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By M. C. LAKE

THE industrial development of the United States has been stimulated by the presence of high-grade iron ore in the Lake Superior district. These great deposits have been susceptible to economical extraction and are conveniently located for cheap lake vessel transportation to the great consuming centers. The district furnishes from 80 to 85 per cent of the iron ore annually consumed in the United States, and a full understanding of the available supply of this great commodity is so important that it is well to consider whether or not the industrial supremacy and national independence attained as a result of the abundance of cheap ore are permanent. The enormous deposits of high-grade ore available in the Lake Superior district have been the foundation upon which the vast industrial structure of the steel and allied industries has been built. It is extremely important to the country as a whole, and especially to those States and communities now dependent on Lake Superior ore for their prosperity, that their industries shall retain the particular advantages with which they are now endowed, and that a generous supply of high-grade raw material be available for their consumption at a satisfactory cost. The steel industry is so basic and fundamental that any fluctuation in the cost of its finished products as determined by the supply and cost of the raw materials involved in its manufacture will necessarily affect the business of a wide variety of industries which are dependent on it.

Jan 1, 1926

By E. H. Rose

IN the realm of ore dressing the most pregnant feat of all time was announced in 1945: the winning of the mineral raw materials which made the harnessing of atomic energy possible. Lost in the stupendous implications of the end result, in the two billion dollar hugeness of the project, and in the famous names attached thereto, the fact that crude uranium ores had to be concentrated received relatively little notice in the press. Only the final link in the concentrating chain was publicized-ether extraction of uranyl nitrate, developed by Hoffman and carried on by the Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, or methods developed by the Ames group under Spedding. Some of the earlier links represented less glamorous but equally difficult and exacting research. One may only speak a word of admiration for those who worked hard, accomplished much, and said nothing. The universal lament for most of the year was "man shortage." A group of Canadian engineers expressed it as "being so short of labor that no labor was available to develop laborsaving devices." . Despite this, an outstanding amount of mineral-dressing progress was made in 1945. Necessity allowed no alternative. The insatiable demand of war for minerals forced the exploitation of lower and lower grade ores, and of others not before considered of commercial character or use, requiring the mineral dresser to fight for and win new bridgeheads on the home front.

Jan 1, 1946

By HOWARD N. EAVENS

DURING the year just closed the bituminous industry has been marked by a continuation of the period of low prices and a steady deflation, accompanied by the closing of mines and the consolidation of small units into larger ones. This pro- gram has marked almost every field in the country, and it bids fair to continue for some time. Some figures recently published for Kentucky show that in 1924 there were 660 mines producing 45,147,000 tons; in 1928 the number had decreased to 537, while production had increased to 61,860,000 tons, and a similar movement is occurring all over the country. Prices throughout the early part of the year were very low, but during the fall and winter the prices received are more satisfactory than they were earlier in the year. One of the leading developments in the marketing of coal during the year was the trade practice movement, which began in the Harlan field, and has now been adopted in the Harlan, Hazard, Appalachian, Logan. Williamson and Kanawha fields. The purpose of this movement is to prevent the shipment of coal except on order, and by the publication of price lists to prevent much senseless price quotation. Where it has been practised the longest this movement has resulted in a considerable degree of stabilization, and, undoubtedly, it will help existing conditions very materially if it becomes universal.

Jan 1, 1930

By John V. Beall

GOING west from Denver on Route 6, the direct road to Grand Junction, one gets the first glimpse of mining a few miles east of Denver near Idaho Springs where the workings of defunct gold mines are visible on the sides of mountains along the highway. One enterprising company is turning a profit by showing tourists through the mine and mill and then selling them gold samples on the way out. We have always known that mining people are ingenious, but this proves it. About five and a half hours fast driving west from Denver brings one to Rifle, Colo., which is the site of the oil shale mine, retorting plant, and refinery of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. As you drive up to the mine, you can see a portal high on the face of the cliff in front of you where the mine surface plant literally hangs by its toenails. Below, the retorting plant and refinery gleam in the sunlight. Up at the mine, Fred Wright will show you how the oil shale is extracted in two benches (a third bench would be used for commercial mining) by the room-and-pillar method. In mining the top level, an underground crew of thirteen men have been able to produce 1500 tons of shale in each eight-hour shift. To do this, the mine is thoroughly mechanized. The mining method is de- scribed in the September issue of Mining Engineering.

