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By Enrique Touceda

As IN the case of steel and the non-ferrous alloys in general, the use of the microscope in connection with the manufacture of malleable cast iron has proved of inestimable value to the industry. Had its use not been invoked, many facts either would not be known at all or, if suspected, would be confined to the realms of conjecture. No fairer statement could be made than that the start of real progress in the industry was coincident with the application of metallography to the product, though the full significance of this statement can hardly be appreciated except by those who not only are conversant with conditions as they existed at the time referred to, but are familiar with the character of works' practice at the present time. A few years ago, about the only test made to ascertain the physical properties of the product, t except in the case of certain plants, was the bending of a casting to destruction, not only with the object of discovering whether or not the metal was ductile, but for the purpose of inspecting the fracture. The characteristics of the fracture, if correctly interpreted, were known to be of value in locating the trouble in, castings that were inferior. In general, it was found that if a casting of medium or heavy section would bend through a wide angle before failure took place, the fracture in the majority of cases would have a black velvety appearance; while if it was held at different angles to the direction of the rays of light, it would show a change of color and an iridescent sheen. But an inferior air-furnace heat or anneal might yield castings which, if thin and consequently largely decarburized, could be bent double on themselves and still not possess the fracture described. If, on the other hand, a casting broke short, its fracture might have one of a great many different color and structural peculiarities. Depending on the cause of the trouble, such castings might have any of the fracture characteristics, of which the following is but a partial list.

Jan 2, 1920

By J. L. Meijering

Oxidation hardening of cylindrical and spherical specimens first decreases with depth below the surface, but then increases again as the center is approached. This is in agreement with the view that this change in hardness is mainly determined by the change in velocity of the oxidation boundary, which affects the dispersion of the oxide. WHEN a thick slab of silver containing 0.3 pct Mg by weight is internally oxidized, the hardness measured on a cross section is found to decrease considerably with distance from the surface.&apos; This phenomenon has been attributed to the diminution of the velocity of the oxidation boundary. The smaller this velocity is, the more slowly the free-oxygen concentration rises towards the concentration in equilibrium with the oxygen gas. And a small 0 concentration favors dissociation and thus conglomeration of the oxide. For instance, the hardness decreases more rapidly during long annealings in nitrogen than in air.&apos; Measurements by Gregory and Smith3 on sections through internally oxidized Al-silver wire showed a smaller variation in hardness, probably because the wire diameter was only 0.9 mm. Wood4 found a drop in hardness with depth in internally oxidized Al-copper strip, and also—by electron microscopy—the concomitant increase in Al2O3 particle size. Under certain circumstances internal oxidation leads to formation of rather irregular inner oxide films in the midst of dispersed oxide. This special sort of conglomeration—discussed in Ref. 5—is also favored by greater depth below the surface.3,5 In this paper hardness measurements in large diameter cylindrical and spherical specimens are described. Here the oxidation velocity* goes through ness initially decreases with depth but increases again towards the center. Normally, the diffusion coefficient D1 of oxygen is very large compared to D2, that of the dissolved metal. If, furthermore, the atomic fraction c2 of the latter is much larger than the O-solubility cl- but c2D2 << c1D1- the velocities in question are easily calculated2 to be: for the cylinder and for the sphere. Here p is the radial coordinate of the oxidation boundary and R the specimen radius, which in dilute silver alloys is constant, as no external oxidation occurs. These equations have been derived for a divalent solute; for nondivalent solutes c2 has to be multiplied by half the valency. The equations are not valid near the center. For which can be considered as a standard case,2 the Eqs [I] and [2] begin to yield U-values which are appreciably too high for p/R = 0.05 and 0.15, respectively. But at the v-minima they are still very good approximations. These minima lie at p = emlR= 0.37R in the cylinder and p = 1/2 R in the sphere. Other factors besides the velocity v will also influence the hardness. The oxide concentration cox is constant in a flat strip, apart from a narrow region in the middle,2 but in cylindrical and spherical specimens cox decreases steadily with depth. When C1 << c2 and c1D1 >> c2D2 one can calculate

