or by increasing the ductility of the copper. Migrating grain boundaries were found to be more effective in void removal, than stationary grain boundaries. DURING the course of an investigation on the mechanism of pressure bonding, it was found that voids formed in the bonding interface which inhibited migration of the interfacial boundary and grain boundaries in the bond region. Therefore, an effort was made to determine the nature of the voids and how they form, grow, and disappear. This paper reports the results of such an investigation. The existence of interfacial voids is not solely a characteristic of massive components of metal which have been bonded by the application of heat and pressure, but is a phenomenon which has been observed in sintering as well. Simonsen attempted to study the sintering process by hot-stage microscopy and thereupon observed the formation of interparticle porosity as sintering proceeded. It was assumed that the porosity was due to grooves created at the location where grain boundaries joined the surface of the particle. Pranatis, Castelman, and seigle2 have also observed voids along the areas of contact in wound-wire specimens used for sintering studies. They did not discuss the point in detail since this behavior was not general, but they did suggest that the voids might develop as a result of stresses along the interparticle contact area. In previous investigations on pressure bonding, workers3 have suggested that voids may exist in the region where mating surfaces are placed in intimate contact, but the existence of the voids was not verified and no attempt was made to study the growth and disappearance of these voids. Durst noted the existence of pores in roll-clad structures prepared by cold reducing two sheets to force them in contact and then annealing to improve the bond. Since his unbonded regions contained a gas which he assumed to be insoluble, he proposed a mechanism which consisted of spheroidization of the unbonded regions and a growth of the contact area, but no speculations were made regarding disappearance of the gas filled pores. One interesting comment made by Durst was the suggestion that flattened voids with sharp corners which are produced during roll bonding will have a greater driving force for spheroidization than the more rounded pores created by pressing metal powders and thus spheroidization and neck growth will occur at lower temperatures. In this study it was necessary to demonstrate conclusively that voids can actually exist in the interfacial bond area. Experimental work was then directed toward a study of the mechanism whereby the voids grow and subsequently disappear.

Jan 1, 1963

By Paul E. Richardson, Edwin E. Maust

Cyclic voltammetry and surface potential (photovoltage) measurements have been carried out on galena electrodes in sodium tetraborate solutions with added HC1 and NaOH to adjust the pH over the range 2 to 13. The first technique shows that the surface species formed on moderate anodic polarization and reduced on subsequent cathodic polarization are the same over the entire pH range. At anodic potentials, a soluble metal species and excess sulfur are formed; at cathodic potentials, sulfur is reduced to a soluble species. More importantly, excess surface sulfur is formed spontaneously under zero current conditions in alkaline solutions. This has been shown to occur on both polished surfaces and on virgin surfaces produced by in situ cleavage under the electrolyte. The photovoltage gives some insight into the charge and potential distribution at the galena surface. This is found to depend on past electrochemical history and the n- or p-type semiconducting character of the electrode and is interpreted in terms of changes in the surface stoichiometry that occur during reduction or oxidation. The effect of surface stoichiometry on subsequent xanthate interactions is discussed.

Jan 1, 1976

By Sidney Powers

Contents Page Distribution of fields..................................................... 490 History of development.................................................. 492 Origin of oil............................................................ 493 Structure, accumulation and migration..................................... 494 Reservoir rocks......................................................... 495 Methods of drilling and exploration....................................... 496 Oil-field statistics........................................................ 498 Description by regions: United States: Appalachian region.................................................. 498 East-central states............................................. 503 Kansas............................................................ 504 Oklahoma.......................................................... 505 Texas........................................................... 510 Arkansas........................................................... 518 Louisiana.......................................................... 519 Mississippi......................................................... 520 Rocky Mountain region.............................................. 520 Cahforn~a ......................................................... 523 Canada.............................................................. 527 Mexico.............................................................. 529 Cuba............................................................... 532 Bibliography........................................................... 532 The purpose of this brief account of the occurrence of petroleum in North America is to make available to those who have a knowledge of geology, but who are not engaged in the petroleum industry, a few salient facts about the location of oil and gas fields, their productivity, the important structural types of accumulation and the age of the rocks containing petroleum. A few useful data and statistics are furnished, yet not complete statistics that are available elsewhere. Geology has been treated in simple terms because the reader is presumed to have little interest in the names of formations and of oil sands. Mineral deposits are more or less analogous. Whether oil or metals, minerals are found in rocks, largely in sedimentary rocks which carry water or have at one time carried it. A genetic or accumulative

