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In 1803 the purchase of the immense territory called the province of Louisiana wm arranged between Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, and Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul of France. This central portion of what is now the United States was claimed in 1682 by the explorer Robert de La Salle for France, who continued to hold her title to the vast domain until 1762, when it passed by treaty to Spain, only to be retroceded to France in 1802, in consequence of Napoleon's military domination of Spain. Jefferson did not care to see New Orleans and its extensive hinterland pass into the hands of France. Spain did not matter so much; she was quiet and feeble, whereas France was restless and aggressive under Napoleon, who had dreams of founding a French colonial empire on the American continent. The expression of American feeling that Jefferson elicited came as a surprise to Napoleon, who concluded that a contest was not worth while, for his navy had been shattered by the English, and it was evident that only maritime supremacy could enable him to retain this trans-Atlantic possession; so he resolved to put it out of the grasp of England and at the same time replenish his military chest by selling Louisiana to the United States. The price was 60 million francs. By the terms of the Louisiana purchase a magnificent territory was added to the national domain; it covered more than a million square miles, or more than the total area of the United States at that time. Louisiana included the present States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Oklahoma, with parts of Colorado, Idaho, and Minnesota; but

Jan 1, 1932

By Pope Yeatman

THE Committee on the Elimination of Waste in Industry, of the Federated American Engineering Societies, in its report says that "Waste in -industry is attributable to four causes: 1. Low production, caused by faulty management, of materials, plant, equipment, and men; 2. Interrupted production caused by idle materials, idle plants, and idle equipment; 3. Restricted production intentionally caused by ,owners, managers, or labor; 4. Lost production caused by ill-health, physical defects and industrial accidents. The committee sent out elaborate questionnaires, and in them divided the responsibility into Manage-ment, Labor, and Outside Contracts. These question-naires showed that in the different industries examined the responsibility of Management was from 50 to 80 per cent. and of Labor from 9 to 28 per cent. The percentage of responsibility that Management was held accountable for was much larger than any of us supposed. However, when this question is studied, we realize how necessary it is to select, in the first instance, suitable personnel, in the form of directors, managers, heads of departments, experts, etc. We would like to -believe that the percentage of responsibility of Management for waste in the mining business was less than that quoted above, but there are so many mining properties started up and operated by men of no experience in such lines, and there have been so many improvements in late years in mining and metallurgical methods not taken advantage of, that we can not believe that. the percentage will vary much from that already quoted. Quoting from a report approved by the Committee on Management of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Management is the art and science of preparing, organizing, and directing human effort applied to control the forces and util-ize the materials of nature for the benefit of man.

Jan 3, 1922

By S. R. Goodman, Hsun Hu

A study has hem made of the formation of annealing textures in an 18-8 austenitic stainless steel (Type 304L) from various deformation textures obtained by rolling at different temperatures. When the deformation texture is a mixture of the ferritic type and the brass type owing to the pres -ence of both martensitic ferrite and retained aus-tenite in the specimen, recrystallization takes place by the growth of the existing austenite phase. In a previous report,' it was shown that the rolling texture of austenitic stainless steel (Type 304L) changed gradually from the brass type to the copper type with increasing temperature of deformation above 200°C. These changes are similar to those in high-purity silver2,3 and electrolytic copper;4 a brass-type texture is favored at low rolling temperatures, whereas a copper-type texture is favored During the course of rolling -texture transition from the brass type to the copper type, the subsequent recrystallization textures change accordingly. The orientation relationship between the annealing textures and the various rolling textures, being consistent with previous observations on various fcc metals, can be described as [Ill] rotations of approximately 25 to 40 deg. Carhide precipitation may influence the annealing textures. at high rolling temperatures. Furthermore, the annealing textures in high-purity silver5 and electrolytic copper4 were found to depend entirely on the prior deformation texture. From a copper-type rolling texture a strong cube texture will form upon recrystallization, whereas from a brass-type rolling texture the annealing texture will be quite different from the cube orientation. In an earlier comm~nication,6 the formation of a strong cube texture in 18-8 austenite stainless steels (Types 304 and 304L) was reported briefly by the authors. The present paper constitutes the results of a complete study of the annealing textures obtained from a