Jan 1, 1961

By Warren B. Davis

Introduction If a subject this broad were to be covered in even moderate detail, it would require a set of books about the size of an encyclopedia. Since an acceptable length for this paper is a small fraction of one book, it will have to consist of a few samples of the subjects that I think are the most pertinent to World Fossil Fuel Economics. I plan to discuss the trends in world energy demand, particularly in the U. S. and Europe; the consumption patterns and cost patterns of oil, gas and coal; the prospects of synthetics; and some of the effects of government regulation of fuel economics. World Energy Demands Fig. 1 shows Free World energy consumption by principal areas for the period from 1950 to 1970 and a forecast for the period from 1970 to 1985. These figures include only the measurable forms of energy. An example of energy consumption that is not measured is the wood a peasant might cut in the forest and bum in a fireplace to heat his home. This omission probably is a very small part of the total. This forecast is not identical with that of Wayne E. Glenn (see Page 22), but the differences in total energy consumption are not significant. The U. S. consumption, which was 55 percent of the world total in 1950, had declined to 45 percent by 1970, and is expected to decline further to 38 percent by 1985. Western Europe has consumed 28 percent of the total from 1950 to 1970 and is expected to lose share slightly between 1970 and 1985. The most spectacular gainer is Japan, which increased consumption from 2.5 percent in 1950 to 7.5 percent in 1970, and is expected to reach nearly 17 percent by 1985. The over-all Free World total has grown from 62 quadrillion Btu (equivalent to 29 million B/D of crude oil) in 1950 to 151 quadrillion by 1970, an average growth rate of 4.5 percent/year. This total is expected to grow at a rate of 5 percent/year between now and 1985, reaching 315 quadrillion Btu (equivalent to nearly 150 million B/D). Fig. 2 shows which fuels supplied this energy between 1950 and 1970, and gives an estimate of how it will be supplied between 1970 and 1985.

Jan 1, 1971

By M. S. Klima, P. T. Luckie

An evaluation of the operating performance of a recently designed pneumatic centrifugal classifier is presented. This classifier has been modified from a separate air and feed input design to an entrained solids in air feed input. The evaluation first required determining the size distributions for the three streams (feed, fine, and coarse). Using size distribution data and mass flow rates, a size selectivity curve was calculated for each operating condition tested. This curve, in turn, was characterized by appropriate selectivity parameters (i.e., the equiprobable or cut size, the sharpness index, and the apparent bypass values). The variation of these parameters with classifier operating conditions was examined. From these evaluations, the "best" operating conditions for the classifier were then determined.

Jan 1, 1985

Apr. 26-May 11, Liege International Fair, Liege, Belgium. May 4-8, Electrochemical Society, Inc., Spring meeting, Benjamin Franklin Hotel, Philadelphia. May 5-6, National Air Pollution Symposium, Huntington Hotel, Pasadena. May 5-7, American. Mining Congress, coal convention, Netherland Plaza Hotel, Cincinnati. May 6-9, Scientific Apparatus Makers Assn., annual meeting, Edgewater Beach Hotel, Chicago. May 9-10, AIME, joint meeting, Industrial Minerals Div. and Metals Branch, Davenport Hotel, Spokane, Wash. May 11-14, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Atlanta Biltmore Hotel, Atlanta. May 17, AIME, Chicago Section, President&apos;s night dinner dance, Shoreland Hotel, Chicago. May 27, AIME, Morenci Subsection, Longfellow Inn, Morenci, Ariz. June 2-4, Chemical Institute of Canada, annual conference, Montreal. June 4-14, Mechanical Handling Exhibition and Convention, Olympia, London.