Jan 1, 1931

By Dale A. Augenstein, S. C. Sun

A primary concern in the solution of any solid waste disposal problem is the characterization of the material. In the past, available methodology for the determination of coal refuse characteristics has been severely limited by the inseparable combination of organic and inorganic matter of which the refuse is comprised. The recent development of an electronic, low temperature asher which removes the organic material without alteration of the inorganic constituents has opened new areas of coal and coal refuse research. This study deals with the development of methodology for the characterization of Pennsylvania anthracite refuse through utilization of the low temperature asher. Seven samples of anthracite refuse were examined for verification of the methodology developed and information concerning the characteristics of the refuse.

Jan 1, 1975

By Leonard B. Griffiths

In a recent communication, Smith and Wood described some results of 800°C compression/creep tests on WC-12 wt pct Co alloys in which plastic flow in the WC particles was believed to have occurred. The deformation observed in the WC particles was found to be a function of the rate of loading. The authors suggested that their data constituted support for the Ansell6-Lenel theory of yielding in dispersion-strengthened alloys. I do not agree with this interpretation since the Ansell-Lenel theory does not apply to the type of alloy in question. In this alloy, the dispersoid is present to the extent of about 80 vol pct. Even where there is no continuous skeleton, which apparently is the case in this instance, the simple fact is that nearly all of the load is carried elastically by the stronger material (wc).7 The constraint imposed upon the matrix, by virtue of the differences in Young's modulii and Poissons ratios, severely limits the stress level to which it may be subjected (assuming that the interfaces remain intact). If one allows for the constraint and then performs the same computation as in Smith and Wood, one finds that the stress on a WC particle is about 4 x 105 psi. This is about 21/2 times lower than the predicted fracture stress for WC. I would completely agree with the final paragraph of Smith and Wood, namely, that loading rate is of considerable significance. However. a more likely interpretation of their data is, I submit, that in the absence of stress relaxation (by secondary slip or climb) those WC-Co interfaces subjected to a normal tensile stress begin to fail. Once this occurs, the stress distribution will change rapidly and "premature" fracture of the WC then becomes quite probable. Tne serrated edges shown in Fig. 1 may very well be fine, interface fissures.

Jan 1, 1970

By C. M. Nickerson

It is apparent that repressuring of the oil measures is becoming increasingly important to the oil industry, and is a matter that warrants the best efforts of the petroleum engineer charged with applying this method of operation to a producing property. Considerable attention has been directed to repressuring in various California oil fields, such as Dominguez and Seal Beach, which have served to sell the more progressive operator on this idea and also to keep him sold. The projects that have received most attention are in comparatively young fields where the fluid levels are high, the wells, perhaps, still flowing, where the wet gas production is of considerable volume, and where there is vital need of immediate conservation of gas, which otherwise would be blown to the air. The new State of California Gas Law, which prohibits the waste of gas, has served to interest the oil industry in means of conserving the gas that is now being blown to the air because of lack of markets. This vitally affects the operator in the older, well-depleted oil fields of the state, because in many cases he has a limited market for gas, on account of the flush production from the more active oil fields. While the waste of gas is relatively small in these older fields, such as the Midway-Sunset area, it now attains considerable importance, since under the new State Gas Law it must be put to some bcneficial use. Repressuring in the older fields of California has not received the attention of the petroleum engineers that is warranted by the present situation. This paper was prepared with the view of presenting the salient features connected with repressuring in the well-depleted oil measures of the older fields, and to show what results have already been obtained in these fields by injecting the unmarketable gas into the sands, particularly in the Midway-Sunset field in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Other projects in the older fields of the state offer some supporting data in this connection, such as the Shields Canyon and the Brea Canyon fields. Gas Storage and RepressuRing On account of the lack of market for a large portion of the dry gas produced in certain of the older, well-depleted oil fields of California, the

