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By L. C. Campbell

The purpose of any accident-prevention program is the curtailment or entire elimination of injuries and fatalities. It is a job that is never finished in the coal-mining industry. Day by day, on shift and off shift, men are exposed to injury and death in varying numbers. Seldom is it possible to lock up at the end of the shift and leave a mine plant in the care of a sleepy watchman, as can be done at most manufacturing plants. Even on off shifts there are maintenance and supply crews, coal cutters, pumpers and ventilation men exposed to danger. The prevention program of The Koppers Coal Co. recognizes two primary facts: First, no program can be successful without the full support of the management and complete knowledge of the job at hand on the part of every supervisor. Second, and equally important, is the full cooperation of every employee in observing the safety rules and practices set up by the management. Conscious day-to-day concern for his safety by the individual worker is the longest stride toward a good safety experience. How to accomplish the education of the individual worker and supervisor for safety is the problem of The Koppers Coal Co., as it is the problem of all coal companies. Safety Rules A simply stated set of Safety Rules and Practices for the government of employees is the starting point with The Koppers Coal Co. There are but 13 of these rules, which are short, easily understood and followed by a campaign of education and inspection. Each employee receives a set of these Safety Rules and Practices and signs a receipt for them, which is bound in at the back of the booklet, and this receipt becomes a part of his employment record. These rules and practices are as follows: Introduction The following rules have been compiled for the safety of employees and are established according to rules number one and number two of the official bulletin

Jan 1, 1940

By J. D. Gill

Restriction programs in important raw-materials industries in foreign countries have been abandoned after lengthy trials. Presumably, failure has been a logical consequence of the attainment of objectives of the restrictive schemes in the early periods of their administration in defiance of economic law. In general, the chief objective has been the elevation of prices of the products of these industries. More conservative plans have sought the maintenance of a price structure that was in jeopardy at the time restriction was initiated. The course of the administrat'ion of restrictive measures can be traced by the result's of restriction, viz.: the creation or maintenance of highly profitable prices; the over-expansion of productive facilities; the accumulation of inventory; and finally, by the collapse of the price structure, which invariably has led to abandonment of the restrictive scheme. The theory and practice of restriction as applied to industries that have tried it are too well known to need detailing here. Restraint of Production of Crude Oil Regardless of the record of the catastrophic outcomes of restrictive measures in other industries, our industry has not been deterred from attempting restriction of crude-oil production. The assumed bases for success of our restrictive plan are clear. They follow from the fact that the physical characteristics of the petroleum industry differ from those of other industries that have tried restriction. Its raw material is a highly essential substance, a natural, exhaustible resource. The extent of its reserves is unknown, a fact that arouses the cooperative spirit of conservationists. At no time before the inauguration of restriction had its developed reserves been sufficient to supply more than the requirements for a few months without the help of new drillings. To a considerable extent its discovery involves the element of chance. Its economic production seems to require an unnatural relationship; namely, cooperation among competitors, because it is a fugitive resource, capable of moving from under one owner's property to underlie another's. Thus its recovery presents intricate legal questions concerning property rights.

Jan 1, 1934

By A. J. de Witte

INTRODUCTION The importance of determining dips of subsurface formations in wells, especially in wildcat wells, is self-evident and need not be enlarged upon. Various dipmeter instruments have been described in technical literature1,2,3,4 over the years. The introduction of the continuous dip-meters3,4 has made the earlier types obsolete. Continuous dipmeter logs are run by at least two different major service companies. Included as part of the service are a limited number of dip calculations—usually 10—made at different levels from the log. Very frequently this is the total result of a dip survey. It is believed that dipmeter surveys would be of considerably more advantage if geologists and engineers were able to make their own calculations from the original records. Determination of dips from the dipmeter record starts with the correlation of three log curves taken at different sides of the borehole. It cannot be over-emphasized that the quality of the results hinges primarily on this correlation. Nobody should be better qualified to correlate logs than a subsurface geologist or field engineer. The next requirement is to have an easy yet accurate way of computing the dip from the correlated points. Service companies use a mechanical device for this purpose. Directions for a graphical method were given in a recent article by B. 0. Prescotts. This paper describes a different graphical technique which, in our experience, is simpler, faster and at least as accurate. The entire manipulation is carried out on the stereonet in a number of easy moves. The paper is divided into two parts. This first part contains the introductory sections and full explanation of the geometry involved. The second part reviews the reading of data from an actual field log and summarizes the practical rules for computation of dips, the whole process being illustrated by an example. Following the outlined procedure, one could calculate a good many levels in a relatively short time, thus being able in particular to check suspected anomalies such as fault zones or unconformities in as close detail as the log will permit. GENERAL EXPOSITION OF THE METHOD Prnciple of the Dipmeter The position of a plane in space is defined by the location of three points, not on a straight line. Referring to Fig. I, if a borehole traverses a bedding plane, we can determine the strike and dip of the bed by finding three points which are not in line along this plane. Such points as A, B, and C are obtained with the dipmeter. The device consists of three electrodes (or caliper arms)1, 2, and 3 spaced at 120 angles, as schematically indicated, whose readings are separately recorded (Curves 1, 11, 111, to the right). When electrode 1 passes the boundary of the bed, Curve I will kick, etc. From these curves, we know the relative distances of points A, B, C, measured along the axis of the hole. If A is at zero, then B and C are at levels d1 and d2 up the hole,