Jan 1, 1949

H. H. Stoek, Scranton, Pa. (communication to the Secretary): Mr. Rothwell's condemnation of my paper on the International Correspondence Schools as not giving an impartial view of the whole field of such enterprises, because it was confined to the description of a single one, might be legitimate if I had undertaken or professed to do anything else than that which I was requested by the Secretary of the Institute to do—namely, to give an account of this particular institution. This is a sufficient answer to all his direct or implied criticisms upon my omission to mention either persons or organizations outside of the special limits set for me. Recognizing fully that personalities have no place whatever in the Transactions, I regret the necessity of making the following statement in answer to Mr. Rothwell's charge that I omitted to give due credit to Mr. Ewald, a former principal of the International Correspondence Schools. The Colliery Engineer School of Mines was started in 1891, and its first student was enrolled October 16, 1891. During the fall of the same year the mine-mechanical course was laid out along the same general line that had already been followed in the mining course. This mine-mechanical course was the foundation from which sprung the later developments of the several mechanical courses. The latest circulars of information of the International Correspondence Schools give the following as their distinctive features: (1) courses of instruction for particular occupations,

Jan 1, 1900

By L. A. Creglow

IN common with many other companies engaged in the mining and processing of ores, research has always been an important activity of the United States Smelting Refining and Mining Company. Much of this research has been carried on at the various plants of the Company by the operating staffs, and over the years has been an essential factor in developing new methods and improving existing methods of operation. In 1917 arrangements were made with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under which the Company had the exclusive use of one or two small laboratories in the then newly constructed MIT buildings and the use of the metallurgical laboratories, subject of course to the Institute's needs. After about two years this work was temporarily discontinued but was resumed in 1920 under the direction of G. H. Clevenger, consulting metallurgist for the Company, who recently retired. Becoming cramped for space, the laboratory was moved to a location near MIT on Amherst Street, Cambridge, in 1924. Establishment of a general research laboratory in metropolitan Boston naturally followed from the fact that the head office of the Company was located there and that the library facilities available for all types of research were, and are, unsurpassed. The disadvantages in carrying on research at great distances from the operating units of the Company were always apparent, but with widely scattered plants this disadvantage could not he overcome. With

Jan 1, 1948

Arthur Yates, lecturer in the mining department of the Royal School of Mines, London, died at Blackpool, on Feb. 14, 1923, at the age of 47 years. My first acquaintance with him was made in 1902, when taking over the management of the Redjang Lebong gold mines in Sumatra, of which he was the responsible metallurgical officer. For that position he was well qualified by reason of his previous experience with the Rand Central Ore Reduction Co., in South Africa, and particularly by his early training with the Cassel Gold Extracting Co., owners of the MacArthur-Forrest patents, and the first commercial company formed to work the then recently discovered cyanide process; in this connection, Mr. Yates had the advantage of working under J. S. MacArthur himself. Our association in Sumatra was maintained for six years, when I left. Mr. Yates remained and was eventually promoted to the management of the neighboring Soelit mine. During those six years and in the close association inseparable from life in an isolated mining camp, the sterling qualities which made him so good a man were unmistakable: industry and interest in his work, patience with everybody, a quiet and unassuming demeanor. On the exhaustion of the mine to which he had been promoted, he returned to England in 1913. In 1914, the Mining Department of the Imperial College was fortunate in securing his services. Hardly, however, had he settled down when the war broke out and he spent some years in the Cleveland District promoting the efforts of the Government toward greater output. Returning to college in 1919, Mr. Yates met the full flood of Service students. The qualities which made him a man amongst men in the world made him a man among students in the college; a senior student if you like. But, unsuspected, a dread disease had fastened itself upon him, making itself felt for the first time during the summer course he was conducting in the South Wales coal field, in 1922. Against its relentless onset he opposed the bravest optimism, and when at last he realized that he was going under, and was in fact dying, his pronounced regret was that he was leaving the boys. In his death, at the age of forty-seven, staff and students in the Mining Department have experienced a great loss, that of a reliable friend, and their deepest sympathy goes out to the young widow and son in their irreparable loss. S. J. TRuBcott.