Jan 1, 1965

By John Fulton

THE increase in the production of iron has been accompanied by a growing demand for an improved quality, and more especially at the present time, in the manufacture of Bessemer steel, which is rapidly becoming an important branch of industry. This has led the makers of pig iron to a careful investigation of the composition of the materials from which their metal is produced, the inquiry being greatly assisted by a cordial alliance of science and practice. Formerly, chemical science was held in abeyance, or admitted in a hesitating experimental way ; but now it is received as a valuable auxiliary, and its decisions are accepted as final and conclusive. It is called on to assist the iron-maker in determining the quality of his stock, and to detect the presence of injurious elements in his fuel, ores, flux, or iron. The object of this paper is to submit the method now in use at the furnaces of the Kemble Coal and Iron Company in the Broad Top coal and iron region, for removing, by a process of crushing and washing, slate and other impurities from coal, designed, when coked, for furnace fuel. It is not contemplated to claim very advanced progress in this work, believing that it is susceptible of improvement, but to show that some progress has been made in a comparatively new field, and it is hoped in the right direction, since coke is probably destined to become the principal fuel in the metallurgy of iron. The Broad Top coal region occupies an isolated geographical position, standing 25 miles east from the Alleghany field. It is associated with the latter by the structure of its coal, and more closely with the Cumberland field by a similarity in the quality of coal.

By B. Ladanyi, G. Archambault

It is generally recognized to date that a rational stability analysis of slopes and foundations in rock masses is a desirable but still rather remote goal of rock mechanics.1 In principle, a slope analysis is possible provided the original state of effective stress in the ground is known and the shear strength of the earth material can be clearly defined. In a macroscopically continuous earth medium such as soil, the two basic ingredients of the stability analysis in most cases can be assessed with sufficient approximation. A much less favorable situation exists when the slope is composed of a macroscopically discontinuous medium such as rock mass containing one or more sets of geological planar structures. In such a case, both the original effective stresses and the overall shear strength of the mass are much more difficult to determine. As for the former, it is only recently that certain calculation methods and solutions concerning the stress distribution2 and the seepage forces3 in a discontinuous medium have been proposed. As the strength behavior of the rock mass is concerned, much valuable effort has been made in recent years toward reaching a proper understanding of the phenomenon of rock mass failure under stress. Probably one of the most complete investigations of the problem to date has recently been made at the University of Illinois. The study resulted in establishing a first useful working hypothesis of the shear behavior of a regularly jointed rock mass, proposed by Patton in 1966.4 The main purpose of the work described in this chapter is to establish a more general framework for the shear behavior of rock mass, one that would be directly related to some basic rock parameters and would also

Jan 1, 1970

By J. E. Hackford

In some research work carried out by the writer, certain results have been obtained which bear on the fundamental nature and origin of coal and the relationship between coal and petroleum. Without entering into a discussion of the details of the experiments, which were conducted on petroleum and derived bitumens, there are given here, by way of definition, some of the relations that the writer has established between certain classes of bitumens of petroliferous origin. Bitumen.—-A natural organic substance, gaseous, liquid, or solid, consisting of hydrocarbons and the oxy-or thionic derivatives of the same, or of a mixture of all three. Diaspha1tenes.—-Those portions of bitumens that are soluble in ether or carbon disulfide, but are insoluble in a mixture of equal parts of ether and alcohol. Diasphaltenes are produced by the oxidation or thionization of petroleum oils; they have, as the name indicates, twice the molecular weight of asphaltenes, into which they are converted when subjected to moderate temperature. For example, an artificially produced diasphaltene, which was readily soluble in pentane and ether, was quite insoluble in either of these solvents after heating for three weeks at a temperature of 100" C., and was converted into an insoluble asphaltene. Aspha1tenes.—Those portions of bitumen that are insoluble in ether or ether alcohol but are soluble in carbon disulfide. Aspha1tites.—Those solid or semisolid natural bitumens that are composed, for the most part, of asphaltenes or diasphaltenes. A pure asphaltitel would be composed wholly of asphaltenes and diasphaltenes, but most asphaltites contain small percentages of oil and wax, which have not yet been converted into asphaltenes; they may also contain A small percent.age of kerotenes, which represent the next stage of the metamorphosis of asphaltenes. Among the naturally occurring oxyasphaltites may be mentioned grahamite; and among the thioasphaltites, gilsonite.