Jan 1, 1952

By H. Le Chatelier

An evident connection exists between chemical and calorific phenomena: the most important, of our sources of heat, the combustion of coal, is nothing else than a chemical reaction. Not satisfied with this indefinite statement, investigators have attempted to establish a more precise correlation between these two orders of phenomena, and have questioned whether there be not a necessary connection between the possibility of a chemical reaction and the algebraic sign of the quantity of heat which it would call into play (i.e., liberate or absorb). This question possesses the highest interest for metallurgical chemists. But the study of it by experimental methods only could not completely elucidate it. To arrive at a definite solution, it was necessary to appeal to a science much more general than chemistry,—namely, that of energetics, which embraces all the physical sciences. We can place absolute confidence in its conclusions, because they rest upon a proposition which can scarcely be denied, namely, the impossibility of The main facts in the history of the development o‡ this field of Triassic coals have been already set before the Institute in the papers of Mr. Oswald J. Heinrich, a former member of the Institute and the superintendent of the mines at Midlothian. † From these and other references to the field, it appears that coal was known to exist here as early as 1701; for on the 10th of May that year Colonel Byrd reported to the Colonial Council of Virginia the discovery of coal. Coal was mined from 1770 to 1780; but the amount shipped is unknown. It was much used in Richmond at this early date for gratefires. In 1789 shipments were made to northern ports. During the first half of the century just passed, mining operations attained in this field their greatest development, the number and extent of the collieries and the tonnage of coal raised per annum being greater for that period than for any similar period since. The maximum annual output exceeded 100,000 tons, while in two years only since the Civil War has the amount of coal raised exceeded 50,000 tons. This field covers about 150 sq. in. Its outline and the position of the strata in which the coal-outcrops occur are shown on the accompanying map, reproduced from the latest survey by the U. S. Geological Survey. Mining has been carried on along the margins of the area, often in the primitive manner in vogue at the beginning of operations, by means of shafts and slopes, usually too small in cross-section to permit the proper working of the beds. Most of the output has been won from

Jan 1, 1902

By J. G. Davis, P. C. Thakur

Hazardous methane gas in coal mining is receiving increased attention due to the increased US demand for coal which has resulted in the exploitation of deeper seams and the utilization of more productive equipment. Problems posed by methane emission has the Mining Research Division of Continental Oil Co. (Conoco) accelerating efforts that began in the early 1950&apos;s with Consolidation Coal Co. (Consol).1 The program&apos;s focus is on finding new techniques for degasification of virgin areas as well as control of methane in gob areas.

Jan 10, 1977

By E. P. Chapman

In May 1957 a diamond drill hole intersected 40 ft of magnetite and chalcopyrite assaying 2.55% copper and 51.6% iron on the claims of Craigmont Mines Ltd. near Merritt, southern British Columbia. The subsequent drilling indicated the presence of a multi-million ton orebody averaging over 2% copper and 18% iron, the latter present for the most part as magnetite and specular hematite in approximately equal proportions. This orebody, although under shallow cover at its eastern extremity, did not come to the surface and the early drilling was done on the basis of strong coinciding magnetic and geochemical anomalies. After 4 ½ years of intensive exploration and development the property was put into production in September 1961. The new ultramodern concentrator has a design capacity of 4000 tpd but is consistently treating well over this amount. Production is currently coming from that portion of the deposit which is amenable to open-pit mining methods. By mid-1958 information regarding the importance of the Craigmont find became fairly wide- spread, and exploration in the Merritt area was greatly intensified. Numerous magnetic and geochemical anomalies have been tested by drilling with notable lack of success. Detailed geological studies of the deposit and of the area have been made by Government agencies and by private companies and such studies are continuing. Many types of geophysical methods have been employed over the Craigmont deposit in an effort to develop knowledge which would assist in the search for similar mineral concentrations in the environment in which it occurs. This paper will discuss the results of the various geophysical surveys in relation to geological conditions and ore outlines insofar as they are now known.

Jan 7, 1962

First Session BRASS Wednesday, A.M., Nov. 29 Co-Chairmen: CARTER S. COLE, Staff Engineer, A.S.T.M. E. A. ANDERSON, Chief of Metals Section, Research Div., New Jersey Zinc Co. (of Pa.) Second Session BRASS Wednesday, P.M., Nov. 29 Co-Chairmen: D. K. CRAMPTON, Director of Research, Chase Brass and Copper Co., Inc. A. W. TRACY, Metallurgist, The American Brass Co. Dinner and Technical Session Wednesday Evening, Nov. 29 Toastmaster: N. L. MOCHEL, Manager Metallurgical Engineering, Westinghouse Electric Corp. Talk on "How Do Things Look Today and For the Future" RALPH KELLY, President, Baldwin Locomotive Works Technical Paper on Stress-Corrosion Cracking E. H. Dix, JR., Assistant Director of Research and Chief Metallurgist, Aluminum Company of America Third Session BRASS Thursday, A.M., Nov. 30 Co-Chairmen: W. B. PRICE, Director of Research, Scovill Manufacturing Co. A. L. JAMIESON, Associate Metallurgist, Frankford Arsenal First Session LIGHT METALS Thursday, P.M., Nov. 30 Co-Chairmen: L. L. WYMAN, Metallurgist, General Electric Co. M. A. HUNTER, Professor of Metallurgical Engineering and Head, Dept. of Metallurgical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Second Session LIGHT METALS Thursday Evening, Nov. 30 Co-Chairmen: R. T. WOOD, Chief Metallurgist, American Magnesium Corp. J. D. HANAWALT, Director, Metallurgical Dept., Dow Chemical Co. First Session STEEL Friday A.M., Dec. I Co-Chairmen: H. S. RAWDON, Chief, Division of Metallurgy, National Bureau of Standards A. L. FEILD, Director of Research, Rustless Iron and Steel Corp. First Session MISCELLANEOUS METALS Friday P.M., Dec. I Co-Chairmen: E. A. ANDERSON, Chief of Metals Section, Research Div., New Jersey Zinc Co. (of Pa.) CARTER S. COLE, Staff Engineer, A.S.T.M.