Jan 1, 1923

Arthur Yates, lecturer in the mining department of the Royal School of Mines, London, died at Blackpool, on Feb. 14, 1923, at the age of 47 years. My first acquaintance with him was made in 1902, when taking over the management of the Redjang Lebong gold mines in Sumatra, of which he was the responsible metallurgical officer. For that position he was well qualified by reason of his previous experience with the Rand Central Ore Reduction Co., in South Africa, and particularly by his early training with the Cassel Gold Extracting Co., owners of the MacArthur-Forrest patents, and the first commercial company formed to work the then recently discovered cyanide process; in this connection, Mr. Yates had the advantage of working under J. S. MacArthur himself. Our association in Sumatra was maintained for six years, when I left. Mr. Yates remained and was eventually promoted to the management of the neighboring Soelit mine. During those six years and in the close association inseparable from life in an isolated mining camp, the sterling qualities which made him so good a man were unmistakable: industry and interest in his work, patience with everybody, a quiet and unassuming demeanor. On the exhaustion of the mine to which he had been promoted, he returned to England in 1913. In 1914, the Mining Department of the Imperial College was fortunate in securing his services. Hardly, however, had he settled down when the war broke out and he spent some years in the Cleveland District promoting the efforts of the Government toward greater output. Returning to college in 1919, Mr. Yates met the full flood of Service students. The qualities which made him a man amongst men in the world made him a man among students in the college; a senior student if you like. But, unsuspected, a dread disease had fastened itself upon him, making itself felt for the first time during the summer course he was conducting in the South Wales coal field, in 1922. Against its relentless onset he opposed the bravest optimism, and when at last he realized that he was going under, and was in fact dying, his pronounced regret was that he was leaving the boys. In his death, at the age of forty-seven, staff and students in the Mining Department have experienced a great loss, that of a reliable friend, and their deepest sympathy goes out to the young widow and son in their irreparable loss. S. J. TRuBcott.

Jan 1, 1923

By G. Richards Gwinn

GRAPHITE is one of the so-called minor nonmetals that have become of major importance during the present conflict. Requirements of the domestic industry for graphite are relatively small and uses have changed so greatly in the past 25 years that different types, with few exceptions, are more nearly interchangeable in use. However, the quality of the graphite required for crucibles is exacting and under present manufacturing practices only a small part of the world production can be utilized economically by this industry. Graphite, for the domestic crucible industry, was supplied almost entirely by imports from Madagascar and Ceylon before the present war. The quantity required has been increased by the war and the greatest demand is for Madagascar flake. The fall of France to Germany in 1941 and the Japanese expansion southward threatened our supply of crucible-grade graphite, therefore the domestic industry was revived to supplement imports and to act as insurance in the event of complete stoppage of imports. Two plants were constructed for the Government, one at Ashland, Alabama, called the Crucible Flake Graphite Co., operated by Haile Mines, Inc., and one near West Chester, Pennsylvania, operated by the Benjamin Franklin Flake Graphite Co. Loans were made by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to the Alabama Flake Graphite Co. at Ashland, the Ceylon Graphite Co., at Goodwater, Ala., and the Southwestern Graphite Co., at Burnet, Texas. However, by the end of 1943 the import situation had improved and it was no longer necessary to continue Government assistance to mine and stock-pile the high-cost domestic material. Graphite is found in virtually every country of the world. Most occurrences are of no economic importance because of their poor quality, prohibitive mining and milling costs, inaccessibility, and poor location with reference to the industrial centers where graphite is used. The principal commercial deposits are found in Ceylon, Madagascar, Chosen (Korea), United States, U. S. S. R., Canada, Germany, and Mexico. Graphite is a typical international mineral in that it is utilized mainly in countries noted for industrial activities, whereas the two islands, Ceylon and Madagascar, which produce the major part of the world's high-grade graphite, are virtually devoid of any manufacturing establishments requiring its use. The industry thus is violently disturbed by wars. TYPES of GRAPHITE USED IN CRUCIBLES Graphite of various kinds and from many countries has been used for making crucibles. Passau (Bohemian) flake was first used in Europe, but by the middle of the seventeenth century crucible formulas were established largely on Ceylon graphite and German Klingenberg clay. Ceylon graphite is granular and the grains are subdivided into more or less

