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By H. F. Yancey, M. R. Geer

The importance of the size composition of coal is reflected in the difference in price of the various sizes of the same coal and in the large number of primary sizes and mixtures of sizes produced by the modern preparation plant to meet the demands of a market that in late years has grown increasingly conscious of coal size. The importance of size in the industrial and domestic uses of coal has its counterpart in the role played by size composition in the laboratory examination of coal. Investigation of many of the physical properties of coal in their relation to its uses requires an evaluation of size composition. In fact, the Standards on Coal and Coke issued by the American Socaiety for Testing Materials in 1936 contains 12 standard methods of testing that involve some use of size composition. The screen analysis is, of course, the standard method of determining size composition, whether the material is coarse run-of-mine coal or fine pulverized fuel. Custorriarily, the analysis is reported as the weight percentages retained on or passing each of a series of testing screens, the number of which may range from only two or three to as many as 20. When more than two or three sieves are used, which is usual, the number of weight percentages obtained is so great as to make the analysis difficult to comprehend. Direct comparison of analyses made 011 the same sieves is hard, and comparison of analyses covering the same range of sizes but made on different sieves is next to impossible. Consequently, a frequent purpose of sizing tests-—-correlation of size with properties and charactcristics related to size-—is rendered difficult. Less cumbersome means of expressing size composition have been attempted with various degrees of success. An average particle size, calculated by any of several formulas, is useful for some purposes, also the weight percentage retained on a single sieve finds some application as a

Jan 1, 1938

By M. R. Geer, H. F. Yancey

The importance of the size composition of coal is reflected in the difference in price of the various sizes of the same coal and in the large number of primary sizes and mixtures of sizes produced by the modern preparation plant to meet the demands of a market that in late years has grown increasingly conscious of coal size. The importance of size in the industrial and domestic uses of coal has its counterpart in the role played by size composition in the laboratory examination of coal. Investigation of many of the physical properties of coal in their relation to its uses requires an evaluation of size composition. In fact, the Standards on Coal and Coke issued by the American Socaiety for Testing Materials in 1936 contains 12 standard methods of testing that involve some use of size composition. The screen analysis is, of course, the standard method of determining size composition, whether the material is coarse run-of-mine coal or fine pulverized fuel. Custorriarily, the analysis is reported as the weight percentages retained on or passing each of a series of testing screens, the number of which may range from only two or three to as many as 20. When more than two or three sieves are used, which is usual, the number of weight percentages obtained is so great as to make the analysis difficult to comprehend. Direct comparison of analyses made 011 the same sieves is hard, and comparison of analyses covering the same range of sizes but made on different sieves is next to impossible. Consequently, a frequent purpose of sizing tests-—-correlation of size with properties and charactcristics related to size-—is rendered difficult. Less cumbersome means of expressing size composition have been attempted with various degrees of success. An average particle size, calculated by any of several formulas, is useful for some purposes, also the weight percentage retained on a single sieve finds some application as a

Jan 1, 1938

By William P. Blake

Copper Basin in Yavapai county, Arizona Territory, about twenty miles southwest of Prescott, is well named. It is a depressed area, and a region of cupriferous impregnation.* The geologic conditions are simple. The foundation rock is a coarse-grained granite and gneiss, in which soda feldspar predominates. There are also dykes of porphyritic rock, and a large quartz vein containing pyrites. Superimposed on this crystalline foundation, we find heavy beds of mechanically formed rocks, conglomerates, breccias, and sandstones, in horizontal layers cropping along the bed of a creek, and apparently the remnants of a much more extended formation, now denuded and largely carried away by gradual atmospheric erosion. The heavy beds of conglomerate are in many places much broken and tilted up, even standing on edge in large blocks, as if they had been lifted by some great convulsion; but the cause is much more simple, being merely the removal by gradual disintegration and erosion of the softened and decayed granitic rock below. The materials of these sedimentary beds are chiefly fragments of granite, gneiss, and plutonic rocks loosely mingled. They are the chief repositories of the copper-ore, which forms the cementing substance. This copper-ore is the blue and the green carbonate, azurite and malachite, and the ore is so generally spread through the mass of the beds that the blue and the green croppings can be seen at a great distance, particularly after or during a shower of rain, when the colors are extremely brilliant and beautiful. The copper carbonate is not only a matrix and a cementing material for the fragments of rock, but it invests and covers these fragments so that only malachite and azurite are visible. The beds are from three to ten feet or more in thickness, and, although seemingly solid carbonate of copper, rarely contain over 12 or 15 per cent. of that metal. Some portions of the conglomerates are much more highly charged with copper than others, and in places the beds are almost without copper. If a lump of the coarse sandstone