Jan 1, 1945

By W. P. Sykes

IN CONNECTION with a study of tungsten steels, Honda and Murakami1 reported an investigation of the system iron-tungsten. This report included a tentative equilibrium diagram, photomicrographs of various alloys in the series, and qualitative measurements of hardness and magnetic properties. The present investigation originally had as its object the study of the hardness and tensile properties of a series of carbon-free iron-tungsten alloys. But, as the work progressed it became evident that the system possessed other features of interest, so the scope of the investigation was enlarged. MATERIALS The iron powder used in preparing the alloys was obtained as follows: Iron oxalate was precipitated from a ferrous-sulfate solution by the addition of a solution of oxalic acid. This oxalate, after thorough washing, was ignited to iron oxide, which after reduction in hydrogen at about 1000° C. yielded iron powder containing but about 0.2 per cent. iron oxide and about 0.005 percent. carbon. Tungsten metal in the form of powder, such as is used in the manufacture of filaments for incandescent lamps, was the other constituent. This material analyzed 99.8 per cent. tungsten and contained no carbon, The metal powders, in the desired proportions, were mixed by tumbling and formed, under pressure of 20 tons per sq. in., into rods 3/8 by 3/8 by 10 in. To form the alloys without contamination, sections of the pressed rods were placed on alundum slabs and heated in an alundum tube wound with a tungsten resistor and packed in heat-insulating material. While the resistor was heated, a stream of hydrogen was continually passed through both the tube and the case containing it. The tungsten winding on the tube, as well as the material heated within the tube, was thus protected from oxidation. Such a furnace will operate constantly

Jan 2, 1926

By O. W. Simmons, L. W. Eastwood, C. M. Craighead

The results of a preliminary study of 113 ternary titanium-base alloys are described. The compositions investigated were as follows: 1. Ternary titanium-carbon alloys containing copper, silicon, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, or cobalt. 2. Ternary titanium-nitrogen alloys containing chromium. 3. Ternary titanium-chromium alloys containing additions of vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, or nickel. 4. Ternary titanium-manganese alloys containing additions of silicon, chromium, tungsten, or iron. Tensile properties, minimum bend radii, hardnesses, response to heat treatment and aging treatment, and phase relationships for these alloys were determined. THIS is the second in a series of papers describing some of the results of the exploratory work on titanium alloys being conducted at Battelle Memorial Institute for the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The work with the binary alloy systems has been described in a previous publication.&apos; This paper describes ternary titanium-base alloys as follows: 1. Ternary titanium-carbon alloys containing copper, silicon, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, or cobalt. 2. Ternary titanium-nitrogen alloys containing chromium. 3. Ternary titanium-chromium alloys containing additions of vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, or nickel. 4. Ternary titanium-manganese alloys containing additions of silicon, chromium, tungsten, or iron. As the preparation and fabrication of the 0.5-Ib experimental titanium alloy ingots to 14-ga sheet, as well as the methods of testing used in this work, have been described in the first paper of this series, Titanium Binary Alloys, no further discussion of these techniques will be given. Ternary Alloys Containing Carbon The following alloys of titanium, containing carbon and one other metal, were investigated: 1. 0.25 pct carbon; 1, 2.5, and 5 pct copper. 2. 0.25 pct carbon; 1, 2, and 3 pct silicon. 3. 0.25 pct carbon; 1, 2.5, and 5 pct vanadium. 4. 0.25 pct carbon; 2.5, 3.5, 5, 10, and 15 pct chromium. 5. 0.5 pct carbon; 2.5, 3.5, and 5 pct chromium. 6. 0.25 pct carbon; 1, 1.75, 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 pct manganese. 7. 0.5 pct carbon; 1.75, 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 pct manganese. 8. 0.25 pct carbon; 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2 pct iron. 9. 0.25 pct carbon; 1, 2, and 3 pct cobalt.

