Search Documents

By K. E. Gray, G. M. Myers

In previous publications,5 results of single-blow bit tooth impacts on saturated rocks at various stress states were reported. This paper extends these earlier works to include study of bit impact tests on salt water-saturated Berea and Bandera sandstone samples under conditions of elevated confining and pore pressure. During the tests dynamic filtration and deposition of a mud cake were occurring due to the presence of drilling mud in the borehole and a borebole-to-formation pressure differential. Results indicate that saturation of these sandstones with salt water tends to make them weaker than when saturated with nonreactive fluids. Plastic failure often occurs even when extremely high fluid-loss muds are present in the borehole. The failure mode tends toward plasticity with decreasing fluid loss. Brittle failure of sandstones in mud-filled holes is apparently relatively rare. Depending on the stress level, and the associated failure mode, withdrawal of the bit tooth induces a tensile force that seems rather important relative to the quantity of rock removed by vertical tooth impact. INTRODUCTION A vast majority of the oil wells drilled today involve the use of colloidal muds having a measurable mud filtrate loss. It is known from field experience that reduction of the water loss of a mud generally results in a reduction of the penetration rate. This paper describes an investigation of crater formation at simulated bottom-hole pressure conditions for drilling fluids having different water losses. The literature on single bit tooth impact (cratering) at atmospheric conditions is extensive, but only a limited amount of work has been performed at the stress conditions similar to that found in oil wells. Spherical penetrator cratering tests on rocks at hydrostatic pressure were performed by Payne and Chippenda1e.1 Chisel impact studies on limestone with independently varying overburden and borehole pressure and atmospheric pore pressure were reported by Garner, et al.2 Gnirk and Cheatham3 performed "static" penetrator tests on dry rocks at equal overburden and borehole pressures. Podio and Gray4 studied the effect of pore fluid viscosity at atmospheric pore and borehole pressures and varying overburden pressures. Their results illustrated the importance of fluid saturation of the rock. Yang and Gray5 reported single tooth impact tests on saturated rocks at elevated borehole, pore and confining pressures, but with equal pore and borehole pressures. For the work reported in Refs. 4 and 5, filtration across the hole bottom purposely was avoided. Maurer6 has investigated the effect of independently varying pore and borehole pressures at elevated overburden pressures by using a zero water-loss mud in the borehole. His tests were carried out under conditions that allowed independent control of overburden, pore and borehole pressures, but without control of filtration at the hole bottom. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE APPARATUS The single blow chisel impact apparatus used by Garner,2 as modified for this study, is shown in Fig. 1. A cross section of the pressure vessel is shown in Fig. 2. Several pieces of auxiliary equipment were added to the original apparatus in order that the borehole and pore pressure could be applied in a manner analogous to the actual bottom-hole situation. The pore-pressure system included a filtrate volume-measuring transducer and had sufficient surge capacity to allow filtrate to be injected into the sample without significant changes in pore pressure at points remote to the borehole. The borehole-pressure system contained a cross connection to the pore-pressure system so that both systems could be pressured simultaneously. The borehole-pore pressure differential was applied rapidly by the use of a quick and full-opening valve. The operation of this valve triggered two industrial