Jan 1, 1889

By W. A. Lang, K. C. Gilbart, E. Stansfield

It has long been known that coal is unstable and oxidizes in air, even at ordinary atmospheric temperatures; also, that such oxidation affects the analysis of coal. Nevertheless little or no precaution is taken to prevent oxidation in the ordinary methods of analysis, and the possibility of error due to oxidation is sometimes ignored even in researches on coal. Although the general nature of coal oxidation is well known, and many workers have made careful studies of the rate of oxidation of different types of coal exposed to oxygen at different temperatures, yet the amount of oxidation coals undergo in the ordinary process of analysis, and its influence on the determined analysis, is not well known, and the published data are widely scattered through the literature. This paper is a collection, from this laboratory, of data that bear on the subject, together with a brief summary of three methods employed here to evaluate the oxidizabil-ity of coal. The post-Carboniferous coals of Alberta range all the way from anthracite down to lignite. As some of them are notably susceptible to oxidation, the necessity for care was early forced upon our attention, and oxidation has been reduced either by the removal of air with a vacuum pump or by the displacement of air with natural gas (methane). The two routine analytical operations most liable to involve oxidation are the preliminary, partial drying of the crushed coal (called air-drying) and the determination of moisture. The first is a prolonged operation on coarse coal at ordinary temperatures, and the second a short treatment on powdered coal at higher temperatures. Oxidation also occurs in coal samples stored in ordinary sample bottles. In order to gain information for this study, determinations were recently carried out on the same samples in air, in natural gas, and in vacuo. Sixteen coals were tested; three would be classed in the United States as coking bituminous coals, two as noncoking, nonslacking, bituminous coals, and the rest as subbituminous. Table 1 gives typical analyses of these coals as mined.

Jan 1, 1934

By James A. Clem

Approximately 2000 years ago, the Lord admonished the scribes (lawyers) and pharisees (religious leaders of that time) that they had paid the tithe but had omitted the weightier matters of law, judgment, mercy, and faith. (Matt. 23:23) I want to talk about "The Weightier Matters of Law." In a situation where big government is trying to have an effect on even small details of a work activity, otherwise simple situations become complex. Regulations are written to such detail that constant compliance with strict interpretations can be a nightmare-not to mention off the target of the intended purpose for the regulation. One soon recognizes the onerous characteristics of federal statutes. Another admonition the Lord gave those lawyers and pharisees back then was that they tended to strain at a gnat and swallow a camel! He meant that the pharisees were given to devoting themselves to the strict interpretation of law by writing hundreds of subrules or interpretation to law. In doing so they eventually lost sight of the original purpose of the law. I think they were being told, keep the law-but don't neglect to humanize it Keep it simple Recognize the purpose of why the law. "Mix in" a common sense approach. Someone once said, "Common sense is instinct -enough of it is genius." Today, as 2000 years ago, we need more "genius" displayed by legislators in considering the weightier matters of law. First of all true legislature genius calls for a declarative statement about the purpose of the statute and a fair, objective analysis of the ground rules by which it will be implemented. In the Health & Safety Act of 1969, the "findings and purpose" as set forth in Section 2 do define its purpose. I believe most of us affected can be in accord with the reasons advanced for the legislation. However, beyond those well-intentioned few paragraphs, we very quickly run into trouble. Congress complicated the simplicity of the statement of purpose by mandating government intervention into areas that cannot be effectively legislated, nor even should be legislated. The Act provided for broad gaged regulation which is unnecessary, inappropriate, and tremendously costly. Frankly, it detracts from a constructive, cooperative effort by the parties involved. These are strong negatives which characterize inappropriate legislation. Appropriate legislation and subsequent regulation, which is realistically conceived and practically enforced must be born of an honest desire for improvement, based on a working knowledge of common problems which are thoughtfully analyzed. Then the legislation must be written in clear concise language so that there can be little or no doubt as to its literal meaning and intent. To be practically enforced, it must be understood by all who will enforce it and by all who are subject to it. That is to say, an effective law or standard cannot be fixed or inflexible so that it cannot be tempered in human judgment. There must be an elasticity in the statute to provide for consideration of all of the relevant facts of a given situation. Such elasticity makes the compliance effort as meaningful as it can be for the time and dollars invested. Meaningful compliance requires room for common sense. Today, we in business along with our associates in government and labor, urgently need to pause, and assess our current situation. The problems arising from the 1969 Act have been intensified through the Mine Safety & Health Act of 1977. After reading the "findings and purpose" of this legislation, and by process of elimination, we should all clearly see what is and is not the purpose of the Act. 1) It is not to turn the management of private industry over to government. 2) It is not to impair the efficient operation of business. 3) It is not to reduce productivity and profits. 4) It is not to reduce national unemployment. 5) It is not to perpetuate the bureaucracy. 6) It is not to increase the tax burden on an already overburdened people. 7) It is not to increase our balance of payments deficit. 9) It is not to replace management/labor relations in working together to solve problems.