Jan 1, 1945

By W. C. Schroeder

During the post-war period, and particularly during the past few years, coal production has been maintained at a reasonably constant level. This is in contrast to the greatly expanded demand for oil and natural gas. Certain markets for coal, such as the railroad and for home heating, have tended to decrease, but this decline has been offset by an increase in demand for other uses, particularly for electric power. Since the United States has very large reserves of coal and relatively limited reserves of natural gas and oil, from the conservation viewpoint, it would be better if the increased demand were to fall more heavily on coal. Where coal has lost certain markets, the decision has not always been made on the basis of price, and, in fact, in many instances, the markets have been lost where coal could show a price advantage. There are various reasons for this situation but it can be attributed in the main to the preference of certain consumers for the convenience offered by liquid and gaseous fuels. In the production of chemicals such as benzene, phenol, or ammonia, coal still plays an important role. As co-products from coke-oven operations, a wide variety of aromatic chemicals are available. In recent years, however, the production has not been sufficient to supply the demand, and it is not profitable to build coke ovens to make chemicals unless there is a market for the coke as well. As a result, the petroleum industry is beginning to take a stronger part in the production of aromatic chemicals. Natural gas has almost displaced the coke-oven water-gas machine for the production of hydrogen for the synthesis of ammonia, as well as for the synthesis of methyl alcohol and other oxygenated compounds. This information is not new and is given here only as a basis for the discussion of the broad significance of the development of the gasification process. It is clear that if coal is to regain some of its old fuel markets, as well as to maintain a position in the field of chemical synthesis, processes must be available for converting coal to the type of fuel the customer wants, and for a cheap method of furnishing gaseous raw material to the chemical industry. The operation of coke ovens and water-gas machines is not the answer to this problem for at least two important reasons: (1) the limited supply and relatively high price of good coking coals, and (2) the relatively high costs of the combined operations of coking and manufacture of water gas.

Jan 1, 1953

By L. C. Armstrong

A. E. ROSS*—Mr. Armstrong in his paper stated that they had experienced considerable difficulty in drilling the quartz-feldspar intergrowths. The dia-mor~d loss was excessive and the diamond bits polished quite rapidly. Mr. Davidson, who presented the paper, stated that bortx stones in the range of 20 to 30 per carat had been used in the bits on this job. I would like to suggest the use of bits employing stones in the range of 60 to 100 per carat, an average of possibly 80 per carat. If these stones had been used the bits might have lasted longer and not polished so quickly. As a basis for this suggestion I would like to point out that in northern New York State we had at least two examples where bits employing stones in the range of 80 per carat had solved a difficult problem. Bits set with stones in the range of 20 to 30 per carat had been used previously and had failed. With the finer stones, the cost per foot of drilling decreased material1y. It should also be noted from a technical standpoint that the smaller stones require higher drilling speeds than the larger stones. Greater pressures are not normally necessary, and it is the higher speed which seems to be the major factor of importance. It should also be noted that the finer stones afford a greater number or cutting surfaces for the same carat weight in a bit. Then too, the smaller stones, by virtue of their size, serve as sharper cutting edges than larger stones. There is no doubt that the diamond bit employing smaller stones costs more to set than the bit using larger stones. However, with the technique developed at the shops of Sprague and Henwood, Inc., we feel that the relatively slight additional cost required to set these bits is more than paid for by the resultant lower drilling cost. We feel that the highest quality stone available is the most economical to use when hard fine grained rock is encountered. In summary, I would suggest that it might be possible to solve the problem presented in this paper by using a diamond bit employing stones at least as small as 80 per carat of the highest grade possible and by using the diamond bit at the highest speed available with modern drilling equipment. L. C. ARMSTRONG (author's reply) —It is generally agreed that the use of smaller, high-grade diamonds and of higher drilling speeds, as suggested by Mr. Ross, may be the best approach to the solution of the problem.