Jan 1, 1969

By A. L. Benham, W. E. Dowden, W. J. Kunzman

The mechanism involved in creating a miscible fluid displacement of typical reservoir fluids through porous media by light hydrocarbon mixtures usually involves a number of mixing and separation stages in the contact area. This mechanism has been illustrated on ternary diagrams for miscible displacement of reservoir fluid by rich hydrocarbon gases. A relatively simple method has been devised for calculating the approximate conditions for a miscible displacement of reservoir fluid by rich, light hydrocarbon gases or by LPG mixtures. Miscibility is favored by increased pressures, decreased temperatures, light reservoir fluids and light hydrocarbon-displacing fluids rich in the heavier components. The conditions for miscible displacements of five typical reservoir fluids by various light hydrocarbon mixtures were determined for a range of temperatures from 70" to 260°F and pressures from 1,000 to 3,000 psia. A correlation of these conditions was obtained using the variables of temperature, pressure, C,+ molecular weight of the reservoir fluid, C,+ molecular weight of the displacing fluid, and mol per cent methane in the displacing fluid. This correlation has been applied to data appearing in the literature with very good success. A partial check of the correlation has been made using a step-wise procedure with a windowed PVT cell. INTRODUCTION The term, "miscible fluid displacement", may be defined as any oil-recovery displacement process where there is an absence of a phase boundary or interface between the displaced and displacing fluids. A water flood would not be a miscible fluid displacement, although cycling in a condensate reservoir would be. Another example is displacement of oil by gasoline. Not so obvious, however, are the conditions under which fluids (such as propane, mixtures of propane and methane, or other similar systems) will give a miscible fluid displacement of oil. There are four standard miscible-fluid-displacement processes being used for the recovery of oil from an "nderground reservoir—(1) high-pressure dry-gas miscible displacement, (2) rich-gas miscible displacement, (3) miscible slug using a slug of LPG followed by a lean dry gas under miscible conditions, and (4) gas driven-slug process using a slug of LPG followed by a lean dry gas under immiscible conditions. The first problem faced by the engineer designing a miscible displacement process is to determine the conditions for miscibility. A number of papers have included discussions of the process of obtaining miscibility in these processes.1-8 However, methods for calculating the conditions for miscibility have not been published. This paper includes a method for calculating the conditions for a miscible displacement of reservoir fluid by a rich gas (LPG diluted with methane or natural gas). In this paper, a rich-gas miscible displacement process is defined as an oil-recovery process in the reservoir. The cost of a rich-gas miscible displacement will be decreased by diluting the LPG with methane or natural gas as much as possible. Therefore, it is important to be able to predict the maximum dilution for miscibility. MECHANISMS The mechanisms for obtaining miscibility between a displacing mixture of light hydrocarbons and displaced reservoir fluid often involve a number of displacing and mixing stages. As stated previously, the cost of a rich-gas miscible displacement is decreased by diluting available LPG with natural gas. The problem is to predict the maximum dilution allowed while maintaining miscibility. To get a picture of the displacing and mixing stages, it is helpful to consider these complex hydrocarbon mixtures as pseu do-ternary systems. Graphical representation of a complex system as a pseu do-ternary system can be thermodynamically rigorous if enough variables are used to describe the character of each pseudo-component in one of the phases. However, even if the characterization of each pseudo-component is not complete, pseudo-ternary representation does serve to illustrate the mechanism for obtaining miscibility and can be used to make some general conclusions concerning the conditions for obtaining miscibility. A phase diagram for the ternary system, methane-

By A. G. Spillette, R. L. Nielsen

The purpose of this paper is to further the understanding of reservoir response to hot-water injection by desuribing a two-dimensional, mathematical model of the process. Key assumptions are that no gas phase is present, and that the injected fluid reaches thermal equilibrium instantaneously with the reservoir fluids and sand. The resulting system of three partial differential equations is solved simultaneously through the use of a "leap-frog" application of standard alternating direction implicit methods for the solution of the mass-balance equations and the method of characteristics for solution of the energy-balance equation. The utility of the mathematical model is demonstrated by comparing numerical and analytic temperature distributions for hot-water bank injection and by comparing calculated with observed field behavior. Additional calculations show that hot waterfioding can recover significantly more oil than cold waterflooding, and that a hot-water bank recovers, with less energy input, nearly as much oil us continuous injection. Introduction Consistent field success with hot fluid injection processes requires good reservoir description and a thorough understanding of recovery mechanisms. The latter is fostered by a combination of well designed experimental studies and physically sound mathematical modeling. The purpose of this paper is to further the understanding of reservoir response to hot-water injection by describing a two-dimensional mathematical technique, indicating its validity, and demonstrating its utility for studying the effects of reservoir and operating parameters. Published experimental studies of hot fluid injection processes are few." Even if extensive data were available, two considerations discourage exclusive reliance on laboratory or field work. First, because of the severity of scaling requirements," laboratory results must be interpreted with care. Second, because of the one-shot nature of field experiments — injectivity/productivity tests and pilot floods—results seldom are available over the desired range of operating conditions. These factors emphasize the need for devoting attention to mathematical modeling to complement laboratory and field work. Through the use of mathematical models, scaling uncertainties can be bridged and response can be predicted for unique combinations of reservoir and operating conditions. Numerous mathematical models developed during recent years enable us to calculate temperature distributions, thermal efficiency (or conversely, fraction of heat lost), and oil recovery behavior for hot fluid injection. Ramey" and Spillette' recently have provided reviews of these methods. Most models have concentrated on predicting temperature distributions and thermal efficiency; few have been directed at predicting oil recovery.'."1° Although these techniques are useful for estimating effects of reservoir parameters and operating conditions on process performance, results are limited by the assumptions made and by the methods of coupling independently solved fluid-flow and energy-balance equations. A computer-based method is presented for predicting total reservoir response to hot-water injection that obviates most simplifying assumptions. The model simulates fluid flow and heat transfer in two dimensions within a vertical cross-section spanning the oil sand and adjacent unproductive strata. Known numerical procedures are used to solve the governing partial differential equations. The mathematical model handles the effects of reservoir heterogeneity, gravity, capillarity, relative permeability and temperature-dependent fluid properties. In addition, a wide range of operating conditions can be modeled, including hot-water followed by cold-water injection. Mathematical Description of Hot-Water Injection Key assumptions in the mathematical model for hot-water injection are that (1) no gas phase is present and (2) the injected fluid reaches thermal equilibrium instantaneously with the reservoir fluids and sand. Relative permeability and capillary pressure are assumed independent of temperature. Darcy's law for multiphase fluid flow relates the velocities of the oil and water phases to the phase pressure gradients by the following relations:

Jan 1, 1969

By C. Gatlin, M. E. Chenevert

The effects of bedding plane orientation on the elastic constants and the yield strengths of three laminated rocks (one sandstone and two shales) and one isotropic rock (a limestone) were studied. The directional dependence of the elastic properties of these rocks was experimentally evaluated using a triaxial compression cell and auxiliary stress-strain measuring equipment. Symmetry of Poisson's ratios within the bedding plane suggested that horizontal isotropy exists, but the bedding planes do give rise to an appreciable difference between properties in the horizontal and vertical directions. For the three bedded rocks studied, Young's modulus was lower normal to bedding than along bedding. Yield strengths were determined at confining pressures from 0 to 12,000 psi in a triaxial compression cell. The rocks studied showed strength reductions as high as 40 per cent when the test specimen was oriented at 20°-30° to the bedding planes. The mechanical behavior of these rocks suggested that the rock properties of shear strength and/or coefficient of internal friction can vary with direction, depending on the particular rock tested. Tensile strengths were also measured and found to be lowest when failure occurred along bedding. This work shows that bedded formations exhibit sizable directional variations in both their elastic constants and yield strengths. It is suggested that these variations may be accounted for by using the "elastic laminate" model and the "variable coefficients" failure model. INTRODUCTION The nature of rock deformation at elevated pressures has been studied by many workers; papers by Handin,l,2 and Robinson3 illustrate the present state of knowledge. Most investigators have either chosen rocks which were as isotropic as possible (in order to avoid complications of data interpretation and analysis) or they have oriented their samples so that the effects of anisotropies (such as bedding planes) have been avoided. Of the studies performed, few were concerned specifically with mechanical anisotrop-ies. Griggs4 has presented limited data for specimens cut parallel, normal, and 45° to the bedding plane; he relates the strength anisotropy observed to the fabric (bedding) anisotropy. His tests were primarily concerned with large deformations (20 per cent strain); thus, no directional values of the elastic constants were reported. Handin has reported the results of similar experiments. Bott5has discussed rock strength anisotropies due to faults, cleavage, or bedding. He was concerned primari ly with determining the shear stress on such planes and did not mention the effect of friction. Jaeger6 later generalized Bott's work by taking friction into account and presented a limited theory for the failure of rocks having a "single plane of weakness", and also for rocks having a constant coefficient of friction, and a shear strength which varies with bedding plane orientation. Donath and Cohen,7 and Donathg have evaluated rock strengths from shale and slate specimens cut normal and parallel to bedding. A dependence of cohesive strength (7,) on the specimen orientation was also shown. Adler9 has also studied this problem and lists similar results. He assumes that all bedded rocks behave according to Jaeger's single-plane-of-weakness theory. Kalinin and Belorussov10 list results for strength tests parallel and perpendicular to bedding and use this information as a basis for hole deviation analysis. From the literature it is apparent that sedimentary rocks have been tested under widely varying conditions of stress; however, the assumption of isotropy is generally, but not always, made. Since geologic sedimentation often deposits sediments in very definite lavers.,. it seems that more svstema tic attention should be given to the possible effects of this natural bedding. Bedding, as used here, refers to visible regularities of grain size or orientation resulting from depositional processes. The mechanical strength anisotropies, which bedding may present, is not the only anisotronic property to be considered, since the elastic

Jan 1, 1966

By Robert H. Richards

(Pittsburg Meeting, March, 1910.) THIS is in part a review paper, indicating the various steps that have been taken in developing hindered-settling apparatus, some of the standard data that have been obtained, and some of the conclusions one is led to as to the effect of it in improving concentrating-methods and machinery, and in part it brings in some unpublished work. CAUSES OF LOSS IN ORE-CONCENTRATION. In making a study of the separation of valuable minerals from the waste gangue, particularly by water concentrators, it is necessary to define, first of all, what are the causes of-loss that are likely to interfere with the concentration. Having made this definition; we can then study to see in what way the machines make their losses, and plan remedies for them in an intelligent way. Losses may be stated to occur as included grains, as flat or long grains, as fine free mineral, and as absolute slime. We will take, these up one by one, as follows: Included Grains.-Fig. 1 shows by a set of diagrams how included grains may occur: first, where the heavy mineral grains attached to the quartz are of large size; secondly, where they are of small size ; and thirdly, where very fine particles of heavy mineral are included in the quartz. We have to decide in regard to included grains whether they are rich enough to go direct to, the furnace, or poor enough to throw away, or whether they lie between these two points and require recrushing as the only means of severing the values from the waste. This last case is the only one requiring special treatment at our hands. We will therefore consider that next. * By mutual consent, this paper has been presented also before the Colorado Scientific Society, and the Canadian Mining Institute, Montreal.