Jan 1, 1921

By Barry K. McMahon

The fundamental problem in rock mechanics is accounting for the discontinuous and anisotropic nature of the jointed rock mass. It is this problem that makes rock mechanics distinct from the mechanics of steel, glass, or concrete. Existing mathematical models explain much of the behavior of rock cores in the laboratory but, in civil engineering at least, the rocks that matter are the ones that are already broken. On the other hand, the basically descriptive methods now used in engineering geology do not lend themselves easily to mathematical analysis. A set of indices of geological properties related to the strength and deformation characteristics of jointed rock is needed. Like the index properties used in soil mechanics these will probably not have precise mathematical meaning, but once correlations are established with large scale tests they can form a basis for the transfer of test results, obtained in one area under one set of conditions, to the prediction of rock behavior in another area under another set of conditions. Indices of rock properties are even more important in rock mechanics than in soil mechanics as the cost of testing is much higher. To be useful, these indices must be easily and quickly measured and give reproducible results when measurements are made by different people. In this paper the word "joint" means all naturally occurring rock fractures with less than 3 in. of clay or other soft coating material. EXISTING INDICES OF ROCK PROPERTIES A comprehensive review of indices of rock properties for intact rock is given by Deere and Miller.' They provide charts ". . . for estimating the strength or modulus properties for intact rock from the numerical indices obtained by either the Schmidt hammer, the Shore Scleroscope,

Jan 1, 1968

By Godfrey T. Vivian

Very often important discoveries are made in one industry that may be used to advantage in another, but, owing to the rarity that men step out of one industry into another, these discoveries remain unknown outside of the trade or profession in which they are made. The present paper is written solely with the object of bringing to the notice of mining and metallurgical engineers a centrifugal ore-concentrator which eventually may have a great application. Ore- Grading. Fig. 1 represents the action which takes place when solids of different dimensions are stirred up in a box and allowed to settle as minerals of the same size but of different specific gravity. This principle is applied practically in grading china-clay and in enriching tin-slimes. In the latter case the slimes are stirred around in a tub with water and allowed to settle while at the same time the side of the tub is struck with a hammer. The colloidal slimes are then poured off and various slices taken off horizontally. The great drawback of this process is that the particles are deposited horizontally and all the colloids are lost. Fig. 2 represents the action in which the particles are deposited side by side. Here the drawback is the great length of the box needed in order to prevent excessive loss. The alternative to lengthening the box is to increase the force of gravity. Centrifugal force may be regarded practically as the force of gravity augmented. Fig. 3 illustrates the Gee centrifugal machine for grading ores. The drum, A, fitted with a box, B, is mounted on a shaft or spindle, C, the whole being suspended from a ball-bearing of special design at D, supported between girders, E. Rota-

Jan 1, 1913

By Roland D. Parks

THERE are strong indications that chromium steel will one day hold the balance of power among all types of steel. Today, it is going to the forefront in military and civilian use. Stainless steel has received a tremendous impetus because of military demands. Chromium plays a primary, and possibly the most significant roll in the manufacture of stainless and other high temperature alloys. By any standard, chromium ranks among the most strategic of metals. Jet planes would still be on the drawing boards instead of flying in MIG Alley. Many of its more recent applications are the closely guarded secrets of the Pentagon and Government laboratories. Chromium has forged far ahead of the days when it merely decorated an automobile or made the American kitchen sparkle. The United States consumed one half of all chromium ores produced in the world during the past 50 years and 55 pct of those produced in the past decade. During those same periods, some 85 pct of world production of crude ores came from mines in the eastern hemisphere. Cuba is the only substantial supplier in the western hemisphere and most of the Cuban ore is suitable for use only in refractories. In presenting the strategic aspects of the chromium situation it will be helpful to give certain technical data as background without going beyond the detail needed for the survey. Use Pattern Ores containing chromium are consumed by the metallurgical, refractory, and chemical industries. In the United States, postwar consumption by these industries has been in the approximate proportions .of 47:37:16, respectively. In two industries, metal¬lurgical and chemical, the ores are first converted to intermediate products. . For metallurgical use, the ores are usually smelted in electric furnaces to ferrochromium, an