Jan 1, 1957

By J. K. Stanley

Knowledge of the diffusivity of carbon in the low temperature form of iron (alpha iron existing below 910°C) is at the moment of considerable interest in the study of the decomposition of austenite and martensite, the elastic after-effect,123 the magnetic after-effect4 and the decarburization of steel below 910°C. Information on the solubility of carbon in iron, and to a lesser extent its diffusion, is also important in consideration of such phenomena as blue-brittleness, temper-brittleness, "magnetic" aging, quench-aging, strain-aging, and possibly the yield point. In order to obtain more information on these subjects more fundamental knowledge is necessary. It is the purpose of this work to present data on the diffusion and solubility of carbon in the alpha iron. The high temperature form of iron (gamma; face-centered cubic) existing above 910°C is capable of dissolving relatively large amounts of carbon, up to 1.7 pet at 1130°C, while the low temperature form (alpha, body-centered cubic) existing below 910° dissolves only a limited maximum amount of less than 0.02 pet carbon at 725°C, according to data obtained here. Since the solubility of carbon in the face-centered or gamma iron is large, relatively speaking, no great analytical difficulties have been encountered in the determination of the solubility lines5 or of the diffusion of carbon.0 The limited solubility of carbon in alpha iron offers difficulties because experimental procedures and analytical methods for low carbon contents below say 0.01 pet have to be more refined than techniques used for work with gamma iron. Because of the difficulties of applying conventional methods to the determination of the diffusion of carbon in alpha iron, virtually no work has been done on this subject. However, by proper refinement of the analytical method for small amounts of carbon, the determination of the diffusion coefficient can be made readily using modified procedures. The solubility of carbon in alpha iron has been determined over a temperature range by various investigators, but the agreement among them is poor. The present investigation establishes the limits quite accurately. Information of this kind is useful in establishing the correctness of equilibrium diagrams but, more significantly, such information on maximum solubilities, especially when extended to alloyed ferrites, should be extremely important in the study of aging and related phenomena. Literature The literature existing on the diffusion, in particular, and on the solubility of carbon in alpha iron is not extensive. The data which exist are not of a high order of accuracy, much of them being in the realm of conjecture. THE DIFFUSION OF CARBON IN ALPHA IRON Whiteley7 made the qualitative ob- servation, using metallographic techniques, that the rate of diffusion of carbon at the A1 (725°C) point was very rapid and that its diffusion was still rapid at 550°C. Snoek,4 studying the magnetic aftereffect in high purity iron, arrived at the conclusion that the after-effect could be explained by the presence of small amounts of carbon diffusing under the influence of magnetostrictive strain (lattice distortion due to magnetic interaction). In later work, Snoek8 made an estimate of the ratio of carbon diffusion in alpha to its diffusion in gamma iron, and concluded that for a temperature of 910°C the ratio of Da/D? was 2600. Polder,9 basing his calculations of D on relaxation phenomena in the elastic after-effect, estimated that Da is about 1/3 of D? at 910°C (1183°K) and is about 1/12 of Dy at 727°C (1000°K). Polder's equation for the diffusion of carbon in alpha iron was calculated to be 18000 D = 5.2 X 10-4 e-RT cm2 per sec Ham10 obtained data for the diffusion and solid solubility of carbon in alpha iron at two temperatures by using one technique similar to that employed in this study. He found a D of 8.0 X 10-7 cm2 per sec at 702°C and of 2.7 X 10-7 at 648°C. THE SOLUBILITY OF CARBON IN ALPHA IRON Although pearlite is absent in steels containing 0.06 pet,11 0.05 pet,12 or 0.045 pet C,13 it appears that the carbon in these steels cannot be in solution in ferrite. The solubility of carbon at the A1 (725°C) point was first determined by Scott14 on the basis of cooling curves, and was found to be between 0.03 and 0.04 pet C. Tamura15 by interpolating between the solubility of carbon in delta iron at 1400°C and in alpha at room temperature (assuming zero solubility) ar-

Jan 1, 1950

By T. Egleston

DURING the year 1873, my attention was called to the frequent accidents, resulting from the breaking of rails, on the different railroads in this country, and I was requested to investigate the subject. The plan of investigation I proposed was to ascertain, in as many cases as possible, the exact history of broken rails, both in this country and in Europe; to collect information in Europe relating to the tests which rails used there were required to undergo, and to experiment upon the pieces of rails broken on the road, with a view to ascertain whether their fracture was due to their chemical constitution, bad manufacture, to a reduction in strength owing to temperature, or to physical changes in the constitution of the rail. The investigation was commenced by the collection of statistics, and for this purpose I spent several months in Europe, collecting information on the subject of broken rails, as well as the life of iron and steel rails generally, and inquiring into the systems of purchasing and of testing them employed by the railroads there, intending, on my return, to make a series of analyses of rails broken, both in this country and in Europe; to ascertain, if possible, how far great cold had an influence on the fracture ; to examine whether the rail broken, either on the road or afterwards, underwent, at or about the fracture, any physical change, and to make a series of experiments on the strength of rails manufactured in the United States or sold in the American market. Unfortunately, the panic of 1873 came on, just before my return from Europe, and prevented the carrying out of the larger part of the plan proposed ; as, however, I had collected in the meantime, a large number of statistics of different kinds from all parts of Europe, and had made a number of interesting experiments and investigations, I have thought it would be worth while to communicate some