Feb 1, 1911

By F. Ernest Brackett

Much new data on the flow of gases have been discovered by recent experiments by the United States Bureau of Mines and others. Although additional investigation is still desirable, the information now collected seems sufficient to attempt a tentative coördination of the friction factors. This study is confined entirely to fluid friction when the density throughout the duct is so nearly constant that it may be so considered. In the subsequent discussion the following notation is used: v = mean velocity of fluid in duct, feet per second. v' = mean velocity of fluid in duct, meters per second. R = hydraulic radius of duct, feet. R' = hydraulic radius of duct, meters. S = the hydraulic slope. P = pressure absorbed by friction, pounds per square foot. p = pressure absorbed by friction, pounds per square inch. p' = pressure absorbed by friction, kilograms per square centimeter. A = sectional area of duct, square feet. O = perimeter of duct, feet. L = total length of duct, feet. L' = total length of duct, meters. d = diameter of a cylindrical duct, inches. w = density of the fluid, pounda per cubic foot. g = specific gravity of the fluid compared with water = w % 62.4. C, k and B, coefficients for formulas using English measures. C' = metric coefficient, v' = C'R'S. n = coefficient of roughness for English or metric units. The basic formula for the flow of all fluids at constant density appears in the three following forms, which may be denominated: (a) The slope formula, v = CRS (b) The ventilation formula, " n = (c) The pipe formula, C is Kutter's coefficient, which is extensively applied to the flow of water in ducts and channels of all kinds; E is Atkinson's coefficient, used principally with air in ventilation problems; B is a coefficient conveniently adapted to studying the flow of water, gases and vapors in pipes. 312

Jan 1, 1927

By H. D. Wilde

GREAT emphasis is being placed today on petroleum as a source of chemicals. Such prominence is well merited, for rapid strides have been made in developing processes for the conversion of petroleum into synthetic chemical products, which are now being made on a huge scale. These marvelous accomplishments have resulted in some highly optimistic predictions as to what can be expected in the future. Many of these forecasts are well justified, but some writers, especially those contributing to the Sunday supplements and the popular-cience type of publications, have let their imagination run wild and present a rather distorted picture of the possibilities in this field in the postwar period. Commercial manufacture of synthetic organic chemicals had its beginning in England with the establishment of a plant by Sir William Perkin in 1857 for the manufacture of "Aniline Purple" or "Mauve." The preceding year he had discovered in the laboratory how this dyestuff could be made from aniline, one of the many derivatives of coal tar, and he soon made commercial application of his discovery. Influenced largely by his success, organic chemists began research on production of a vast array of synthetic dyestuffs, medicinals, flavors, scents, and explosives. Rapid progress was made and by the turn of the century hundreds of these products were being manufactured. Most of these synthetic chemicals were derived from materials obtained as by-products in the conversion of coal into coke. These by-products are generally referred to as "aromatics" and are obtained by processing coal tar recovered in the coking process, so they are popularly known as "coal-tar chemicals." During the early years of this century, coal-tar chemistry was the wonder of the age, and rightfully so, since the products so made seemed limitless.

Jan 1, 1944

By Rossiter W. Raymond

(Chattanooga Meeting, October, INS.) THE formal outline of Mr. Hague's life and work is embraced in the following statement, chiefly based upon data furnished by him, at my request, shortly before his death. At that time the probability that I would survive to record his death was apparently small; but I urged upon him the duty of providing, whether for me or for my successor as Secretary of the Institute, trustworthy material for the notice which somebody would some day have to write-and which might otherwise be incomplete or incorrect. Mr. Hague, with characteristic promptness and freedom from affectation, did what I asked of him; and I am therefore . able to present an authoritative sketch-concerning the details of which I shall add my own comments, and some particulars obtained from others of his personal friends. James Duncan Hague was born Feb..24, 1836, at Boston, Mass., where his father, Rev. William Hague, D.D., an eminent clergyman, then resided. After a preliminary, education in private. schools, be studied in 1854 at the, Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University; in 1855 and 1856 at the University of Göttingen, Hanover; and from 1856 to 1858 at the Royal Mining Academy of Freiberg, Saxony. In 1859-1861 he was attached as chemist to a South Sea exploring expedition, sent by W. H. Webb, of New York, to examine Jarvis, Baker, and other islands for phosphate-deposits. After the outbreak of the Civil War, he entered the U. S. Navy, serving for a year as Judge Advocate to the fleet stationed at Port Royal, S. C. In 1863 he became Superintendent of the Albany and Boston copper-mine, in the Lake Superior region, where he was also connected with the earliest development of the Calumet and Hecla property. In 1867 he became the First Assistant Geologist in Clarence King's famous Exploration of