Jan 1, 1930

By G. R. Brophy, A. J. Miller

The Grossmann principle1 for the calculation of hardenability of steel from composition is attractive because of its simplicity. It postulates that the hardenability of a steel for any particular grain size may be expressed in terms of an ideal critical diameter, which is the product of an ideal critical diameter for a "pure" iron-carbon base multiplied by a succession of factors for each element of composition contained, including the incidentals. It infers that the multiplying factor for a given quantity of an element is constant for all combinations of composition. Gross-mann has stated that in the great majority of cases the experimental values of hardenability are found to be well within 10 per cent of the calculated values. The validity of the scheme has been confirmed in principle by Crafts and Lamont2,3 and by Kramer et al.4 Their results differ from the original in the magnitude of the effect of some elements but, since they accepted the product concept and followed its direction, it is to be ex~ected that similar results would be obtained. Crafts and Lamont, in their second Paper, recognized that the factor relations for manganese and nickel were not continuously linear, but beyond certain critical amounts increase sharply. Austin, Van Note and Prater6 demonstrated nonlinear relations between hardenability and alloy contents. Their curves for chromium, silicon, manganese and nickel were all convex upward to show decreasing incremental effects. They concluded that Grossmann's factors under-evaluate the hardening effect of low percentage additions of these elements, and overevaluate the larger additions. More recently W. Stevens has found that the factor method fails when applied to complex steels containing two or three principal alloying elements other than carbon. Multiplying factors derived from his results bear a complex relation to composition and are not constant for a given amount of an element as the base composition varies. C. A. Liedholm7 found that, using either the Grossmann or the Crafts-Lamont multiplying factor values, not only were the relative hardenabilities of two heats of S.A.E. 6130 chromium-vanadium steel

Jan 1, 1947

By A. J. Miller, G. R. Brophy

The Grossmann principle1 for the calculation of hardenability of steel from composition is attractive because of its simplicity. It postulates that the hardenability of a steel for any particular grain size may be expressed in terms of an ideal critical diameter, which is the product of an ideal critical diameter for a "pure" iron-carbon base multiplied by a succession of factors for each element of composition contained, including the incidentals. It infers that the multiplying factor for a given quantity of an element is constant for all combinations of composition. Gross-mann has stated that in the great majority of cases the experimental values of hardenability are found to be well within 10 per cent of the calculated values. The validity of the scheme has been confirmed in principle by Crafts and Lamont2,3 and by Kramer et al.4 Their results differ from the original in the magnitude of the effect of some elements but, since they accepted the product concept and followed its direction, it is to be ex~ected that similar results would be obtained. Crafts and Lamont, in their second Paper, recognized that the factor relations for manganese and nickel were not continuously linear, but beyond certain critical amounts increase sharply. Austin, Van Note and Prater6 demonstrated nonlinear relations between hardenability and alloy contents. Their curves for chromium, silicon, manganese and nickel were all convex upward to show decreasing incremental effects. They concluded that Grossmann's factors under-evaluate the hardening effect of low percentage additions of these elements, and overevaluate the larger additions. More recently W. Stevens has found that the factor method fails when applied to complex steels containing two or three principal alloying elements other than carbon. Multiplying factors derived from his results bear a complex relation to composition and are not constant for a given amount of an element as the base composition varies. C. A. Liedholm7 found that, using either the Grossmann or the Crafts-Lamont multiplying factor values, not only were the relative hardenabilities of two heats of S.A.E. 6130 chromium-vanadium steel

Jan 1, 1947

By Alfred Weiss

Daniel C. Jackling's innovative concept for handling low grade ores ushered in a new philosophy of open pit mining. As one of the greatest minemakers of all times he revolutionized major segments of the industry and helped strengthen US defense efforts during World Wars I and II by making possible the tremendous copper supplies from US mines. Many great mining men have since followed in his footsteps with their discoveries of new orebodies or development of new mines. Their brilliance in leadership can also be traced to the coupling of a new idea to the physical nature of the materials in the earth's crust or to the extractive stages of minerals recovery. The minerals industry is now in another era of change and must again devise techniques to meet the challenge. The task is not only to create new exploration techniques and develop new mining methods, but, I believe, to optimally apply new concepts and tools in daily decision-making.