Jan 1, 1875

By R. G. Powell, R. Schuhmann, E. J. Michal

Liquidus surfaces in the ternary system FeO-Fe2O3-SiO2, were determined from 1250' to 1450°C by the procedure of equilibrating small samples in platinum crucibles, quenching, and microscopic examination. The experimental results were combined with previously published information to construct a ternary diagram for the system showing the entire temperature-composition range of stability of iron silicate slags. Metallurgical applications of the diagram, especially in copper smelting, are discussed briefly. IRON oxides are almost unique among the common oxide constituents of metallurgical slags in that the iron occurs in two different states of oxidation, ferrous and ferric. Moreover, in liquid slags the degree of oxidation of the iron is readily changed by reactions of the slags with oxidizing agents or reducing agents. This behavior of iron oxides in slags accounts, for example, for the effective transfer of large quantities of oxygen through slag layers in open hearth steelmaking. In this process, oxygen supplied by reactions at the gas-slag interface is dissolved in the slag with the oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric. Ferric oxide is transported across the slag layer by convection, and at the slag-metal interface the oxygen reacts with liquid metal while the ferric iron is reduced back to the ferrous state. Another group of processes in which variation in degree of oxidation of iron has great practical importance is in copper smelting. In matte smelting and converting, such large proportions of the iron are oxidized to the ferric state that problems are encountered in preventing or controlling the formation of solid magnetite. The ferrous-ferric relationship also affects the attack of iron oxides on high-SiO2 refractories, which appears to be most severe under reducing conditions for which ferrous iron predominates. Darken and Gurry' determined the chemical properties and phase equilibria of pure iron oxide slags. Their data show that iron oxide melts can have compositions ranging almost all the way from FeO to Fe2O3. The melts of lowest oxygen contents, which exist in equilibrium with metallic iron, approach ferrous oxide in composition but still have a small percentage of ferric oxide. The melts of highest oxygen contents, which have oxygen dissociation pressures of 1 atm, are above magnetite in oxygen content, with over two-thirds of the iron in the ferric state. The previously established phase diagrams for silicate slag systems all show FeO as the iron oxide component. However, Bowen and Schairer? who determined the FeO-SiO2 diagram and many of the other diagrams used by slag chemists, have been careful to point out that their systems always contained both ferrous and ferric iron. Thus, their data are for limiting mixtures with minimum contents of ferric iron, obtained by melting and equilibration in iron crucibles. Under these conditions, the Fe2O3 percentages found by analysis were small enough to justify simplification of the published phase diagrams by calculating the Fe2O3 to equivalent FeO and ignoring Fe2O3 as an additional component. On the basis of experimental measurements of melting points of iron oxides on silica in the presence of various gas mixtures, Darken3 worked out phase diagrams for the Fe-Si-0 system which show the important phase equilibria in terms of temperature and gas composition. This study clarified many aspects of the application of the phase rule to the FeO-Fe2Oa-SiO2 system and was an important basing

Jan 1, 1954

By N. O. Johnson

The Hog Mountain mine is a pyritic-gold property in the north central part of Tallapoosa County, Alabama, at an elevation of 800 ft. in the southern Appalachian region. It is 13 miles by a good secondary road from Alexander City, a station on the Central of Georgia Railroad. Since its discovery in 1839, the mine has been worked intermittently. The records of past operations are few and are scattered over a long period of time; however, available information indicates a production of approximately 12,000 oz. of gold prior to the present company's activities, which started in 1933. Additional 7844 oz. has been produced under the direction of the present management. The ore from stopes has averaged 0.200 oz. gold per ton; the ore from development, 0.136 oz. gold per ton. Silver, copper, iron and sulphur are also present but to date are of minor importance. The grade of ore in comparatively narrow veins makes necessary extreme vigilance in the methods of mining. Geology Wall Rock.—Hog Mountain consists of a quartz-diorite intrusion approximately 5000 ft. long by 1200 ft. wide. Its resistance to weathering, as compared to the surrounding schists, has led to the formation of a conspicuous ridge rising 400 ft. above the adjacent country. All the mining operations are confined within the limits of this quartz-diorite formation. Except where there is excessive shearing, either parallel or at flat angles to the quartz veins, all the walls of the stopes within the limits of the veins are strong enough to make timbering unnecessary. Where shearing exists, there may be a sloughing off of the walls, especially in the process of drawing the ore. When this occurs, stulls are placed in the stope, either while the stope is advancing, or while ore is being drawn from a completed stope. In general, very little timber is required. Veins.—The quartz veins have been deposited along fracture planes in the quartz diorite. There are 20 principal veins, all of which are roughly parallel and strike at right angles to the long axis of the formation.

Jan 1, 1937

By Ferdinand S. Ruttmann

There is now in use at the mines of the Chateaugay Ore and Iron Co., at Lyon Mountain, New York, an ore-concentrating machine or jig, which, in view of the increasing attention given to the subject of concentrating lean ores of iron, seems worthy of notice. This Conkling Jig, as it is called, is not entirely unknown, having been used at several places with more or less success; but as yet, I believe, no drawings of it or records of its work have found a place in print. Although the jig will be found to be merely an adaptation of old forms, there are several points which deserve attention, particularly the method of central discharge, of freeing the bearings from grit, and the rotation of the sieve or screen. The ore-body at Lyon Mountain consists of a bed of rather compact, granular magnetite, occurring in a gueiss formation. The side walls of the ore-body are not sharply defined, the ore 011 either side becoming gradually poorer as the distance from the central point of the body increases. It is this lean ore, which, before the introduction of the jigs, was thrown away as waste, that is now concentrated. The material treated conseqnently consists of magnetite, intermixed with the component parts of gneiss, viz. quartz, felspar, hornblende, and mica. Grains of trap also form part of this material. These come from dykes of trap, which cross the ore-body at intervals. The ore which is to be concentrated usually contains from 30 to 40 per cent. of metallic iron. It is first crushed to the size of two inches, or less, by two large Blake crushers. The material from these crushers passes by a shute lined with screens, having holes 2 inches in diameter, to a second set of four crushers, set so as to close to one inch. The product from this set of crushers, together with that which passes through the screens in the shute, is then taken by an elevator to the top of the mill, and passed through a revolving screen, perforated with ) inch holes. The ore which passes through the screen goes to the jig-hoppers ; that which passes over goes to a third