Jan 1, 1951

The writers are to be congratulated for their excellent paper on a subject dear to the hearts of manufacturers of cold rolled sheets. Gary Works produces rimmed steel ingots up to 53,000 pounds teemed 91 inches high in 31 x 84 inch molds. By the writers&apos; definition, this puts us in the small mold category, and a comparison of their adopted melt shop practice with our established rimmed steel practice discloses not a dime&apos;s worth of difference between us. This should give comfort to the writers for we at Gary have- never encountered the frequency of white line rejections as described in their paper.

Jan 1, 1972

By John E. Miller

Unit Rig & Equipment Co., manufacturer of Lectra Haul trucks, is continually studying methods of reducing the operating costs of large haulage trucks. Reduction of haulage system operating costs is an important goal that equipment operators and equipment manufacturers constantly try to improve on. One of the most variable and important factors affecting operating costs is actual truck operating practices. An examination was centered on methods to optimize truck utilization. It was found that a very effective method of accomplishing this goal would be an automatic truck control (ATC) system to automatically control a fleet of haulage trucks in a predetermined pattern. Economic studies were conducted which showed a very favorable reduction in mine operating costs by use of an ATC system. In 1970, Unit Rig & Equipment Co., in conjunction with SAAB-SCANIA began preliminary development of adapting, for truck use, a proven automated control system, previously used for train systems, small trucks, and military target vehicles. In 1974, the first prototype system was installed on a Lectra Haul M-100 and tested extensively at Unit Rig&apos;s test track in Tulsa, OK. This truck and system were then displayed publicly at the 1974 convention in Las Vegas. In 1976, the system was redesigned for production to maximize reliability, ease maintenance, and to accommodate future control and-status reporting developments proposed for haulage trucks. The new design equipment was manufactured, and a full system test will be conducted in an actual open-pit mine for an extended period to evaluate reliability, compile economic data, and obtain application information to evaluate complete mine haulage system conversions to ATC. System Description The ATC system is designed to provide automatic control of all the vehicle functions normally accomplished by the vehicle operator. The basic system consists of the on-board control equipment and the wayside control equipment. The on-board equipment receives commands from the wayside equipment and controls all the truck functions. In addition, on-board sensors monitor all critical truck functions and provide instructions to the truck and system to assure safe operation. The wayside equipment consists of a buried guidewire, block control units and a central controller which provides predetermined signals to the on-board equipment for speed control, steering, and for auxiliary functions (dumping, horn, etc.) through the guidewire located in the truck&apos;s path. The wayside equipment also controls vehicle separation, system status, and provides truck location to a central display panel. The central control panel can vary the speed level signals over any segment and can also command an emergency stop to halt all the units. [Fig. 1] illustrates a typical ATC installation. If ATC is used in operations which require flexibility and mobility at the end of the ATC guidance network, the trucks can then be operated by either radio remote control or manually to complete their assigned functions.