Feb 1, 1909

Resistant Tape A new oil-resistant tape for rapid insulation build-up on splices in large power cables has been announced by Minnesota Mining & Mfg. Co. Designated Scotch brand electrical tape No. 25 is made of synthetic rubber providing greater dielectric strength and resistance to high temperatures. The chemical-resistant qualities of the tape make it suitable for use in oil drilling, mining and underground [ ] cable operations, while the 40-mil thickness and extreme stretch (1500 pct breaking point) make possible smooth insulation wraps on irregular surfaces. Dielectric strength is 15,000 v and 10,000 v at 500 pct elongation. It has an electrolytic corrosion factor of 1.0 and an insulation resistance of 100,000 megohms. Circle No. 1 Hydra-Lift The Pitman Mfg. Co. announces that is now has in production a new model of the Pitman hydra-lift, recently-developed crane with hydraulically-powered boom that can be mounted on the frame of any truck, 1 ½ tons or larger. According to the manufacturer, the new model hydralift model B features a variety of improvements over the original production model, introduced late in 1950. Changes incorporated in the new model, according to officials, not only have resulted in improved crane, but also have given the unit a new profile which distinguishes it sharply from the original model. The two chief improvements in the new model are: a big increase in the unit's safety margin and the fact that it is now shipped almost completely preassembled, cutting the time and cost of installation. Rated capacities of the hydra-lift are based on the tipping factor of a 1 1/2 ton truck, with outriggers down, and thus have not been increased. Circle No. 2

Jan 1, 1952

By H. H. Wade, N. F. Schulz

The large quantities of iron-bearing materials, including taconite, semi-taconite,* and other low-grade ferruginous materials occurring in Minnesota and elsewhere, constitute an important potential source of iron. Satisfactory grade and recovery of iron ore concentrate cannot ordinarily be obtained from these ferruginous materials by simple methods of beneficiation. Iron is distinctive in that the free metal and two of its oxides [magnetite (Fe2O3) and maghemite (gamma-Fe2O3) ] are strongly ferromagnetic. The successful magnetic separation of natural magnetite from taconite has already been established on a commercial scale. The iron in semi-taconite, however, occurs largely as goethite (Fe2O3-H4O) and hematite (Fe2O3) which do not respond to ordinary magnetic separation methods. Magnetic roasting converts these iron oxides to magnetite, which can, after liberation, be magnetically concentrated. MAGNETIC ROASTING Hematite undergoes a stepwise reduction when exposed at moderately elevated temperatures to a reducing atmosphere containing hydrogen or carbon monoxide: Fe2O3? Fe3O4 ? FeO ? Fe Since the desirable product in magnetic roasting is Fe3O4, the conversion is halted after the first stage by controlling the reduction potential of the gas mixture with water vapor or carbon dioxide. The reducing gas mixture must be such that the oxygen partial pressure at the solid-gas reaction interface will be maintained intermediately between the oxygen partial pressures in equilibrium with Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 at the prevailing temperature. Because of the rapid increase in decomposition pressure of Fe3O4 with increase in temperature, the practical upper limit of useful reaction temperature is about 1400°F, above which over-reduction usually occurs in atmospheres containing hydrogen or carbon monoxide. On the other hand, useful reaction rates usually occur only above 800°F. Goethite reacts similarly except that the combined water probably has to be driven off thermally before the reduction to magnetite occurs. Iron carbonate must also be decomposed thermally to an oxide before conversion to magnetite. Iron silicates are apparently not amenable to magnetic roasting. The rate of penetration of the reaction toward the interior of a given ore fragment is dependent on the chemical composition and physical structure of the solid. Most ore fragments tested here reduced satisfactorily to 1/4-in. depth in less than 14 min at 1200°F. Some very dense fragments, however, were reduced to less than 1/32-in. depth under the same conditions. Determination of the optimum temperature, gas composition, ore fragment size, or time of exposure