Jan 1, 1888

The serious shortage of eastern gas coal and of coke for gas-making in Illinois and adjoining states during the winter of 1917-1918 was emphasized at the meeting of the Illinois Gas Association, March, 1918. The seriousness of the situation was of concern not merely to private interests but to the general public, which consumes gas for heating, lighting, and for important industrial uses. Some relief was thought possible if central district coals from Illinois, Indiana, and western Kentucky could be used generally as a substitute for eastern coal and coke in the manufacture of retort gas and water-gas. Already a little Illinois and Indiana coal was being used under special circumstances in Illinois retort plants and successful experiments with mixtures of Illinois coal and eastern coal had been conducted at the Decatur retort-gas plant by F. K. Ovitz of the U. S. Bureau of Mines and the Illinois Mining Investigations, with the advice and cooperation of a committee of the Illinois Gas Association. Consequently, it seemed desirable to continue experiments with central district coal in gas retorts, and with coal as a substitute for coke in water-gas generators, and to give publicity to the results and technical assistance to companies desiring to use central district coal. Other matters, of national importance were the prospective shortage of toluol and of ammonia for the manufacture of explosives, and the possibility of encouraging recovery of additional amounts from some of the plants in central states that were not contributing these substances. Results of work done by the Gas Section, Illinois Mining Investigations, under the advice of the Technical Committee, were pushed to early publication until the signing of the armistice lessened the importance of speed as a war measure. The first two publications listed below were distributed by the Regional Director of the U. S. Fuel Administration, through the Bureau of Gas. By-products and Public Utilities. The others were distributed by the Geological Survey. Bulletin 21. The Manufacture of Retort Coal-gas in the Central States Using Low-sulphur Coal, from Illinois, Indiana, and, Western Kentucky. Bulletin 22. Water-gas Manufacture with Central District Bituminous Coals as Generator Fuel

Jan 8, 1919

By H. I. Aaronson, H. A. Domian, G. M. Pound

The thernodyna,nics of I the Proeutectoid ferrite re-action ha1.e been investigated on the bases of three diifevent descviptions of the statistical thernzodynamics of interstitzal solid solutions. Especially at low ternperatures, substantial dijeretzces are found in the valltes of the extrapolated y/y + a and cr/a + y equilibriurn curls, and in the To- co7nposilion metastable eqliilibriunz curl-es thus co,npited. Although neither actiztity nor phase-diagram date are able to distingrish udeqiutely among the various descviptions, the statustics of Lacher, Fouller, and Guggenheinz provide the ?nost conplete epresentation az3ailable of the single carbon-ctrbon interaction energy (w) nzodel of an intevstitiril solid solution, and the relationships deduced frojrl then2 are accordingly pre.ferred. The findings tlzut w in austenite 'aries significu?ztly uith tenpevntrue and that phase-diagawr data arc not accurately con?palible usith eqcrctions deduced on the basis of actility infoation indicate, hou'e13er, that a wzore cornplex nlodel of the uustenite , und pvobably of the .feyrite, solirl solutions will have to forn the basis of f4tuve statistical t1.eat1nents. Some suggestions for such a ruodel arc advanced. Althoug11 w represents a vepltlsio energy in austozite, it was found to corvcsporzd in ferrite to a binding energy, in qualitatit.e accord zc,itlz the internal-friclion results of Keefer and wert. ThE transformation of austenite to proeutectoid fer-rite is becoming recognized as an exceptionally useful vehicle for quantitative studies of the kinetics of phase transformations.'" Reasons for this popularity include well-characterized microstructures which develop on a convenient scale with acceptable kinetics within a considerable temperature-composition region, the absence of great sensitivity to common impurities, and, especially. the availability of a unique wealth of the ancillary information indispensable for the quantitative interpretation of kinetic measurements, including phase diagram,3 crystallographies diffusivity,5 inter-facial energy,=17 elastiit," specific vlume, ''' and ativity'-' data. Development of considerable amounts of additional thermodynamic information from activity data is of particular importance with respect to kinetic studies, since much of this information is needed in temperature-composition regions not directly accessible to presently available techniques for the measurement of equilibrium properties. A generally useful approach to the thermodynamics of solid solutions, which is of especial value in this situation, is based upon the formulation of the free energy of such solutions as a function of temperature and composition. The free energy of solid solutions has been resolved into many components. Particularly in the case of interstitial solutions, with which we shall be concerned in the present study, however, only the positional entropy component has been intensively studied. The other components are conventionally taken into account by fitting equations for the activity of the interstitial species or the temperature-composition path of phase boundaries, derived principally from positional entropy considerations, to experimental information on these quantities through adjustment of one or more constants in the equations. A number of studies of the thermodynamics of interstitial solid solutions have been made primarily on this basis,'"25 but only Kaufman, Radcliffe, and cohenZ2 (hereafter KRC) and ener''% ave applied the results of such studies to develop relationships for the thermodynamic quantities of interest in the austenite —- proeutectoid ferrite transformation. KRC made use of a model developed by cheil'' (on the basis of a previous study by ohansson'), and subsequently rede-rived correctly by Speiser and retnak,' in which a carbon atom is considered to inhibit occupancy of a certain number of its nearest-neighboring interstitial sites. schei120 determined the number of sites in austenite thus excluded by matching calculated and experimentally measured curves for the variation of carbon activity with the mole fraction of carbon. zener17 used a different approach. He assumed that the positional entropy of carbon is ideal both in austenite and in ferrite (i.e., no excluded interstitial sites), and included all other contributions of carbon in a temperature-independent "free-energy change" accompanying the transfer of 1 mole of carbon between the two phases. This quantity was determined by "pinning" an equation derived for the boundaries of the a + y region to experimental data on the compositions of these boundaries at a single temperature. In the present investigation, three different approaches to the thermodynamics of the proeutectoid ferrite reaction are examined comparatively: I) the method of Zener; 2) the model employed by KRC and predecessors; and 3) the more detailed statistical thermodynamic treatment of the same model developed by acher and Fowler and uenheim, ' in which the problem of overlapping regions of influence of individual interstitial atoms is resolved. In order to make these comparisons, it is necessary to undertake an extension of one aspect of Zener's method; since the Lacher- Fowler -Guggenheim (LFG) treatment has not been previously used in the present context, the necessary thermodynamic "superstructure" for this treatment will be developed in parallel