Jan 1, 1981

By C. R. Claus, G. A. Standish

Since March. 1945, the Magnolia Petroleum CO. has drilled 39 wells in Southwest Coastal Louisiana. All wells were drilled within a comparatively small radius, but the area provides a large variety of problems. The deepest well drilled was 13,518 ft, and the total depth averaged 10,977 ft. Throughout this period drilling mud control and types of mud handled were: (I) phosphate, (2) red lime (late conversion), (3) red lime starch (early conversion), (4) red lime starch oil emulsion, (5) precision controlled low alkalinity-low lime content. and (6) gel muds for completion purposes. Improvement has been obtained in effecting some or all of the following: (I) more rapid penetration, (2) reduction in drilling hazards, (3) better evaluation of cores and logs, and (4) better completions. The geological sequence of zones penetrated range from recent sediments at the grass roots through the Frio section. Anticipation of high-pressure zones and incompetent formations entails precision control of drilling mud weights, and the unconsolidated nature of the various zones requires constant attention to the filtrate, viscosity, and gel strength values. In the Chalkley field, particularly, this combination of problems exists, where the formation pressures and overburden weight density values are in very close proximity. Design of casing and drilling mud programs must be modified to fit each well. INTRODUCTION Field and research work on drilling fluids has made constant progress, enabling operators to prospect progressively deeper horizons. Numerous papers have been written on the theoretical aspects of drilling fluid devel- opment, but in the field engineers have found it difficult to evaluate the role of specific mud constitutents when dealing in terms of thousand barrel mud systems. For that reason field data is somewhat lagging in technical report writing. However, applications of new techniques in the field have usually paralleled, and in numerous instances preceded, research work. The information obtained by Magnolia Petroleum Co. in the course of drilling 39 wells within a comparatively small area in Southwest Coastal Louisiana provides an excellent opportunity of reviewing a specific example of drilling mud evolution. A large variety of problems has been coped with, the most important result being that every well was successfully drilled to its projected total depth. The discussion begins with the advent of deep drilling in this area in March, 1945, and is concluded with a resume of recent drilling operations in the Chalkley field. The primary purpose of this paper is to describe the evolution in types of drilling fluids as it occurred and its application in the solution of various drilling problems. All of this information and experience resulted in the successful drilling of the three wells in the Chalkley field, where a combination of the most sound techniques was necessary in carrying drilling operations to the projected total depths. Other operators along with service company engineers have contributed considerably through the interchange of ideas and information to this paper, but the data and conclusions which are contained are based on first-hand observation of Magnolia Petroleum Company's drilling operations. The 39 wells drilled by Magnolia Petroleum Co. average in depth 10,977 ft per well, while the maximum depth penetrated was 13,518 ft. The cost of drilling fluids have varied from $8,700 to $165,000, with the over-all drilling costs ranging from $74,000 to $543,000 per well. This wide variance illustrates the unpredictable nature of each well and the effects on over-all cost when high density muds are required to control

Jan 1, 1955

By Thomas D. West

The fact that iron expands when heated, until fusion takes place, and that molten iron is consequently less dense than solid iron of the same grade, is now universally admitted. It was proved by the extensive experiments of Mr. Thomas Wrightson, reported in the Jownal of the Iron and Steel Institute (1890, No. 1, p. 72, and 1891, No. 1, pp. 75, log), and, in a manner, is illustrated in heavy founding by the shrinkage 'of the molten metal, which must be " fed " in order to obtain solid castings. This decrease in volume requiring " feeding" while the metal is still liquid I call " shrinkage," applying the term " contraction" to the decrease in volume which takes place after solidification, while the iron is cooling to atmospheric temperature. The light-work founder, not having the opportunity to make heavy castings, in which shrinkage can be observed, is apt to confound the two; but they are in fact distinct, and are separated by an act of expanion, which takes place at the moment of solidification. The fact of this expansion was first practically demonstrated by Mr. John R. Whitney, of Philadelphia, Pa., whose experiments are recorded in the National Car and Locomotive Builder of May, 1889. Experiments recently made by the writer indicate that there is a constant relation between this expansion and the preceding shrinkage and forcibly demonstrate the necessity of " feeding " a casting to make its interior solid. This is a matter with which all makers and users of castings have experienced difficulty. The founder being heretofore unable to define correctly the principles involving the urgent necessity of " feeding " has failed to impress the moulder with its importance in making sound castings.

Jan 1, 1897

By C. M. Boss

Throughout the Lake Superior Basin each of the great ironranges, from which vast quantities of iron-ore have been, and are now being mined, presents characteristics differing from each and all of the others. One of the most peculiar of these varying features is found in the dikes of the Gogebic range. From an economical standpoint this feature of the dikes has been studied by our practical mining men more than any other geological phenomena in connection with the deposits of merchantable iron-ore. In the greater portion of our mines these dikes appear to form the riffles in the sluice of the ore formation, against which the particles of iron oxide are deposited in the process of concentration out of the quartzose matrix which is termed the ironbearing formation. In composition these dikes are apparently of a dioritic formation, more or less altered and decomposed, comparatively soft, and sometimes almost steatitic. While frequently showing something of a cleavage in the direction of their pitch, they are devoid of parallel laminæ, and when broken assume the form of irregular angular fragments. They are generally of nil ashy grey color, but sometimes at great depth are found to be quite dark, almost black, and of a very hard massive nature, showing radial or fibrous crystallization. Practically all of the dikes thus far discovered in the iron formation are approximately at right-angles with the dip of the formation, and the greater number of them have an average easterly dip of from fifteen to eighteen degrees. Sometimes, however, they are folded in such a manner as to form long synclinal basins; but while their western or initial extremity is fre-