Jan 1, 1950

By P. W. Neurath, R. E. Waite

INFORMATION is available on the effect of stress on permeability, coercive force, and hysteresis for a variety of materials' but for the technically important grain-oriented 3 pct Si-Fe' the stress effects are not adequately covered in the literature; in addition, most of the stress data do not permit estimation of what would happen to the 60 cycle watt losses of the material under stress. Direct measurement of these effects therefore has been made and appears to be of considerable theoretical as well as practical interest. Losses were measured on the central 25 cm portion of 40~3~0.035 cm samples which could be stressed in a small tensile machine built for this purpose. Under tension the following effects, illustrated in the figures by a particular example, were observed: 1—"Unstrained" material of commercially acceptable loss level shows no change or a small increase in loss at low elastic stresses. For the sample shown in the figures, this is illustrated during the initial run, where a 7 pct increase is observed (Fig. 1). 2—There is no additional change in loss when the sample is further strained up to the elastic limit (Fig. 1). Within that limit the loss-stress curve is reversible. This is not illustrated in Fig. 1. 3—Even in the plastic range only small increases in loss are observed as long as the sample is kept under stress (Fig. 2, point N); often no increase can be observed (Fig. 1). 4—A large increase in watt losses is observed after removal of the stress subsequent to plastic deformation (Figs. 1 and 2). 5—All, or nearly all, of the foregoing increase in loss due to plastic deformation can be eliminated by a reapplication of tensile stress but returns upon removal of this stress. This is illustrated in the third run (Fig. 3). This run remains within the elastic limit and shows the reversibility of the stress-loss curve under this condition. These findings have been confirmed on large Samples (approximately 200~10~0.035 cm and larger) except that under 1 no initial increase in loss was ever observed on these. The accuracy of the watt loss measurements is of the order of 1 pct. Neither bending of the sample in the tensioning device nor a redistribution of flux along the width of the sample accounts for these results. They therefore must be explained on the basis of either a change in the domain configuration due to stress or a change in the domain wall mobility. Acknowledgment The assistance of Mr. Robert L. TenBroeck with the instrumentation is gratefully acknowledged.

Jan 1, 1956

By G. Richards Gwinn

Graphite is one .of the so-called minor nonmetals that have become of major importance during the present conflict. Requirements of the domestic industry for graphite are relatively small and uses have changed so greatly in the past 25 years that different types, with few exceptions, are more nearly interchangeable in use. However, the quality of the graphite required for crucibles is exacting and under present manufacturing practices only a small part of the world production can be utilized economically by this industry. Graphite, for the domestic crucible industry, was supplied almost entirely by imports from Madagascar and Ceylon before the present war. The quantity required has been increased by the war and the greatest demand is for Madagascar flake. The fall of France to Germany in 1941 and the Japanese expansion southward threatened our supply of crucible-grade graphite, therefore the domestic industry was revived to supplement imports and to act as insurance in the event of complete stoppage of imports. Two plants were constructed for the Government, one at Ashland, Alabama, called the Crucible Flake Graphite Co., operated by Haile Mines, Inc., and one near West Chester, Pennsylvania, operated by the Benjamin Franklin Flake Graphite Co. Loans were made by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to the Alabama Flake Graphite Co. at Ashland, the Ceylon Graphite Co., at Goodwater, Ala., and the Southwestern Graphite Co., at Burnet, Texas. However, by the end of 1943 the import situation had improved and it was no longer necessary to continue Government assistance to mine and stock-pile the high-cost domestic material. Graphite is found in virtually every country of the world. Most occurrences are of no economic importance because of their poor quality, prohibitive mining and milling costs, inaccessibility, and poor location with reference to the industrial centers where graphite is used. The principal commercial deposits are found in Ceylon, Madagascar, Chosen (Korea), United States, U. S. S. R., Canada, Germany, and Mexico. Graphite is a typical international mineral in that it is utilized mainly in countries noted for industrial activities, whereas the two islands, Ceylon and Madagascar, which produce the major part of the world's high-grade graphite, are virtually devoid of any manufacturing establishments requiring its use. The industry thus is violently disturbed by wars. Types oF Graphite Used in Crucibles Graphite of various kinds and from many countries has been used for making crucibles. Passau (Bohemian) flake was first used in Europe, but by the middle of the seventeenth century crucible formulas were established largely on Ceylon graphite and German Klingenberg clay. Ceylon graphite is granular and the grains are subdivided into more or less