Jan 1, 1967

E. G. WOODRUFF, Houston, Tex. (communication to the Secretary*). -Mr. Matteson has presented to us an idea worthy of our careful consideration. We have real troubles in the petroleum industry and as the supply of crude is exhausted our problems become more complicated and more numerous. Therefore, we who are engaged in field work are forced to consider all possible means which promise assistance in the location of prospective pools and the economic development of pools already located. In our country we are accustomed to turn to the. Government for relief in all our troubles. Do we want an Oil and Gas Bureau doctoring us? Will such a bureau do us practical good? The principal point Mr. Matteson suggests is that such a bureau should he authorized to receive and file all well logs. In analyzing such function, I am led to the following conclusions: If well logs are simply to be filed they would be useless. If they are to be filed and the files opened to the public, what benefit will be derived and can such action be taken justly? There is no doubt that if the record of all wells drilled in the United States were available the petroleum industry would be saved an immense amount of needless expense. Accumulating conditions would be better understood and prospecting more intelligently directed. Our other consideration is: can the oil companies be required to open well records to the public justly? I think all will agree that if any one should have the advantage of a well record it should be the company that drilled the well. If the oil companies are forced to file such record and open the files to the public, the company drilling the well cannot derive the exclusive benefit from the money expended. Would it be just for a small company to be compelled to reveal its records of a well it had recently completed, to its strong competitor who holds near or even adjacent leases? Would it have been just to the successful companies, in the Gulf Coast country to have been forced to display their hard-earned knowledge of 15 years to the host of younger competitors who have recently flocked to the Gulf Coast attracted by the success of those who have labored so long and learned of the conditions controlling the fields through the hazards of the industry.

Jan 10, 1917

By John Birkinbine

IN the spring of 1878 the Pine Grove Furnace, located in Cumberland County, Pa., was blown in after lying idle for several years. The furnace was constructed in 1770, and for over a century it has been in almost continual operation. The plant consisted in 1877, when the writer was first called there, of a stone stack 32 feet in height, inclosing a shaft and boshes, the latter being 8 feet in diameter. The blast was supplied by two wooden blowing-tubs discharging into a third, having a floating piston sustaining a box weighted to give the desired pressure, the power being furnished by a waterwheel. A small 18-pipe hot-blast stove heated the blast. The furnace was remodelled during the winter of '77-78, and a Weimer blowing-engine with a blowing-tub 5 feet in diameter and 2 feet stroke, and the necessary boilers, were substituted for the wooden tubs and water-wheel. The stack was raised and enlarged, and provided with a bell and hopper having a central drop. Water dam and tymp were added, and general repairs were made. The hot oven, however, was riot increased. The furnace had always been operated with charcoal as fuel, and its reconstruction was made with a view to continue the use of charcoal, but provision was made for ample blowing capacity should other fuels at any time be employed. Although liberal arrangements had been made in cutting wood, the stock of charcoal supplied in 1878 was insufficient for the increased requirements of the remodelled plant, and notwithstanding the purchase of some 80,000 bushels from an adjacent idle furnace, there was riot enough to keep the furnace in constant blast until a new supply could be obtained, particularly as the season was unusually backward. Instead of following the established precedent of many charcoal furnace managers, i. e., blow out every February, it was determined to continue in blast, using coke as fuel. Accordingly, when the charcoal stock was exhausted, on March 22d, 1879, Connellsville coke was substituted, the change of fuel being made at once; that is, the coke charges followed immediately upon the last charcoal charges. After working a few days,-the strike in the Connellsville coke region cut off the supply, and anthracite coal was obtained, a mixture of the two fuels being employed. The strike continuing,