Jan 1, 1898

By L. P. Teas

In spite of the influx of operators into the Gulf Coast anxious to retrieve their depleted production in other fields, and in spite of very active application of the most scientific geophysical methods to locate new producing areas, the results have been very discouraging and the year has failed to produce more than the average results for a Gulf Coast year. During the year seven new oil fields, some of which are still of very little importance, and one new gas area have been discovered. These fields are Tom Ball, Greta, Cleveland, Raisin and Garwood in Colorado County; Louise and Premont in Jim Wells County, and the new producing gas area near Ace in southern Polk County. During the year salt has been found for the first time at Carlos and Esperson. New producing areas have been developed on East Stratton Ridge, Hockley, Hull, Port Neches, near Pettus in Bee County, and on the O'Connor Ranch in Victoria County. The total production for the Gulf Coast for the year was 62,837,435 bbl., an increase of 18,589,000 bbl. over 1932. During the year, 1307 wells have been drilled of which 207 were wildcats, compared with 653 wells and 141 wildcats the previous year. The total daily production at the end of the year was 165,201 bbl. At present there are 3100 oil wells producing. The average production per well is 55.5 bbl. per day. The price of crude fluctuated considerably during the year, beginning at 80c per barrel and closing the year at $1.04 per barrel. Completion data for 1933 are as follows:

Jan 1, 1934

By J. E. Dorn, S. K. Mitra

The low -temperature tensile and creep behaviors of single crystals of copper were evaluated and analyzed in such a manner as to provide an estimate of the separate contributions of short-and long-range stress fields to strain-hardening. Furthermore, the average force-displacement diagram for thermally activated intep-section of two dislocations was estublished. This diagram plus a knowledge of the variation of dislocation spacing and the long-range back stresses with strain permits on accurate prediction of creep rates. The calculated activation energy for intersection under conditions of a constant strain rate increases linearly with the absolute tempevatus-e as required by theory. AN understanding of the detailed mechanisms for strain hardening constitutes one of the principal unsolved problems in dislocation theory. Two major models for strain hardening have been advanced in the past. The one that has received greatest attention assumes that strain hardening arises exclusively from long range interaction stresses between moving dislocations and piled-up arrays of blocked dislocations on the slip planes. This type of interaction was first announced by Taylor' who revealed that the back stress fields due to a simple uniform array of positive and negative dislocations entrapped in the deformed crystal would result in parabolic hardening. Shortly thereafter Andrade and Henderson" demonstrated that the strain hardening of fcc single crystals was not parabolic, as previously thought, and finally it was recognized that a typical stress-strain curve consisted of three successive stages of deformation, niz., the easy glide, Stage I, linear hardening, Stage 11, and the parabolic hardening, Stage 111, ranges. The objections to Taylor's somewhat na'ive model, which were presented so forcefully by cottrell; were largely removed by the more realistic details incorporated in Mott's analysis.5 But because Mott's theory for hardening via long range stress fields gave somewhat analogous results to that of Taylor's (inasmuch as it also predicted a parabolic rate of strain hardening whereas the observed rate of strain hardening in Stages I and I1 were linear), it was not widely accepted. Major consideration was therefore given to models, such as those which were advanced by Friedel and seegere that were formulated for the ad hoc purpose of yielding linear rates of strain hardening. The second major thought regarding strain hardening is based on the concept that it arises principally from short-range stress fields due to the interactions between intersecting dislocations. Cottrell and stokes7 showed, several years ago, that the constancy of the flow stress ratio at two temperatures regardless of the strain was inconsistent with the concept that strain hardening arose exclusively from long-range back stresses. The argument that strain hardening was primarily due to local interactions of intersecting dislocations was presented in considerable detail by asinski.' Extending Basinski's method of analysis of the intersection process, Mitra, Os-borne, and dorn recently demonstrated that indeed the strain hardening in aluminum single crystals arises principally from local effects coincident with intersection; however, these conclusions, too, must be modified, as will be shown later in this report. The present investigation, devoted principally to the low-temperature deformation of copper single crystals, was initiated in an attempt to ascertain whether or not the same conclusions arrived at for aluminum also apply to metals, such as copper, which have much wider stacking faults. It was soon observed that the strain hardening in copper could not be attributed exclusively to local effects between intersecting dislocations. Previously no analytical method for arriving at the possible simultaneous contributions of long-range stress fields and localized forces on intersecting dislocations was available; consequently, the separation of these two factors could not be readily accomplished. In the present report a method of estimating the separate contributions of each of these two factors to strain-hardening will be presented. The authors will show that both long-range stress fields of the type contemplated by Seeger and Friedel as well as short-range forces of the type considered by Basinski are responsible for strain hardening in fcc metals at low temperatures. This method of analysis also accounts for, in a satisfactory way, the effect of stress, temperature, and strain on the creep rate under constant stress. Furthermore, in the course of presenting their methods of analysis the authors will also reveal the rather complete agreement of their experimental data with the concepts of the theory for thermally activated intersection of dislocations. INTERSECTION MODEL As shown by seegerl0 the strain rate arising from thermally activated intersection of dislocations is given by