Jan 1, 1961

By Edmund Davenport

THE specific aim of this work has been to study certain forms of internal deterioration which occur in tungsten filaments when subjected to high temperatures under various conditions, and to determine the cause of such deterioration. This would naturally lead to a consideration of methods of control or means of prevention of the phenomena. The deterioration was first noticed as a peculiar condition in the grain boundaries of certain tungsten filaments which had been burned? for long periods in lamps. In these cases it was noted that the grain boundaries contained a number of minute black dots which were at first thought to be non-metallic inclusions. It was demonstrated later that these dots or pits, as they were designated, could be readily produced by burning filaments in an atmosphere of flowing hydrogen. This method was convenient and adequate for the purpose, and was adopted for most of the work discussed in this paper. The evidence accumulated to date indicates that these pits are actually small voids between the grains. The purpose of this paper is to present- the information on this interesting subject gathered during a period of about 3 years. As applied to tungsten, the subject appears to be of considerable importance, experience having shown that this pitting ?is frequently associated with poor performance of filaments in lamps. The question has arisen as to whether these intergranular pits are peculiar to tungsten, or if they occur in all metals. If they are found iii all metals, the facts will be of considerable theoretical interest, as the material at the grain boundary plays an important part in most of the current theories of the properties of metals and alloys.

Jan 1, 1927

John R. Lucas was born Apr. 15, 1866, at St. Louis, Mo. From his 19th year until his death on his 51st birthday anniversary, he was engaged in the mining industry, in which, however, he made his beginning and achieved his progress after a somewhat unusual fashion. Presumably without previous training as a mining engineer, he became in April, 1885, and remained until the end of 1892, bookkeeper of the Granite Metal Mining Co. at its St. Louis office. Then for a year he served as bookkeeper of the same company at its mine in Montana. This official of a mining company is at the very heart of its operations; and if he possesses ambition and intelligence, may learn the business thoroughly. It is not surprising, therefore, that Mr. Lucas, being that kind of man, assumed, in 1894, a position with the Hope Mining Co., another St. Louis corporation operating in Montana, which he retained for eight years, serving not only in the office, but becoming also successively mill foreman and assayer. This varied practical experience prepared him for important administrative functions. From April, 1902, he was for many years the business agent of the Goodhope Mining Co. In 1903, he became also the assistant superintendent of the Granite Bi-metallic Consolidated Mining Co., and subsequently its superintendent-a position which he retained until his health failed at the end of 1916. In addition to the other Granite Bi-metallic properties, he had charge of the sapphire mines in the west fork of Rock Creek, Mont., the Basin Gulch placer mines, the claims of the former Hope Co., etc., all of which he managed with skill, integrity and recognized business ability.

Jan 6, 1918

By D. S. Greig

There was a decline in the Italian oil production in 1933 and also in the footage drilled. A total of about 194,500 bbl. of crude oil was produced in the Emilia district of northern Italy from the same fields in production as in 1932. New drilling to the extent of 80,700 ft. failed to find new production to compensate for the decline in old wells, and no new fields were discovered in spite of an active exploration campaign by the government-owned company A.G.I.P., which has just completed the first year of a five-year exploration program. This company drilled a total of about 33,000 ft. The majority of its tests were drilled in the Po Valley upon locations selected by geophysical methods. This company is changing over to the rotary system for all future wells. It produced about 16,600 bbl. of oil from wells near Salsomaggiore and in the Po Valley. The Petroli d'Italia, which operates the old fields of Montechino, Valleja and Gratera south of Piacenza, has been doing normal development drilling in the endeavor to extend its present fields. Also it was drilling two exploration wells in the Torino district. It drilled a total of about 13,930 ft. and produced approximately 12,645 bbl. of very high-grade oil (specific gravity about 0.765). The Societa Petrolifera Italiana was occupied chiefly in exploratory drilling in the endeavor to extend its producing fields at Salsomaggiore and at Vallezza, south of Parma. It was also drilling one exploration well at Rile dell7Olio near Voghera on the line Milan-Genoa. It drilled a total of 33,849 ft. and obtained a production from its two fields of 165,273 bbl. It also produced 123,220 gal. of casinghead gasoline from Vallezza field absorption plant.

Jan 1, 1934

By Fred Mosley

The present operation is located on Whitewood Creek about two miles downstream from Deadwood, South Dakota. Early day placer gold operations took place on this creek from Crook City to an area several miles upstream from Deadwood. Early discoveries were in the Deadwood area. In this particular zone, much of the early work was accomplished at stream level and at various elevations above. In the original operations, it was not possible to reach bedrock in many places due to the ground water level plus the existence of numerous large boulders in the same area. The bedrock in this area is approximately twenty feet deep, consisting of Cambrian and Ordovician sediments. Shortly after the early operations began, many small lode mines and several larger mines released mill tailings directly into Whitewood Creek. This practice continued for a full century, thereby limiting the amount of clean water available for sluicing. These tailings in the stream carried large amounts of heavy minerals along with the natural heavier minerals introduced from erosion and were immediately caught in the riffle boxes, resulting in the suspension of many small sluicing operations. No large scale sluicing or mining was ever done at bedrock level in this area, resulting in an almost virgin placer gold deposit. The old tailings cover much of the area, contributing an additional deposit carrying appreciable gold values. In recent years, a company known locally as New Era Mining Company attempted with some success to exploit the area at bedrock level. The equipment used included a Marian dragline with. a three- yard bucket, a washing trommel mounted on a 40 ft by 20 ft floating pontoon barge, together with two banks of Humphrey Spirals and a secondary spiral for collecting concentrate from the two primary