Jan 1, 1880

By M. J. Pool, P. J. Spencer, R. V. Miner

The partial molar heat of solution of rhodiunz in liquid lin and Rh-Sn alloys has been measured as a function of rhodium concentration at 700" , 725" , 750" , and 775°K. The values at infinite dilution are very exo thermic, ranging from -29,950 to -28,260 cal per g-atom Rh at 700" and 775"K, respectively. At the solubility limit the heat of solution becomes sharply nzore exothermic and has permitted the liquidus boundary to be accurately established at each temperature. From the measurements in the two-phase region of liquid Plus RhSn, the heat of formation of RhSn,has been determined. A large increase in the heat of formation between 725" and 750°K suggests the possibility of a phase transformation in this compound. V ERY few measurements have been made of the heats of solution of transition metals in liquid tin; yet those values that are available are of great interest because of their very large exothermic nature. For example, the heat of solution at infinite dilution of palladium in tin has been measured as about -26,000 cal per g-atom (625" to 800°~),' while the heat of solution at infinite dilution of platinum is even more exothermic at -28,591 cal per g-atom (914°K).' These values are of the same order of magnitude as the heat of formation of many intermetallic compounds and as such clearly indicate that very strong bonding must exist between the solute and tin atoms in the liquid solutions. Rhodium might be expected to display similar solution characteristics in tin in view of its close electronic resemblance to palladium and platinum. Since no thermodynamic data are available for Rh-Sn alloys, rhodium was chosen as an appropriate solute for further investigation of transition-metal systems with highly exothermic heats of solution at infinite dilution. EXPERIMENTAL The heat of solution of rhodium in dilute Rh-Sn liquid solutions was measured as a functlon of rhodium concentration at 700°, 725", 750°, and 775°K. The liquid-metal solution calorimeter used in this work has been fully described elsewhere. At the start of each series of measurements, the solvent bath consisted of about 0.5 g-atoms of 99.9+ pct pure tin. To this was made a number of small rhodium additions, about 0.0005 g-atoms each, and the heat of solution was measured for each. Rhodium of 99.9+ pct purity in powder form was used in order to promote rapid dissolution in the liquid tin. The powder specimens were contained in tin foil stated to be purified (lead-free). This foil was found to have no measurable heat of solution in pure tin so the effect of any impurities could be neglected. The energy equivalent of the calorimeter was experi- mentally determined by dropping tungsten and/or tin specimens at intervals during each series of rhodium drops. The tungsten and tin used were 99.95 and 99.999+ pct pure, respectively. The only heat effect due to a tungsten drop, or a tin drop at low rhodium concentrations in the bath, is the sensible heat of the specimen. The heat content of these materials is well-established and is presented in the compilation of Hultgren et al. 4 As the rhodium concentration in the tin bath increases a small heat effect arises from the reaction: Sn (liquid, T) — & (soln, T) where T is the temperature of the tin bath. Where necessary, this heat of solution of tin was determined by Gibbs-Duhem integration, and corrections were made to the heat effect of the tin calibration specimens and the tin foil containing the rhodium specimens. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The calculated values of the heat of solution of rhodium in dilute Rh-Sn alloys as a function of composition are shown graphically in Fig. 1. The values have been corrected for the sensible heat of the specimens, initially at 273"K, and apply to the reaction:

Jan 1, 1969

By M. Muskat, H. H. Evinger

A METHOD of calculating productivity factors for oil, gas, and water systems in the steady state is presented as an illustration of the quantitative application of the fundamental data on the flow properties of heterogeneous- fluid systems. While the numerical results of the calculations cannot be applied directly to field conditions, because they are based on permeability data for unconsolidated sands and involve specific assumptions regarding the nature of the reservoir fluids, the methods of analysis and interpretation should have significance in considering certain specific field situations when the necessary field and laboratory data become available. Moreover, it is felt that even under the idealized conditions to which the numerical calculations refer they should serve to give at least the orders of magnitude of the effects of gas-oil ratio and connate water on observed productivity factors. Within the indicated limitations, the computations imply that the foregoing factors can explain only a part of the apparent discrepancy between the homogeneous fluid productivity factors and those obtained recently in field measurements on the West Coast.

Jan 1, 1942

By William Rawles

THIS report is the first of a series planned by The Mineral Inquiry, organized by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers to make factual studies of the world's mineral resources in their political and international relations. The efforts of The Inquiry are directed toward filling certain notable gaps in available information, without duplication of many other investigations touching this field which are being conducted by other organizations, public and private. Much of its work is indirect-suggesting topics for study by other individuals and organizations and aiding in their planning and correlation. The present report is designed to show the nationality of the commercial control of mineral resources, in addition to the geographic distribution of production by nation-in other words, the overlapping of political and commercial control. Detailed accuracy cannot be claimed for the figures presented. For some companies division of ownership by nationality has been very difficult to ascertain, as many companies are reluctant to dis-close the extent of their holdings in other corporations, and the impossi-bility of tracing all stock ownership is obvious. Also there are frequent changes in the distribution of stock control. The percentages given rep resent only the participation that has been identified definitely, even though it is known in some cases with fair certainty that larger interests exist, as, for instance, American participation in foreign chromite companies. In bringing together these figures we have had the cordial co-operation of the United States Bureau of Mines, the United States Geologi-cal, Survey, the Mineral Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Brookings Institution, and of many specialists connected with the mineral industries covered. The report does not cover the entire list of minerals: Coal, although it is one of the most important minerals, was omitted because not more than one or two per cent of the world's production comes from mines that are owned by companies foreign to the countries where the coal is produced. Others, such as gold, are omitted because sufficient data have not yet been accumulated. It is hoped that some of these may be covered in subsequent reports. It is not our purpose here to discuss the significance of the figures sub-mitted, but only to point out the general nature of the problems on which they have a bearing.