Jan 1, 1982

By M. G. Benz, J. F. Elliott

The austenite solidus of the iron-carbon system has been determined using a series of diffusion couples, each of which consisted of a specimen of austenite held in contact with a melt saturated with austenite. After the equilibrium distribution of carbon had been established by diffusion at a specified temperature, i.e. the austenite specimen had become austenite of the solidus conzposition, the diffusion couple was cooled, sectioned and anazlyzed for carbon. The solidus was found to be a straight line: A revised iron-carbon temperature-composition diagram is presented, COMPOSITION has a marked effect on the temperature at which austenite begins to melt and the austenite solidus of the iron-carbon system describing this effect has been the subject of many investigations.1-10 The significant results of these investigations are presented in Fig. 1. The experimental methods and purity of the materials used in them are summarized in Table I. In plotting the data in Fig. 1 no attempt has been made to convert these results to the International Temperature Scale of 1948," except for the data of Adcock,5 as this conversion would do little to reduce the uncertainty that exists as to the position and shape of the solidus. A point of major concern in evaluating these data is that the alloys studied, except those used by Adcock, were not binary alloys of iron and carbon, Table I. Also, it would appear that several of the methods did not permit equilibrium to be established through the system being studied. All that can be said for the results of these investigations is that they indicate only approximately the location of the solidus with the uncertainty as to its location at 1 pct C being approximately 100°C. The current investigation was undertaken to provide reliable data by which the austenite solidus could be established. It was hoped that information on the liquidus also could be developed at the same time, but experimental limitations prevented this as austenite segregated from the liquid on cooling. After a careful study of possible experimental methods and extensive laboratory tests, it was decided that the use of a series of austenite-liquid diffusion couples would provide the most reliable results. This paper describes the method and its results and also includes a complete iron-carbon temperature-composition diagram based on what are considered to be the best available data. EXPERTMENTAL METHOD The diffusion couple used for this investigation consisted of a small cylindrical pellet of austenite held in contact, at a specified temperature, with a melt saturated with austenite. The composition of the cylindrical austenite pellet was chosen to be approximately 0.1 wt pct C less than the estimated

Jan 1, 1962

By A. J. Bowie

The discovery of the auriferous cement gravel deposits in and near Deadwood Gulch, Lawrence County, Dakota Territory, in 1876, created a mining excitement, and rush to the Black Hills. Numerous ten and twenty-stamp mills were built on Deadwood Gulch; Central City and the town of Deadwood sprang into existence, and became the centres of the mining industry of the Hills. Gold quartz deposits were subsequently discovered and located on a so-called mineral belt, extending from Whitewood Creek on the south, to Deadwood Gulch on the north. A northerly group of these quartz locations was purchased in December, 1877, by parties in San Francisco, who formed a company, incorporated under the name of the Father de Smet Consolidated Gold Mining Company. This company immediately commenced the work of exploration The deposits were proved to be extensive, and easily mined, but it was found that the ore, on an average, would not yield more than $10.00 per ton* of 2000 pounds. • At this trine the cost of supplies and materials in the Hills was high. Miners&apos; wages were $3.50 per diem, and custom mills charged $6.00 per ton. The successful working of mines on "the belt" necessitated cheap milling. The ores being of so low grade,f this could be accomplished only with large and economically running mills. To insure the greatest possible economy, the Father de Smet mill

Jan 1, 1882

By Eckley B. Coxe

I wish to call the attention of the Institute to a peculiar variety of anthracite which occurs in the Buck Mountain vein at our collieries at Drifton, and in the same and other veins in different localities in the anthracite coal-fields. It is known among the workmen as iron-gray or cast-iron. It has a dull, greasy appearance, as if a piece of ordinary anthracite had been rubbed with a dirty and greasy rag and allowed to dry. It was formerly considered a very impure coal containing a high percentage of ash, and was picked out of the coal and thrown away. But the following analysis of it and of its ash, made by Mr. J. Blodget Britton, of Philadelphia, shows that such is not the case, the percentage of ash not being much higher than that of the ordinary anthracites as they are prepared for market. ANALYSIS OF COAL. Water,.........4.36 Fixed carbon, by difference,.. 84.90 Volatile combustible matter,. . 3 48 Ash,..........7.26 100.00 The carbon proved to some extent to be of the nature of graphite, and slowly combustible. ANALYSIS OF ASH. Silica,.........25.66 Sulphur,........ .17 Alumina,........27.03 Phosphoric acid,.......21 Ferric oxide,.......42.83 Alkali, undetermined matter and Lime,.........1.56 loss,.........60 Magnesia,........1.83 Manganous oxide,......11 100.00 We recently collected a quantity of the substance and made a fire with it, in an ordinary stove, which was kept up several days. We found that it burned with intense heat, and apparently as freely as our other coal does. Mr. Britton is probably right in his view, that the difference in appearance is not due to impurities in the coal, but to the fact that the carbon is in a more or less graphitic form, as many of the standard coals are no purer. I bring this before the Institute as I know that a large quantity of this valuable fuel is thrown away every year, on account of its supposed impurities.