Jan 1, 1962

By R. L. Skaggs, D. T. Peterson

The effect of carbon in solid solution on the plastic behavior of thorium was studied by measuring the flow stress of Th-C alloys from 4.2" to 573°K and at several strain rates. Carbon was found to strengthen thorium primarily by increasing the thermally activated component of the flow stress. The strengthening due to carbon was directly proportional to the carbon content and decreased rapidly with increasing temperature up to 423" K. The flow stress also increased with increasing strain rate. The strengthening appears to be due to a strong short-range interaction between carbon atoms and dislocations. A yield point was observed in the Th-C alloys which increased with increasing carbon content. JTREVIOUS study of the mechanical properties of thorium has been confined largely to the measurement of the engineering properties. Work prior to 1956 has been summarized by Milko et al.1 who reported that additions of carbon to thorium sharply increased the room-temperature strength. In addition, the yield strength was observed to decrease rapidly over the temperature range from 25" to 500°C. In 1960, Klieven-eit2 measured the flow stress of thorium containing 400 ppm C. He found that over the temperature range from 78" to 470°K the flow stress was strongly dependent on temperature and rate of deformation. A drop in the load-elongation curve, or a yield point, was observed over most of the above temperature range. Above 470°K, the flow stress was nearly independent of temperature and strain rate. This strong temperature and strain rate dependence of flow stress is not generally observed in fcc metals. It is, in fact, more typical of the behavior reported for bcc metals. Bechtold,3 Wessel,4 and conrad5 have pointed out the striking difference between the commonly studied bcc metals and fcc metals in regard to the effect of temperature and strain rate on the flow stress. Zerwekh and scott6 studied the plastic deformation of thorium reported to contain 12 ppm C. They found that this material did not obey the Cottrell-Stokes law as expected for fcc metals. In addition, they found values of the activation volume smaller by an order of magnitude than expected for an fcc metal. They concluded that thorium was strengthened by a randomly dispersed solute. Thorium differs from many other fcc metals that have been studied extensively in that it shows a relatively high carbon solubility at room temperature. Mickleson and peterson7 report the solubility limit at room temperature to be 3500 ppm C. The lowest value reported is that of Smith and Honeycombe8 who report the limit to be 2000 ppm C at 350°C. The pres- ent investigation was a systematic study of the flow stress and yield point phenomenon of thorium over a broad range of carbon content, temperature, and strain rate. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The thorium used in this investigation was produced by the reduction of thorium tetrachloride with magnesium as described by Peterson et a1.' Chemical analysis of the original ingot after arc melting and electron beam melting is shown in Table I. Alloys were prepared by arc melting this thorium with high-purity spectrographic graphite. Threaded specimens with a gage length 0.252 in. diam by 1.6 in. long were used for the constant stress or creep measurements. These specimens were machined from rod which had been cold-rolled and swaged to % in. diam. Tensile specimens were prepared by swaging annealed 3/8 -in.-diam rod to 0.102 *0.001 in. The as-swaged wire was cut to lengths of 2 in., annealed, and the center 1-in. gage length elec-tropolished to 0.100 ±0.001 in. The specimens were gripped for a length of 3 in. at each end by a serrated four-jaw collet which was tightened by a tapered compression nut. No slipping occurred in the grips and negligible deformation was observed outside the 1-in. gage length. Both the creep and tensile specimens were annealed at 730°C under a vacuum of 1 x X Torr. The resulting structures consisted of equiaxed recrystallized grains with a grain size of 3200 grains per sq mm for the tensile specimens and 2200 grains per sq mm for the creep specimens. After the specimens were prepared, samples were analyzed for nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen. The results of these analyses are given in Table 11.