Jan 1, 1933

By Lo-Ching Chang, J. Chipman

The perennial and increasing interest in the chemical behavior of steelmaking slags has led to numerous attempts to formulate the thermodynamic properties of these solutions. The classical view is that of a solution of the component oxides in which certain acidic oxides are more or less completely held in combination with basic or metallic oxides, the nature of the interoxide compounds being derivable from the chemical behavior of the slag or from the mineralogy of a solidified specimen. The known electrical conductivity of slags has pointed to the existence of ions in the solution and a number of attempts have been made to account for the observed facts of slag behavior on the basis of a theory of complete ionization of the solution. It is the purpose of this paper to examine, in the light of ionic theory, a number of recently published series of data on slag-metal and slag-gas equilibria, with the purpose of obtaining a more complete or more satisfactory generalization than has been possible on either of the single bases of simple compound formation or complete ionization. The attempt to formulate the ionic constitution of a complex solution is fraught with many uncertainties. An ion is not something that can be plucked from the solution and examined in detail, nor can its true formula be determined with certainty by any single experimental method. In attempting to express the composition of a slag by various ionic formulas it can be expected that alternative hypotheses of essentially equal merit will present themselves. In the present state of early development of the ionic theory of slags, it may be necessary to make some rather arbitrary choices of ionic formulas in the absence of su- cient information to yield complete certainty. Acids and Bases The classification of slag-forming oxides as acidic or basic apparently dates back into the days of Berzelius. It is difficult to see how the concept could have originated in the early twentieth century when it was fashionable to define an acid or a base as an aqueous solution containing hydrogen or hy-droxyl ions. It is, however, entirely consistent with the modern and more general theory of acids and bases. In this theory, as originally formulated by G. N. Lewis,' a basic molecule is one that has an electron pair which may enter the valence shell of another atom thus binding the two together by the electron-pair bond. An acid molecule is one which is capable of receiving such an electron pair into the shell of one of its atoms. The acid, the base, and the product of neutralization may be either ions or neutral molecules. The product of such a reaction may itself be a base or an acid if it is further capable of giving or accepting an electron pair. Thus a base is a donor of electrons, an acid, an acceptor. In oxide slags the typical and ever-present base is oxide ion, 0-—. In behavior and in importance it is analogous to hydroxyl ion, OH-, which is the typical base of aqueous solutions. There is nothing in the chemistry of slags which is quite analogous to the acid H30+ in aqueous solutions. This is not surprising for in slag systems there is nothing which can be designated as a solvent and no ubiquitous positive ion. The chemistry of slags is in fact more complex than the chemistry of aqueous solutions and the concepts which must be evoked in its study are correspondingly broader. In seeking a basis for a classification of slag-forming oxides as basic or acidic it must be remembered that these terms are not absolute but relative. A substance which acts as a base toward a second substance may act as an acid toward a third. This is less likely to happen among strong bases or acids than among the weak ones; there are numerous examples of weak acids which under the influence of a stronger acid behave as weak bases. Such substances are called amphoteric. A classification of the glass-forming oxides has been proposed by Sun and Silverman² and further developed by Sun3 in which the oxides are arranged in order of decreasing acidity or increasing basicity, each substance being potentially capable of acting as an acid toward substances below it in the list and as a base toward those above it. It is based upon the relative strengths of the metal-to-oxygen bond as determined by the energy required to dissociate the oxide into its component atoms.' Data are available for computation of this energy, at least approximately, for the oxides of slags and glasses. In general those oxides from which it is most difficult to remove the positive atom are the strong acids while those in which it is most loosely held are the strong bases. It is in the latter, of course, that formation of oxide ion occurs most readily as, for example, in CaO which in solution ionizes to form the weak acid Ca++ and the strong base O—. The order of arrangement found by Sun is shown in the first column of Table 1, to which have been added the data for

Jan 1, 1950

By William Rawles

THIS report is the first of a series planned by The Mineral Inquiry, organized by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers to make factual studies of the world's mineral resources in their political and international relations. The efforts of The Inquiry are directed toward filling certain notable gaps in available information, without duplication of many other investigations touching this field which" are being conducted by other organizations, public and private. Much of its work is indirect-suggesting topics for study by other individuals and organizations and aiding in their planning and correlation. The present report is designed to show the nationality of the commercial control of mineral resources, in addition to the geographic distribution of production by nation-in other words, the overlapping of political and commercial control. Detailed accuracy cannot be claimed for the figures presented. For some companies division of ownership by nationality has been very difficult to ascertain, as many companies are reluctant to dis-close the extent of their holdings in other corporations, and the impossi-bility of tracing all stock ownership is obvious. Also there are frequent changes in the distribution of stock control. The percentages given rep-resent only the participation that has been identified definitely, even though it is known in some cases with fair certainty that larger interests exist, as, for instance, American participation in foreign chromite companies. In bringing' together these figures we have had the cordial co-operation of the United States Bureau of Mines, the United States Geologi-cal Survey, the Mineral Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Brookings Institution, and of many specialists connected with the mineral industries covered. The report does not cover the entire list of minerals. Coal, although it is one of the most important minerals, was omitted because not more. than one or two per cent of the world's production comes from mines that are owned by companies foreign to the countries where the coal is produced. Others, such as gold, are omitted because sufficient data have not yet been accumulated. It is hoped that some of these may be covered in subsequent reports. It is not our purpose here to discuss the significance of the figures sub-mitted, but only to point out the general nature of the problems on which they have a bearing.