Jan 1, 1879

THOMAS L. WATSON,* Charlottesville, Va. (written discussion ? ).¬Sphalerite, as is well known, occurs not only as a common constituent of many types of ore deposits formed under widely varying geologic conditions, but its sulphide mineral associates comprise a goodly number of species. In the investigation by Mr. Teas, data were obtained from a mineralographic study of about 200 ore specimens from 43 different localities grouped according to their genesis as follows: (1) Contact-metamorphic deposits, (2) deep-vein zone deposits, (3) intermediate-vein zone deposits, (4) shallow-vein zone deposits, (5) meteoric water deposits. .The object of the study was to determine the relations of sphalerite to the associated sulphide minerals and their possible genetic significance. As a result of the investigation, Mr. Teas has deduced several important conclusions. Probably the one of largest interest and value was that sphalerite formed from magmatic waters, including contact-metamorphic, deposits, could be distinguished, for the cases investigated at least, from sphalerite formed from meteoric waters, by development in the former of minute triangular or rectangular dots or stringers of chalcopyrite. Although chalcopyrite inclusions in sphalerite had been noted by previous observers, the probable significance of their apparent general occurrence in sphalerite of certain types of ore deposits and their absence from others was unknown. The large number of ore specimens studied from more than 40 different localities in the United States and foreign countries, representing the principal genetic types of sphalerite-bearing deposits, gives considerable weight to the conclusions reached by the author. Should the conclusion drawn by Mr. Teas become generally applicable, a laboratory criterion of much value will have been established for distinguishing between sphalerite formed from juvenile and that from meteoric waters. The principle seems applicable not only to sulphide deposits in which sphalerite is the principal constituent, but to those in which it occurs as a very subordinate one, as shown by the study of ore specimens from one of the principal pyrite mines in Virginia. It may be possible also that the principle will have important application in differentiating primary from secondary sphalerite occurring in the same deposit formed from magmatic waters, although there have-been comparatively few well-

Jan 4, 1918

The plans involve about ten technical sessions, a day spent in Cripple Creek and in Pueblo, where there will he optional visits devoted to steel, non-ferrous metals, etc.; half-a-day each to mills in Colorado Springs district and an auto trip to the top of Pike&apos;s Peak. Finally, a day at Leadville devoted to visits, including the molybdenum works.

Jan 4, 1918

By D. W. Frommer, M. M. Fine

Mineral dressing research showed that iron concentrates of commercial quality could be produced from the Pea Ridge deposit near Sullivan, Mo. Magnetic separation and flotation, on a laboratory scale, yielded concentrates ranging from 60.0 to 71.4 pet Fe at recoveries of 89.9 to 97.6 pct. Early in 1957 St. Joseph Lead Co. announced discovery of three new centers of iron ore deposition in east central Missouri.&apos; The discovery resulted from exploratory drilling in the vicinity of a magnetic anomaly or high. A deep hole, drilled into the Pre-Cambrian porphyry to determine the cause of anomaly, penetrated a magnetite-rich deposit.&apos; The magnetic surveys that revealed the anomalies were begun by the Missouri Geological Survey in 1929 and were continued into the 1930&apos;s.3 At that time an area in Crawford County known as the Bourbon magnetic high was located. A second anomaly, similar in size and intensity, was discovered about six miles to the northeast in Franklin County in the vicinity of Sullivan. This area was not studied in detail until the early 1940&apos;s. To determine the cause of the anomalies, the USBM drilled four holes at the Bourbon site in 1943-1944.4 The most productive hole penetrated four mineralized zones having a total thickness of 127.5 ft. These zones contained magnetite in rhyo-lite porphyry at depths between 1600 and 2000 ft. Additional iron ore below 2000 ft was considered a possibility at the time. Some years later, the USGS, Missouri Geological Survey, St. Joseph Lead Co., and others cooperated in sponsoring an aeromagnetic survey of the Bourbon-Sullivan area which resulted in discovery of a third high, about eight miles distant at Pea Ridge. This deposit, with an estimated reserve of 50 to 100 million tons of iron ore, is considered the main find, although other orebodies in the same general area are of definite interest.&apos; When this discovery was announced, St. Joseph Lead also revealed plans to exploit the deposit jointly with Bethlehem Steel Co. A new corporation, Meramec Mining Co., was established, and 1962 was set as the target date for completing physical plant.2 Annual production goals of 2 million tons of beneficiated and pelletized iron ore were proposed. Preparation of the site for shaft sinking was begun in June 1957. Orebody and Character of Samples: Drilling to date has established the Pea Ridge orebody as a crescent-shaped pipe about 300 ft wide. Some drillholes were bottomed at 2800 ft in very good iron ore.6 he orebody is predominantly magnetite, although hematite and a mixture of hematite and magnetite occur in the upper areas and peripheral walls. Drillhole cores representing ore from different areas and depths of mineralization were grouped into composites for testing. These composites consisted of: 1) medium grade mixed hematite and magnetite, 2) high grade mixed hematite and magnetite, and 3) high grade magnetite. The medium grade ore came from three holes with depths of i350 to 1900 ft. The high grade mixed hematite and magnetite cores came from the 1790 to 2812-ft interval of one hole. Partial chemical analyses of the three samples, given in Table 1, reveal that all are excessively high in phosphorus and sulfur, and sample 1 is