Jan 1, 1948

By Barnabus Bryan

THE normal statistics of supply and demand of petroleum and its products have little more than local influence on the market movements of oil securities. The two major reasons for this condition might be called the technique of production and the technique of refining. The speed of improvement in each and the complete lack of control of their, inter-relation have resulted in overproduction of both crude oil and gasoline in the face of immense in-crease in demand. The trouble with oil securities has been that of the mushroom radio companies, where too frequent changes have killed the possibility of profits. It is a case of too much efficiency. During the past ten years there has been continual talk of wasting reserves of crude oil. This has been based on "present methods of production." Yet the methods of ten years ago in the oil industry are as antiquated today as the kerosene lamp.. The fear of famine has transformed the industry. The refiner, through the cracking process, has doubled the gaso-line output from a barrel of crude oil, thus doubling reserves and changing a current undersupply into oversupply. When the automobile driver desires he can again double reserves and transform want into abundance by demanding an automobile which will deliver twice as many miles per gallon of gasoline. Entirely apart from refining and in complete dis-regard for its needs, the oil producer has forged ahead at a pace too rapid for his own good. The science of geology has developed with experience and' lavish expenditure into a constant danger to profits in the production of oil. Two and one-half per ;cent of the producing wells in the United States are yielding one-half of the oil, while their flush production is used as an excuse to force down the price of crude oil until 200,000 wells must be abandoned or produce at a loss. The fabulous yield of the new high-pres-sure fields enables the fortunate owners to make a profit regardless of the price of oil. Such a condi-tion is unhealthy from the standpoint of oil itself and as a national policy. It is manifestly absurd to suppose that such a condition can endure for a gen-eration. There will come a day when the sequence of discovery will be temporarily broken, and at that time the consumer will be forced to pay heavy interest on the foolhardy policy of today.

Jan 6, 1927

By W. N. Best

This paper is not intended as a scientific discussion of the combustion of oil but is written from the standpoint of an operator who has the experience and qualifications necessary to guide others in producing the most economical results in the use of liquid fuels. Oil, in this paper, usually means petroleum or its products but incidental reference is made to other liquid and gaseous fuels, so that the term may be considered as referring to all liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in comparison with solid fuels, as coal and wood. However, only a few of the principal factors in the use of oil as a fuel can be given. The present, and prospective, high price of coal is causing users of fuel to renew inquiry as to the merits of other forms of fuel for industrial purposes. Crude oil (petroleum) is proving to be one of the world's most valuable mineral resources. The recent discovery that oil underlies a considerable area of the United States, Mexico, and other parts of the world to a greater extent than was formerly believed and the large production of some of the wells in these areas shows the probable quantity of fuel oil that may now be available. Through the energy of Lord Cowdrey, who was one of the pioneers of the oil industry in Mexico, oil has been discovered in England; some prominent geologists believe that it may be found in quantity in Great Britain. For years, oil has been known to be of great value in the manufneture of metals. It has proved incomparable in forge shops, steel foundries, heat-treating furnaces, and wherever accuracy of temperatures is essential, or where a maximum output is desired as well as quality of metal. In some types of equipment, the output produced with oil as fuel is double that obtained with coal and at a reduction of 50 per cent. in the cost of the fuel. For example, in drop-forging plants, the metal is always waiting for the man when oil is used as fuel, whereas with coal, the man must wait for the metal to become sufficiently heated. It has only been since January, 1919, that the oil supply could be relied on for boiler service, owing to the war conditions and the inability to get oil tankers for the delivery of the oil from Mexico to Atlantic ports; but now a constant supply is assured, and many manufacturers are installing it in their power plants. The cost varies with the size of the

Jan 1, 1921

By Gilbert H. Cady

Extensive sampling of coal in Illinois during the past 10 or 12 yegrs by the State Geological Survey, in cooperation with various organizations, such as the U. S. Bureau of Mines, the University of Illinois, and the Illinois Cooperative Mining Investigations, has made possible the delineation of two areas of low-sulfur coal in the southern part of Illinois. The $fur content is less than 1.25 per cent., so that, if otherwise suitable, these coals can be employed for metallurgical uses and for the manufacture of water-gas and retort gas. One of these areas is small and lies in Jackson County, near Murphysboro, the other is much larger and includes a large part of the famous Franklin County field. A small area of No. 2, or Murphysboro, coal has been worked for many years near the town of Murphysboro, Jackson County, Ill. In two mines, at least, the coal has a sulfur content of less than 1.25 per cent. It is doubtful, however, whether this field will ever be a source of large tonnage as the total area underlain by low-sulfur coal in workable thickness is probably less than 15 sq. mi. (24.14 sq. km.), and a large part of it has already been worked out.. The location of the area of low-sulfur coal in the Franklin County field is shown in the accompanying map. The small area underlain by the Murphysboro low-sulfur coal is shown near the town of that name in the central part of Jackson County. The larger area lies in the west side of Franklin County, extending also about 6 mi. (9.65 km.) south into Williamson County, about 4 mi. (6.43 km.) west into northern Jackson and western Perry County, and northward an undetermined distance into Jefferson County. All but the northern limit of the area is fairly well defined by sampling in numerous mines. The inner cross-lined area is underlain by coal having less than 1 per cent. sulfur, the outer boundary surrounding the area underlain by coal having less than 1.25 per cent. sulfur. The coal mined in the district is No. 6 or Herrin coal, commonly known as the Carterville or Franklin County coal. The bed has a thickness varying from about 8 ft. (2.4 m.) on the border of the low-sulfur area up to more than 10 ft. (3 m.) in the central portion, locally having a thick-