Jan 1, 1983

Dr. Arthur H. Elliott has been connected with the gas industry for upward of thirty-eight years and was a chemist to whom the industry is deeply indebted for the application of the science of chemistry to its problems and processes. He was born in London, England, in 1851, and was the son-of a physician. While a child he was taken to France, where he received his early education, learning to speak the French language before his native English. His father having destined him for the medical profession, he commenced his studies on his return to England, but his attention being attracted to chemistry, he gave up the study of medicine to pursue that of chemistry. While still a student, he obtained a reputation as an iron and steel analyst, publishing two methods of analysis, one for the determination of sulphur .and the other for the determination of carbon in cast iron. On his graduation from the School of Mines at South Kensington, he left England intending to go to Australia, where an uncle resided, having in mind also the possibility of a trip to China. On his arrival in New York, he met Professor Charles F. Chandler, to whom he had a letter of introduction, and who induced young Elliott to remain. He graduated from Columbia College with the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1883. He became demonstrator in chemistry at the College of Pharmacy and afterward professor of chemistry and physics at the same college. He became connected with the Municipal Gas Lighting Co. in May, 1880. In. November, 1.884, when consolidation took place, he became engineer-chemist of the Consolidated Gas Co., which position he held until May, 1910, when he resigned, but was retained as consulting chemist until his death. Recently Columbia University conferred on him the honorary degree of Master of Science.

Jan 7, 1918

By W. P. Blake

One of the most remarkable iron-ore districts of the world is found in Southern Utah, in Iron County, about 270 miles south of Salt Lake City, and 10 miles west of Cedar City. This region has long been known in a general way; but, being at present somewhat difficult of access, it has been rarely visited by 'any of our members. Professor Newberry has published somewhere a short description. Last year, by the invitation of J. R. Walker, Esq., of Salt Lake City, one of our associate members, I formed one of a party, including Professor G. W. Maynard and W. S. Keyes, to visit and inspect the region. A special car was placed at our disposal by the courtesy of Hon. John Sharp, Superintendent of the Utah Central Railway. From the present southern terminus of the road at Milford, a drive of 55 miles took us to Cedar City, about 10 miles east of the iron region. The ores outcrop in a low range of hills or mountains, and stand out in such bold relief from the general surface, and are so massive and jet black, that they may be seen for miles before they are reached. These outcrops extend in long lines over the hills, and mark very . clearly the course of the beds, conforming generally to the inclosing stratified formations, probably of Palaeozoic age. These rocks are somewhat obscure, but there are large outcrops of limestone without much alteration. This, in places, appears to be the adjoining rock, at others the wall-rocks are porphyry, and at others apparently a quartzite and a fine-grained felsite. The beds of iron-ore are from 10 to 100 feet and more in thick ness, and some of the outcrops extend unbroken continuously for 1000 feet and more. It consists chiefly of magnetite and hematite,

Jan 1, 1886

Data about production are very meager. In this county from the earliest days until after the Civil War, the amount of coal used locally greatly exceeded that shipped on account of the iron produced; for many years the furnaces used raw coal for melting the ore. In 1846 it was stated that in this county one ton of iron required three tons of iron ore and three tons of local coal used raw.1 In 1864, eleven furnaces in Pennsylvania using 102,230 tons of raw coal produced 44,671 tons of iron, or 2.3 tons raw coal per ton of pig iron .2 This was probably as good a record as was made, as nearly all furnaces changed to coke some years later. Neither of these figures include the coal used for steam and other purposes around an iron plant. The Beaver and Erie Canal was opened in 1845 and the shipments shown from then to 1865, inclusive, are of coal received by the canal at Erie, and do not include any used at local points along the canal. From the completion of the Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad in 1864 the tonnage shipped by canal decreased. rapidly, and, while the canal shipments after 1864 are supposed to be those received at Erie by canal only, they may include some rail tonnages. Tonnages on Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad may, and probably do, include some used locally; those on the Jamestown & Franklin Railroad do not. It is likely that both canal and Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad figures include some coal originating in Lawrence County, and possibly a little from Beaver County. These tonnages are not duplicated in the data for either of the other counties. Not all of the railroad reports can be found now.