Jan 1, 1960

By George M. Humphrey

It is indeed a pleasure for me to have this opportunity to discuss with you a subject which I find infinitely interesting and intriguing - namely, world-wide iron ore supply and demand. We will be examining the following: (i) current iron ore production and requirements; (ii) the major ore producing countries; (iii) the seaborne iron ore trade; (iv) ore grades or types; and (v) future requirements. For those who may not be familiar with the iron ore mining industry, it may be useful to know at the outset that our industry has been plagued with overcapacity for the past seven years. The optimism which prompted substantial expansion of productive capacity in the early to mid-1970&apos;s has unfortunately proved to have been unfounded. I shall begin by describing where we are today as well as a little about how we got there. In the latter regard, it&apos;s not so much that historical knowledge will solve any of the industry&apos;s problems or provide clairvoyance with regard to the future. Rather it&apos;s a feeling on my part that some knowledge of the past will provide a useful perspective capable of enhancing our analysis of future trends. At the time of writing, the most recent year for which we have definitive world-wide iron ore production and consumption statistics is 1980. In that year the world consumed approximately 859 million metric tons of iron ore to produce approximately 510 million metric tons of primary iron consisting of 502 million tons of pig iron and 8 million tons of sponge iron. Crude steel production for the same period attained a level of 719 million metric tons. Because it is possible in today&apos;s world to produce steel without consuming iron ore simply by melting scrap, the key statistic insofar as iron ore demand is concerned is primary iron production. In 1980 the ratio of iron ore consumption to primary iron production was 1.68:1.00. The comparable ratio over the past seven years has varied from 1.63 to 1.87 and averaged 1.72:1.00. All the same, as a practical matter crude steel production and iron ore consumption tend to parallel one another closely, and for the time being a good rule of thumb is that to produce an average ton of crude steel requires 1.20 tons of iron ore. Let&apos;s turn our attention now to the regions where the 859 million tons of iron ore necessary to support 1980 world-wide iron and steel production were produced. Not surprisingly, most of the ore was produced in the same region where it was smelted. In round numbers 65% of the world&apos;s iron ore production is currently consumed in the same general region as it is produced, while 35% enters the seaborne trade and is transported in ocean vessels to a more remote consuming area. Approximately 85% of the world&apos;s seaborne iron ore trade is directed to the Western European and Japanese markets, both of which are almost entirely dependent on off-shore sources for their mammoth iron ore requirements. The following tabulation lists, in order, the twelve leading iron ore producing countries in 1980 as well as their percentages of total and free-world production; in addition their export potentials are presented. As a group these countries accounted in that year for 89% of world-wide production which stood at 871 million tons. Leading World Iron Ore Producing Countries [ ] One will first note that world iron ore production is dominated by the top four producers - namely, the U.S.S.R., Brazil, Australia and the U.S.A. - which together accounted for nearly 60% of total 1980 production. Of these four major producers the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. produce almost exclusively for consumption in their own regions, whereas Australia and Brazil produce primarily for the seaborne export trade. In fact Australia and Brazil accounted for about 50% of all seaborne iron ore trade in 1980! It is also interesting to note that Australia, Brazil, the U.S.A. and Canada accounted for nearly 60% of free world iron ore production in 1980. Once again the importance of Australia and Brazil shows itself, with their share alone of free world production reaching 35%. As has already been noted, a significant 35% of the world&apos;s iron ore production in the year 1980 was

Jan 1, 1982