Jan 1, 1920

By C. Ernest Birchenall

As a basis for further progress in several branches of metallurgy, particularly the study of physical properties of solid solutions and the kinetics of solid-solid reactions, a more complete understanding of the structure of solid solutions and the nature of the metallic bond is necessary. Any investigation contributing to this understanding should be of primary interest to the metallurgist. Since the metallic bond is characteristic of an assemblage of atoms, it can be studied only where this assemblage exists. One of the most promising approaches to this study of the interactions in metals is through the general problem of binary metallic solutions. Although crystal structures of many solid metallic solutions have been determined and solubility limits for many systems are given in phase diagram studies, progress beyond this is irregular. Electromotive force and vapor pressure determinations have provided thermodynamic activity data for small concentration and temperature ranges in the amalgams and a few other systems.1 In two systems, however, copper-zinc and iron-carbon, data are available for the calculation of activities over wide ranges of temperature and concentration. This activity data for the brass system is summarized in. the preceding paper.2 A detailed study of the solubility and distribution of carbon in iron is given by Smith and Darken .3 Their treatment of interaction energies is applicable only to dilute interstitial solutions. The objectives here will be to derive from activity data given in the previous paper for the brasses and structural considerations as much new and detailed information as possible about the interactions between copper and zinc in metallic solid solution and the effect of these interactions in determining the short range structure of the equilibrium phases; that is, we shall investigate the energy of interaction between pairs of atoms of the same and different kinds, the deviations of the distribution of nearest neighbors from complete randomness, and show that the conclusions found are consistent with the observed behavior of the brass system. The method of treatment is fairly general for substitutional metallic solid solutions and will be applied to other systems. The determination of vapor pressures of the components of alloy systems is being undertaken in this laboratory to supply more data for this purpose. The information obtained from solid solutions may be extended by careful analogy to liquids as long as the metallic type of bonding is preserved. Since it will be necessary to employ the language of thermodynamics, a brief summary defining the terms used extensively in solution theory is given below.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. M. Sands

Production of oil in Oklahoma during 1927 amounted to 273,256,900 bbl. (Table l), an increase of nearly 100,000,000 bbl. over the previous year. All of the major fields declined with the exception of those of the Seminole district which produced 136,105,000 bbl., almost one-half of the total production of the state. Because of this large new production, most of the development in the state during the year took place in that district. The Seminole City pool located in T.-9-N., R.-6-E., was the first of these pools to be developed. The Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Co. brought in the first well in this field in March, 1926, for 1100 bbl. This well is located in Sec. 24-T.-9-N., R-6-E., and produced from the Hunton lime reached at depth of 3900 ft. The first Wilcox production was developed by the Independent Oil & Gas Co. and R. S. Garland in Sec. 26, T.-9-N, R-6-E. This well was being drilled for production in the Hunton lime but was dry in this horizon and was deepened to the Wilcox sand in July, 1926, and at the total depth of 4069 ft. developed a maximum production of 8000 bbl. daily. It held up in wonderful manner and was the cause of not only the development of this pool but the prospecting of the whole district for the Wilcox sand. This led to the discovery of the other major pools in that district. Seminole City pool reached a peak production of 264,500 bbl. on February 22, 1927, and slowly declined so that by December it had a daily average of 56,200 bbl. from 321 wells. The second pool in this district to be discovered was the Searight pool which was discovered by F. J. Searight et al. in Sec. 33, T-10, R-6, in April, 1926. The first well was drilled to the Hunton lime encountered at 4115 ft., and came in for 1300 bbl. daily. During August, 1926, the second well was drilled on the same farm through the Hunton lime to the Wilcox sand which was encountered at 4360 ft. It came in for an initial production of 4000 bbl. daily. This started active drilling in this field for the Wilcox sand. The field had a peak production of 40,621 bbl. on June 15, 1927, and declined to a daily average of 22,300 bbl. from 73 wells during December.