Jan 1, 1942

The Subcommittee on Manganese, of the A.I.M.E. Committee on Industrial Preparedness, prepared under date of Jan. 24, 1924, for and at the request of the War Department, a confidential report on manganese as an element in the problem of national defense. This report was later released and published, in slightly modified form, as a separate pamphlet. After the lapse of eight years, in view of the vital position of manganese in the problem of industrial preparedness agenist a war emergency, the War Department made a request to have the onclusions of 1924 reviewed and brought up to date. To comply wi' this request the manganese subcommittee was reconvened and ex' tive studies were once more made of the entire subject of mang? . A new report, with specific recommendations, was submitted + War Department in February, 1932. This second report, with 4. L specific conclusions and recomrnendations expressed to the War Department omitted, has now been released and is hereby published. Following a rather brief discussion of uses of manganese and classification of manganese ores, requirements and sources are dealt with at some length. Domestic ferro-grade reserves are estimated on the basis of price and are shown by means of a curve where tons of metallic manganese are plotted cumulatively against prices ranging from 50¢ to $1.00 per unit; thereby indicating at a glance the tonnage which the Committee believes would become commercially available at any particular price per unit. Foreign sources of ore are described and foreign prices which the domestic producer must meet are considered. The question of a war-emergency reserve is then analyzed, requirements are balanced against apparent resources, and the principal conclusion that emerges is that a war reserve or stockpile is still vital to national defense.

Jan 1, 1934

By D. H. Yardley

Diversion of the American Falls of Niagara to permit investigation of ways and means to stabilize the falls while retaining or improving its natrual attractiveness is the geoengineering work that has received greatest public attention this year. The falls are re- treating slowly as rock falls occur while talus de- posits at the base have increased in size. One of the noteworthy questions is whether the talus should be removed-i.e. is it providing support to the base, and so what will happen if it is removed? Certainly the appearance would be improved if the talus were taken away. Geoengineering studies involve mapping of joints, stress measurements, core work and rock sampling and testing, Present work will provide data and interpretation for design of a long term stabilization system, Once basic information is obtained, water will be returned to the normal channel until such time as the detailed design is decided upon. The falls will then be diverted a second time while necessary work is performed. A number of site-environmental studies were carried out for the location of nuclear power plants. These projects involve geology, foundation engineering, hydrology, seismology, meteorlogy, marine geology (in some cases), rock mechanics and occasionally blast monitoring. In one case (investigated by Dames & Moore) the site area was underlain by caverns in limestones at shallow depths but with no surface expression. The geotechnical problems consisted of determining proper spacing of drill holes to locate caverns. Spacing was dependent on the smallest size of cavity that could constitute a support-stability problem for the plant. The finite element method of analysis was used to determine stress conditions around cavities of various size and depths, to assist in determining critical parameters.

Jan 1, 1970

By Gail F. Moulton

The production of petroleum in Illinois in 1928 was approximately 6,500,000 bbl., a decline of about 500,000 bbl. from the previous year and of about 1,500,000 bbl. from 1924. Production increased about 200,000 bbl. in Indiana to slightly less than 1,000,000 bbl. Production for 1929 is estimated at approximately 6,000,000 bbl. for Illinois and 1,000,000 bbl. for Indiana. Illinois Because production from most of the wells in the state has declined to a small daily average and the low prices for crude oil discouraged wildcatting, the number of wells drilled fell below that for any previous year since the development of commercially important production in the state. The Ohio Oil Co. discovered a pool of apparent commercial importance in southwestern Illinois near Dupo, in St. Clair County, and favorable showings of oil were encountered in a well in southeastern Illinois, near Harrisburg in Saline County. New production from the Dupo area is expected to check the rate of decline for the state. Thc following tablel summarizes field developments for 1927 and 1928 (for important detail by counties see notes at foot of table): 1027 1928 Completions........................................... 162 145a Initial production, bbl.................................. 2244 1840b Dry holes........................................,.... 66 58" Gas well completions................................... 13 8d 0111 wells abandoned.................................... 45" a Crawford, 44; Lawrence, 28; Wabash, 40. b Crawford, 501; Lawrence, 403; St. Clair, 165 (4 completions); Wahash, 668. o Crawford, 12; Wabash, 19. d Crawford, 6. b Lawrence, 21; Wabash, 15. The discovery well in the Dupo field in St. Clair County, produced about 150 bbl. per day from the Trenton lime at 660 ft. It is located in a northern extension of the Columbia-Waterloo anticline on which the Waterloo pool was developed in 1921. The best information on the.

Jan 1, 1929