Jan 1, 1969

By C. E. Beecher

IN the course of the experimental and development work of Henry L. Doherty in an endeavor to obtain an increased yield of oil from oil-bearing sands, it was Mr. Doherty's claim and contention that oil in an undisturbed pool was different in character and behavior than, the same oil when raised to the surface of the earth, and that the gas dissolved in the oil caused a marked reduction in its viscosity and surface tension. Prior to 1924 no information to support this contention could be found in the literature or by a discussion of the subject with technical men in Government and private laboratories. So far as could be ascertained no experimental work had been carried on to indicate that Mr. Doherty's claim was either right or wrong. All parties consulted agreed that the viscosity of the oil would be affected by gas dissolved therein to the extent that natural gasoline was present in the gas, but so far as could be determined any additional effect of the natural gas was unknown. Accordingly, it was necessary to devise equipment and carry on experiments which would either prove or disprove Mr. Doherty's contention or claim. Such apparatus was built under Mr. Doherty's direction and experiments were carried on to determine definitely the viscosity and the surface tension of the crude oils which contain dissolved gases under different pressures. The results of the experimental work carried on have proved that the claim and contention of Mr. Doherty were correct in every particular, as will be seen from the discussion of the subject and the data contained in this paper.

Jan 12, 1926

By B. M. Larsen, T. E. Brower

For some years we have been carrying on a rather comprehensive investigation of the occurrence of oxygen in liquid open-hearth steel. This investigation was interrupted by the war emergency and is therefore incomplete, with many questions still answered only partially, if at all; yet it seemed worth while to present a report of progress on this difficult field of research, if for no other reason than to promote discussion and further investigation of this important problem. The significance of such studies depends in large measure upon the accuracy of measurements of oxygen content in liquid steel while it is still in the furnace or as it flows into the ladle, or thence into the mold and there is, as we shall show, good reason for believing that the main source of uncertainty is in the sampling, not in the analytical method as such. The difficulty arises from the fact that any method of sampling is of itself apt to alter the amount of oxygen in solution in the liquid steel, because this oxygen is in a readily reactive condition. On the one hand, being usually present at a concentration appreciably in excess of that corresponding to equilibrium with the carbon then present, it may decrease rapidly in percentage by reaction with carbon and evolution of CO, especially if the liquid metal is in any way shaken or brought in contact with a cooler solid surface. On the other hand, it may increase rapidly by ab- sorption of oxygen from a slag, a furnace atmosphere, or from air. These circumstances, which are inherent in the problem, as well as our conclusion that, despite the considerable amount of careful work already done, there is still no method of sampling liquid steel acceptable as an unquestioned standard, ed us to undertake systematic comparisons of oxygen content of large numbers of samples taken: (I) by a single method at different positions and levels in the bath; (2) at the same place by different sampling methods; and (3) from bath, tapping stream and pouring stream. The different sampling methods yield somewhat different values and there is as yet no way to tell with certainty which is the most accurate. But the general reproducibility and consistency of the results give us some confidence in certain inferences we draw from them: namely, that the "spoon" method of sampling, properly carried out, gives somewhat more consistent results than the "bomb" method, as it has usually been practiced; that, in the bomb method, an aluminum cap is preferable to a steel cap; that the oxygen content of liquid steel in a finished heat is substantially the same all over the bath at the same level, and tends to decrease at lower levels further from the slag interface; also that it tends to decrease, and to decrease erratically, from furnace bath to tapping stream entering the ladle. Accordingly it seemed desirable to report these observations in detail as a first step, so that the reader may judge their significance as a contribution towards solution of the main problem, which is to find a means of pre-2

Jan 1, 1945

By C. E. Shoenfelt

Wildcat drilling in the Rocky Mountain region did not suffer as large a decline in 1942 as was anticipated. The drilling program laid out by the Government at the beginning of the year stressed wild-catting operations and called for reduction of drilling in proved fields. The increased wildcatting campaign did not yield a great many new discoveries, nor important extensions to old fields. Several interesting wildcat wells were drilled in Colorado in 1942 but no new fields were discovered. The Wilson Creek field was extended and about 400 acres added to its reserves. In Montana two new oil fields and two small gas fields were discovered. The developments in the marketing situation had improved, however, making the prospects especially bright for 1943, as will be shown presently in the section on Montana in this report. In New Mexico eight wells were completed, which constituted discoveries ol either oil or gas but none of these was of major proportions. In Wyoming one new oil field and one new gas field were discovered, and one old oil field and one old gas field were extended. Most important was the disco-very of prolific oil producers in deeper sands in three old oil fields, of which one at least, Elk Basin, probably is of major proportions. Government Action On Dec. 26, 1942, President Roosevelt signed the O'Mahoney bill, calling for a flat 12.5 per cent royalty on lands in the public domain. It is expected that the enactment of this bill will encourage wildcatting in the public land states. Opportunity for a full discussion of the problems of reserves and production was afforded at the hearings conducted on the O'Mahoney bill by the minerals subcommittee of the Senate Committee on Public Lands and the statements submitted at these hearings last fall placed the situation, its causes and the logical remedy, clearly on record. It was established at the hearings that for several years the volume of oil discovered per wildcat well drilled has steadily declined; new fields discovered have not been of major proportions; drilling costs have advanced rapidly; a sharp decline in exploratory drilling took place in 1942, while the proportion of dry holes increased; the inescapable conclusion is that to find new reserves the search for oil must be intensified and much more wildcat drilling ' must be done. To ensure an adequate drilling campaign, the Petroleum Industry War Council, the Interstate Compact Commission and other representative oil organizations have voiced by resolution their opinion that an upward revision of crude prices is necessary to provide an incentive to the prospector to undertake the hazards of wildcat drilling, since statistics prove that only ope in five or six wells drilled results in actual production. Former Price Administrator Henderson rejected the recommendations for price increases and declared himself unalterably opposed to a general price advance, On the ground that such advances would contribute to inflation. Now that Mr. Hender-