Jan 11, 1978

By Gerhard Derge

METALLURGISTS have used borax as a fluxing agent traditionally, but until recently elemental boron has played an insignificant role as an alloying element. Neither the metal nor its compounds have been regarded as important metallurgical materials and there is a surprising lack of knowledge concerning their metallurgical behavior. The new applications to steelmaking of both boron and borates, which arose in part from wartime incentives and restrictions, have been seriously handicapped by this lack of data. For example, rasorite, a naturally occurring sodium borate, has been shown to be an effective substitute for aluminum as a ladle deoxidizer in rimming steels.1 Likewise, the effectiveness of boron as an alloying agent has been demonstrated, 2,3 giving deep hardening when used in restricted amounts. The exploitation of both of these uses has been retarded by the difficulty of attaining suitable metallurgical control. Recognizing that the most important information required was a knowledge of the equilibrium between boron and oxygen dissolved in liquid iron, Gurry4 calculated this relation from the best thermal data available. However, estimates of the entropy of melting of boron, the activity coefficient of boron in liquid iron and the activity coefficient of B203 in slag were involved, and experimental work on this problem was obviously desirable. The experiments to be described were planned to establish the boron-oxygen relations in liquid iron and to demonstrate at the same time the ferroborate slag compositions in equilibrium with various amounts of oxygen in liquid iron. Accordingly, slags containing varying proportions of iron and boron oxides were held in contact with molten iron, and samples of both slag and metal were analyzed. The limitations upon the accuracy of the data will be considered, but in a practical sense the oxygen levels that can be attained in iron by iron borate slags, and the amounts of boron in iron at these oxygen levels were established. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE No entirely suitable refractory was found for the mixtures of iron oxide and boron oxide used as slags. Crucibles of silica, magnesia, Ramix, beryllia, and zirconia were all tried unsuccessfully. The most satisfactory method discovered for handling them was the rotating-crucible technique, which creates a parabolic crucible of liquid iron 5,6 Even this was not entirely successful, for at steelmaking temperatures (1600°C.) the slags had such a low surface tension that they crept up to the refractory and slowly dissolved it. These difficulties made it impossible to maintain a constant slag composition for an unlimited period of time. However, by using the rotating

Jan 1, 1946

By J. W. Spretnak, G. W. Cunningham

Grain growth across the bond region in Pressure bonded copper was found to be mainly dependent upon the presence or absence of microvoids, but it was also found that prior history, bonding pressure, bonding time, and bonding temperature are important variables. An increase in pressure, time, or temperature tends to promote grain growth in the interfacial region. Polygonization is observed after pressure bonding except for specimens previously annealed at temperatures on the order of 1800°F or higher. The dislocation density in bonded specimens was found to be greater in the bond region. THE bonding of metals by the application of gas pressure at elevated temperatures is a relatively new process, having been developed over the past 10 years. The technique, as described by Paprocki, Hodge, and Boyer,l is unique in that assemblies of many parts and complex shapes can be bonded with a negligible amount of deformation. The process thus differs metallurgically from pressure welding, cold welding, and recrystallization welding in that deformation occurs only in a microscopic region whereas, in general, the welding requires severe deformation and may extend the contact surface by a factor of 3 to 10 during the welding. From a practical standpoint, pressure welding is not amenable for bonding large surfaces. During the time in which Paprocki and coworkers were deve1oping the process, West2 established aproc-ess,for bonding aluminum to uranium, and Barnes and Maze? developed a gas-pressure-bonding technique for nickel and copper. Recently, Fugardi and Zambro4 have used equipment similar to that developed by Paprocki and coworkers to establish parameters for bonding stainless steel, aluminum, and zirconium. Most of the investigations on pressure bonding have been empirical in nature and, although methods have been developed for bonding such metals as molybdenum, columbium, titanium, zirconium, and stainless steel, the information concerning the mechanism of bonding is limited. Several workers5"7 have studied the pressure bonding of dissimilar metals in order to gain information on diffusion and formation of inter-metallic phases under application of pressure. Clapson and Robbins8 have shown by a series of annealing studies that voids in the interfacial boundary of roll-bonded copper can prevent movement of the boundary until the voids are spaced far enough apart to prevent pinning. They also indicated that recrystallization and grain growth can eliminate the voids. In this paper it is shown that voids are the major detriment to grain growth across pressure-bonded interfaces, but it is also shown that prior history, bonding pressure, bonding time, and bonding temperature are