Jan 1, 1933

By William Rawles

THIS report is the first of a series planned by The Mineral Inquiry, organized by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers to make factual studies of the world's mineral resources in their political and international relations. The efforts of The Inquiry are directed toward filling certain notable gaps in available information, without duplication of many other investigations touching this field which are being conducted by other organizations, public and private. Much of its work is indirect-suggesting topics for study by other individuals and organizations and aiding in their planning and correlation. The present report is designed to show the nationality of the commercial control of mineral resources, in addition to the geographic distribution of production by nation-in other words, the overlapping of political and commercial control. Detailed accuracy cannot be claimed for the figures presented. For some companies division of ownership by nationality has been very difficult to ascertain, as many companies are reluctant to dis-close the extent of their holdings in other corporations, and the impossi-bility of tracing all stock ownership is obvious. Also there are frequent changes in the distribution of. stock control. The percentages given rep-resent only the participation that has been identified definitely, even though it is known in some cases with fair certainty that larger interests exist, as, for instance, American participation in foreign chromite companies. In bringing together these figures we have had the cordial co-operation of the United States Bureau of Mines, the United States Geologi-cal Survey, the Mineral Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Brookings Institution, and of many specialists connected with the mineral industries covered. The report does not cover the entire list of minerals. Coal, although it is one of the most important minerals, was omitted because , not more than one or two per cent of the world's production comes from mines that are owned by companies foreign to the countries where the coal is produced. Others, such as gold, are omitted because sufficient data have not yet been accumulated. It is hoped that some of these may be covered in subsequent reports. It is not our purpose here to discuss the significance of the figures sub-mitted, but only to point out the general nature of the problems on which they have a bearing.

Jan 1, 1933

By William Rawles

THIS report is the first of a series planned by The Mineral Inquiry, organized by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers to make factual studies of the world's mineral resources in their political and international relations. The efforts of The Inquiry are directed toward filling certain notable gaps in available information, without duplication of many other investigations touching this field which are being conducted by other organizations, public and private. Much of its work is indirect-suggesting topics for study by other individuals and organizations and aiding in their planning and correlation. The present report is designed to show the nationality of the commercial control of mineral resources, in addition to the geographic distribution of production by nation-in other words, the overlapping of political and commercial control. Detailed accuracy cannot be claimed for the figures presented. For some companies division of ownership by nationality has been very difficult to ascertain, as many companies are reluctant to dis-close the extent of their holdings in other corporations, and the impossi-bility of tracing all stock ownership is obvious. Also there are frequent changes in the distribution of stock control. The percentages given rep-resent only the participation that has been identified definitely, even though it is known in some cases with fair certainty that larger interests exist, as, for instance, American participation in foreign chromite companies. In bringing together these figures we have had the cordial co-operation of the United States Bureau of Mines, the United States Geologi-cal Survey, the Mineral Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Brookings Institution, and of many specialists connected with the mineral industries covered. The report does not cover the entire list of minerals. Coal, although it is one of the most important minerals, was omitted because, not more than one or two per cent of the world's production comes from mines that are owned by companies foreign to the countries where the coal is produced. Others, such as gold, are omitted because sufficient data have not yet been accumulated. It is hoped that some of these may be covered in subsequent reports. It is not our purpose here to discuss the significance of the figures sub-mitted, but only to point out the general nature of the problems on which they have a bearing.

Jan 1, 1933

By B. N. Das, J. B. Darby, P. A. Beck, Y. Shimomura

A POWDER pattern for the (Cr, Mo, Co)R-phase annealed at 1200°C was reported in 1951.1 Through the courtesy of Prof. D. P. Shoemaker of Massachusetts Institute of Technology the authors became aware of inconsistencies of this pattern with that to be expected from the structure of the R-phase, as determined by Komura, Shoemaker, and Shoemaker.' In addition, Professor Shoemaker also noted that the powder pattern reported8 for the (Cr, Mo, Co)D-phase, annealed at 1300°C, agreed fairly well with that to be expected from the newly determined structure of the R-phase. In view of these findings, the previously reported powder patterns of the R-phase and of the D-phase were compared carefully. It was found that most lines in the two patterns (22 lines) were to a fair degree of accuracy related to each other by a single conversion ratio for the corresponding d spacings. The value of the conversion ratio was found to be 1.0058, so that the d spacings of the D-phase pattern previously reported were larger than the correspond- ing d spacings for the reported R-phase pattern by approximately that factor. The intensity relationships between corresponding lines in the two patterns were similar, as judged visually. The following exceptions were noted: Lines Nos. 2, 3, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 and 25 of the D-phase pattern,:' all designated weak or very weak, were missing in the apparently somewhat fainter R-phase pattern used.' Lines 1, 2, 3, 5, 15 and 34 (all weak or very weak), reported for the R-phase, were missing in the D-phase pattern, Table I. In view of these observations it seemed probable that the two patterns differed from each other mainly by a slight change in lattice parameters (with c/a remaining approximately constant), and that the pattern previously reported for the R-phase contained some weak extraneous lines, most likely to be attributed to impurities. In order to check the foregoing assumption, two specimens of an alloy containing 43 pct by weight of cobalt, 41 pct molybdenum, and 16 pct chromium, which was within the composition range of stability of both the D-phase at 1300°C and of the R-phase at 1200°C, were homogenized at 1200 and 1300°C, respectively, and quenched. X-ray diffraction patterns of the powders of these two specimens, obtained with CrK radiation, were compared carefully with each other and with the D-phase pattern previously

Jan 1, 1959