Jan 1, 1943

By C. E. Shoenfelt

Wildcat drilling in the Rocky Mountain region did not suffer as large a decline in 1942 as was anticipated. The drilling program laid out by the Government at the beginning of the year stressed wild-catting operations and called for reduction of drilling in proved fields. The increased wildcatting campaign did not yield a great many new discoveries, nor important extensions to old fields. Several interesting wildcat wells were drilled in Colorado in 1942 but no new fields were discovered. The Wilson Creek field was extended and about 400 acres added to its reserves. In Montana two new oil fields and two small gas fields were discovered. The developments in the marketing situation had improved, however, making the prospects especially bright for 1943, as will be shown presently in the section on Montana in this report. In New Mexico eight wells were completed, which constituted discoveries ol either oil or gas but none of these was of major proportions. In Wyoming one new oil field and one new gas field were discovered, and one old oil field and one old gas field were extended. Most important was the disco-very of prolific oil producers in deeper sands in three old oil fields, of which one at least, Elk Basin, probably is of major proportions. Government Action On Dec. 26, 1942, President Roosevelt signed the O'Mahoney bill, calling for a flat 12.5 per cent royalty on lands in the public domain. It is expected that the enactment of this bill will encourage wildcatting in the public land states. Opportunity for a full discussion of the problems of reserves and production was afforded at the hearings conducted on the O'Mahoney bill by the minerals subcommittee of the Senate Committee on Public Lands and the statements submitted at these hearings last fall placed the situation, its causes and the logical remedy, clearly on record. It was established at the hearings that for several years the volume of oil discovered per wildcat well drilled has steadily declined; new fields discovered have not been of major proportions; drilling costs have advanced rapidly; a sharp decline in exploratory drilling took place in 1942, while the proportion of dry holes increased; the inescapable conclusion is that to find new reserves the search for oil must be intensified and much more wildcat drilling ' must be done. To ensure an adequate drilling campaign, the Petroleum Industry War Council, the Interstate Compact Commission and other representative oil organizations have voiced by resolution their opinion that an upward revision of crude prices is necessary to provide an incentive to the prospector to undertake the hazards of wildcat drilling, since statistics prove that only ope in five or six wells drilled results in actual production. Former Price Administrator Henderson rejected the recommendations for price increases and declared himself unalterably opposed to a general price advance, On the ground that such advances would contribute to inflation. Now that Mr. Hender-

Jan 1, 1943

By H. W. Schreiber, G. R. Castle

INTRODUCTION The small mining company faces the dilemma of how to finance the development of its properties. Many of these small companies don't have the financial resources to pay for development costs from their own funds and frequently they do not even have the financial strength to permit them to borrow the money needed for development. A project financing can sometimes be arranged in such a way as to solve this dilemma. A typical project financing will not provide the answer to the "little guy's" problem because most project financings require that the sponsors of the project provide completion undertakings and sometimes other undertakings. These undertakings are often a prerequisite to obtaining financing, and if the sponsor is not financially strong enough to provide the comfort that the lenders require, then the sponsor will have difficulty obtaining financing no matter what undertakings are offered. However, with a little imagination and the right set of circumstances, a project financing can sometimes provide the solution to the small mining company's problem. The Strathcona Sound Project is unusually suited as a case study because the sponsor, Mineral Resources International Limited,(MRI) was able to arrange a project financing for the development of the project even though the lenders probably would not have been willing to loan a similar amount of money direct to MRI based on the full faith and credit of MRI's balance sheet. The way that MRI was able to arrange this financing makes for an interesting story. THE CASE In early 1974, MRI owned 100% of a small to medium sized zinc - lead - silver massive sulfide deposit (Property) located 475 miles north of the Arctic Circle less than two miles from deep water on Strathcona Sound which is a shipping zone in the Canadian Arctic. The Property was situated at a desolate location except for an Eskimo settlement (Arctic Bay) which was about 20 miles west of the Property. In other words, the project required that complete infrastructure would need to be installed in this far northern location. Independent reserve and feasibility studies (Study) had been completed on the Property which confirmed a total of 6,825,000 tons of reserves classified and summarized as shown below on Table I: [ ] These reserves were based on 229 diamond drill holes totalling 58,909 feet and were established on a cut-off grade of 7% zinc and a minimum mining height of seven feet. The overall mining recovery rate was estimated at not less than 85% and not more than 90%. The feasibility study indicated that it would cost an estimated $45,044,000 to develop an underground mine, a concentrator, a town-site, a power plant, storage facility, loading dock, a tailings disposal area and an airstrip on the Property with an annual capacity of 525,000 tons of ore per year. The construction period was expected to take two years and projected capital costs were broken down as set forth below on Table II:

Jan 1, 1985

EDMUND NEWTON, Minneapolis, Minn. (communication to the Secretary?).-In discussing the question of the deoxidation of steel and material suitable for performing this function at the end of the heat, it would seem logical also to include the question of prevention of oxidation in the steel or the formation of iron oxide, FeO. I refer to the use of manganese in the basic open-hearth and basic Bessemer processes. The advantages of high manganese in pig iron for these processes have evidently been clearly understood in Germany for a number of years, although little has been written in regard to the exact manner in which the benefits are obtained. In this country, while we make no steel by the basic Bessemer process, our basic open-hearth process is becoming more and more important. Until 10 years ago, in this country, manganese in the pig iron for this process was considered of little value and by many writers it was spoken of as a disadvantage. During the past 10 years, however, in certain parts of the United States, higher contents of manganese in basic pig have been used with considerable success, although there is apparently nothing in our technical literature to show the reasons for this trend. A German book, "The Basic Open-Hearth Steel Process" by Carl Dichmann does, however, offer an explanation. Dichmann says that if the charge for either of the above-mentioned processes contains 3 per cent. of manganese or above, satisfactory steel.

Jan 6, 1917

By Byron W. Cheever

In the Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute for 1881 (vol. ii., page 379), will be found an article upon this subject. The analyses there reported mere of samples taken from an ingot made especially rich in impurities and then cast in a sand-mould in order to give the elements a better chance to redistribute themselves, on account of the steel solidifying more slowly than when cast in an iron mould. Wishing to ascertain how much, if any, segregation takes place when the steel is cast in the ordinary way, I placed the subject in the hands of Mr. W. J. Olcott, a graduate of the Michigan University, who has carefully collected and analyzed samples taken from different parts of ingots and billets. In this undertaking he found himself somewhat embarrassed on account of being distant from steel-works, and therefore unable to supervise the selection of samples. He found, however, a competent and willing aid in the person of E. F. Wood, M.E., chemist of the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Company, Limited, who has spared no pains in collecting the desired samples and furnishing drawings and descriptions of the ingots from which the samples were taken. The following are the results obtained: Ingot No. 1. This ingot was about 5 feet long and 13 X 131/4 inches at the point of fracture, which was 2 feet from the bottom. The samples

Jan 1, 1885

By William Garrett

I have heard it said that the late Mr. Holley made use of this remark: " There is an inherent, cussedness about rolls which, so far, no man has been able to find out." I think this can be safely claimed in reference to steel, as there are certain peculiarities about it that are pretty hard to account for. Previous to the introduction of the Bessemer process there was, as it were, a great chasm between iron and crucible steel; and, outside of what futile attempts had been made in puddling steel, nothing had been done to fill this gap. The Bessemer steel struck a medium between the two, the softest of it not being able to take the place of good iron, while the hardest was not suitable to encroach very far upon the crucible-steel trade. The open-hearth process made quite an inroad into the latter, but only for the lower and cheaper grades; and, beyond a doubt, for the finest grades of tool-steel, the cruciblesteel business has a long life before it. On the other side of the line comes the " basic " process, which brings us a step nearer iron ; but to fill up the gap completely, comes the Clapp-Griffiths process, which makes a grade of material—call it what you will—that is as soft as iron, welds as readily, and is in a fair way to supersede iron altogether. For fifteen years, I was in the employment of the Cleveland

Jan 1, 1886

By J. R. Low

The brittle fracture of a Tic-lnconel cermet at room temperature is shown to occur primarily as a result of the cracking of the larger carbide particles (at a tensile strain of approximately 0.3 pct), followed by cracking of adjacent, smaller carbides and, finally, by the rupture of the lnconel matrix between cracked carbides (at a strain of-1.2 pct). No evidence was found for separation at the interface between carbide and matrix at any point in the fracture process. MATERIAL used in this study was a Tic-Inconel cermet prepared by infiltration (50 pct Tic, 50 pct Inconel: designated as TC66-I). A thin section of this material was brazed to a piece of low carbon steel and then mounted in lucite for metal-lographic preparation." After grinding, polishing, Deformation and fracture of the specimen was accomplished by bending the specimen as a simply supported, centrally loaded beam, in a bending fixture which could be placed in the stage of a microscope, with the tension side of the bend specimen under the microscope objective.? This method of deformation and observation has the advantage that the surface under examination is the most severely deformed portion of the specimen. The procedure followed was to deform the specimen a small amount, scan the surface at Xl OOO for any evidence of deformation or cracking, deform another small increment, scan the surface again, and so on until a

Jan 1, 1957