Jan 1, 1928

By L. J. Klinkenberg

It is pointed out that the current concept of pore size distribution is not unequivocally defined and that different methods aiming at a determination of such a distribution therefore do not lead to the same results. A pore size distribution should not be based on the idea that a core should, under all circumstances, behave as a bundle of straight non-interconnected capillaries of the same pore size distribution. This is illustrated by calculations and experiments on the displacement of miscible liquids. INTRODUCTION The introduction of the concept of pore size distribution has been an attempt to characterize the intricate geometry of the flow channels in porous media. As pores in a porous medium are interconnected it is impossible to describe exactly what is meant by a "pore" and, therefore, the term pore size distribution requires further amplification. In the visual method for the determination of pore size distribution "the pore" is considered to be the hole between the grains as observed on thin sections or on a polished surface of the rock under a microscope. In all other presently known methods,1,2 a displacement process is studied and it is ascertained what as- semblaae of straight cylindrical capillaries would show the same behavior. The distribution of the capillary diameters of this assemblage is said to represent the size distribution of the pores of the actual porous medium. From the foregoing it is already apparent that it is useless to try to decide which process or which method of investigation leads to a "correct" pore size distribution. To illustrate this further a displacement process in which a fluid is displaced by another miscible with it will be discussed and the results will be interpreted in terms of a pore size distribution. DISPLACEMENT EXPERIMENTS WITH MISCIBLE LIQUIDS OF NEARLY IDENTICAL VISCOSITY AND DENSITY Interpretation in the Form of a Pore Size Distribution If distilled water is displaced from a homogeneous unconsolidated sand pack by, for instance, a dilute solution of NaCI, the breakthrough recovery i.e., the amount of distilled water produced at the moment the first trace of NaCl can be detected in the effluent water, is between 95 and 100 per cent of the pore volume of the pack. This result can be understood by following in imagination the course of one particle of the liquid. Imagine a length, ?l, at the end of which a liquid particle has an independent chance of a renewed choice of pores of different diameters. In other words, the particle has a choice of traveling time, at, for any length ?l; instead

Jan 1, 1958

By E. C. Harder

J. T. SINGEWALD, JR., Baltimore, Md.-I might say a word further in regard to the Miguel-Burnier district. I am sorry Mr. Harder is not here. I had hoped to be able to ask him a few questions in regard to some of the features of those deposits. This Miguel-Burnier district is the other district that I referred to that lies in the State of Minas Geraes. The interpretation that Mr. Harder gives to, these deposits is the same as that given by Harder' and Chamberlin in a previous paper, and that is that they consist of lenticular deposits of sedimentary origin in a series of rocks that also include lenses of limestone, but they seem to think that the manganese ores occur at a definite horizon and at a horizon different from the limestone. We found that the manganese ores occur at several horizons, as also do the limestone lenses, and the limestone masses are of the same shape as the manganese orebodies, so that our own feeling was that these manganese ores simply represent concentrations within the zone of oxidation formed as. a result of decomposition and replacement of this limestone. To the east of Miguel-Burnier there is a big bend in the railroad which cuts through, at right angles to the strike, this series of rocks. Here is shown very well both the local character of the limestone lenses and the local character of the manganese lenses in that, though the distance across the bend is only a couple of hundred yards, the limestone and. ,manganese lenses do not match up at all, and it also shows plainly that both occur at more than one horizon.. Consequently there is no reason why the manganese ore could not represent alterations of this limestone. The mine workings do not as yet give very definite information on this point in that they are all comparatively shallow and within what would be the zone of oxidation so that what they will grade into below that depth, we do not know. On the other hand, the character of the ore suggests that it may, represent such -a product in the zone of oxidation in that it tends to be quite earthy; whereas, if the manganese had been there originally as such it would have undergone the same metamorphism that the other rocks have undergone and one would have expected that it would have been converted into a hard manganese ore that would today stand out pretty much as do the iron ores of that same region and not have the soft, earthy texture which is a prevailing characteristic.

Jan 4, 1917