Jan 1, 1962

By L. S. Panyity

The State of Ohio is among the pioneers in the production of oil and gas. Numerous anticlinals, such as the Macksburg, Cow Run and Newport, have been thoroughly developed, and the pools found in connection with them are quite in accord with the structural theory. Numerous oil and gas pools found in the Berea sand, however, demand a different explanation. The study of these pools belongs to the sub-surface geologist, as it is possible to understand the factors controlling "off-structure" accumulations only after a careful study of well records. By carefully analyzing the various conditions over a large territory, it is possible to understand the otherwise meaningless mass of data that one may have at hand, and put it into tangible shape, from which various conclusions may be drawn. The territory here discussed includes Belmont, Guernsey, Muskingum, Noble, Monroe, Morgan, Washington, Athens and Meigs counties, containing the majority of the prolific oil and gas pools of the Carboniferous system in southeastern Ohio. The general dip of the strata is to the southeast, the entire territory lying on the northwestern flank of the Appalachian geosyncline. The best known oil- and gas-producing horizon in the territory is the Berea sand, which lies near the lower part of the Mississippian, with the Sun-burry shales (the coffee-shales of the driller) above, and the Bedford shales below it. The Bedford is underlain by the thick Ohio shales. The Ohio and Bedford contact is considered to be the dividing line between the Carboniferous and Devonian systems. The Berea is one of the most persistent of recognizable oil and gas horizons; its outcrop has always been found in its expected place, and it has always been penetrated whenever the drill went deep enough. It is not expected, however, even of the most uniform formations, that no lithological variations should occur, and the Berea is no exception. Nevertheless, there appears to be a certain regularity in its variation, the main features of which directly affect the accumulation of petroleum.

Jan 1, 1920

By W. Kauenhowen

The production of petroleum in Germany during 1932 totaled about 1,608,558 bbl., a slight increase over the 1, 602,517 bbl. produced in 1931. A decline, as shown in Table 1, occurred chiefly in the Volkenroda (Thuringia) field. The total production of the other fields (salt domes), however. reached a new record, about 21 per cent above 1931. Table 1.—Oil Production of Germany by Fields and Oil Provinces, 1928-1932 (Barrels of 42 Gallons)" Salt Dome Province __________________________________________________|_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1928 274,323 322,742 679 46,319 644,021 644,315 1929 310,891 337,582 10,535 67,578 719,901 720,069 1930 586,404 427,539 100,716 72,485 1,186,969 29,806 1,220,296 1931 506,548 403,634 213,549 116,088 1,242,598 360,885 1,602,517 1932 769,405 366,982 230 979 130,711 1,498,077 110,481 1,608,558 " Official figures published in Germany are given in metric tons. For the above conversion into barrels a factor of 1 metric ton equaling 7 barrels has been used. Includes a very small production from Hcide, Holstein. c Includes a very small production from Tegernsee, Bavaria, and Bruchsal, Baden. Nienhagen-Hanigsen Field In 1932 the Nienhagen-Hanigsen yielded about 51 per cent of the production from the four German salt dome fields. During 1932 the productive area was again extended, chiefly towards the northwest in the so-called north district, to which the present drilling activity is confined almost entirely. Since the discovery of the north district in 1928, about 45 wells have been drilled in it, of which only two were

Jan 1, 1933