Jan 1, 1952

By H. S. Martin

THE Phosphate Recovery Corporation operates three flotation plants, Nos. 1 and 2 concentrators about three miles northeast of Mulberry, Florida, and No. 3 plant at Wales, Tennessee. These plants represent the first commercial phosphate flotation operation and are also believed to be the largest nonmetallic flotation operation in the world at the pres-ent time. The details of this paper will be confined to plant No. 2, this being the newest and largest concentrator in Florida, and the flow sheet being practically the same as at plant No. 1. The No. 3 plant has been oper-ated but a short time and has been shut down since December, 1932, on account of the decrease in phosphate rock production. The phosphate washers usually are located centrally on a known deposit so that about two hundred acres of ground can be mined eco-nomically to each washer location. The washers are moved to new areas when the distance becomes too great for economical pumping. The flotation plants are built either adjacent to a washer, so that current debris may be utilized, or on the site of a former washer where there is sufficient accumulated debris available for mining, and the flotation plants must also be moved from time to time. Most of the water used in the Florida flotation plants is recovered after passing through a circulating system where most of the fine sus-pended matter is settled out, but some make-up water is obtained from deep wells near the plant. Power is obtained from the Tampa Electric Co. through the dis-tribution facilities of the International Agricultural Corporation. Flotation concentrate is hauled from the plant by trolley over the International Agricultural Corporation's trolley system, to the drying plant at Prairie, one mile northwest of Mulberry.

Jan 1, 1933

By C. C. Griggs

From its inception, a limestone quarry or mine should be under the direction of a capable engineer. Before it becomes a reality, he should outlinc the future results, plan the most economical methods for moving the materials and the most efficient equipment, and pilot the undertaking along the narrow pathway of success, avoiding the pitfalls of uneconomical production and the precipitous walls of scanty profits. Inspection of successful limestone properties shows that all have had difficult engineering problems, the solution of which have required keen engineering ability. In approaching a subject of this nature, it is logical to follow the progress of the limestone operation from its inception to the end, as reflecting the engineering required. There are four major divisions: Investigation, equipment, development, and operation. Investigation On the reliability of the engineer's estimates and the soundness of his judgment depend the success or failure of the enterprise. When one visits a prosperous concern, realizes that the limestone is of a constant chemical composition, sees the mechanical devices installed, and watches the output leave the plant in trains of railroad cars or fleets of vessels, he may overlook the fact that in the remote past this great creation was born in some man's brain and evolved through competent engineering. Many factors must be considered before a promoter could procure the money necessary to launch such an enterprise, for a conservative banker will only recommend a successful producer while the promoter must provide funds on his own and his engineer's judgment. An engineering investigation must be made preliminary to expenditure for actual operation, which, for a limestone deposit, would' naturally embrace such subjects as : ' Readily available. 1. Tonnage available........ Possibly available. Chemical analysis.

Jan 1, 1925

By S. J. Green, R. D. Perkins

Little data exists on the high strain rate behavior of geologic materials. Uniaxial stress tests by Kumar1 and by Serdengecti and Boozer2 present some results to strain rates in the range 10 to 103 per sec. The two references cited are the only ones the authors found for high strain rates. Techniques for experiments at high strain rates are not well developed and, in general, leave questions with respect to interpretation of data when the material behaves in a brittle manner. The most reliable data at very high strain rates (104 to 106 per sec) are found in some recent flat-plate work3-5 where experimenters have impacted one plate into another, thereby creating a uniaxial strain loading. The standard uniaxial stress-strain curves cannot be obtained directly from these tests; however, yield (or fracture) may be studied by measuring the "elastic" wave magnitude. These data then may be compared to uniaxial stress data by resorting to some preassumed yield/fracture criteria. Even with the most liberal interpretation of existing data, little can be said of the effects of high strain rate on stiffness, yield/fracture, and post-fracture behavior of geologic materials. It is the purpose of this work to begin to add to the understanding. The data presented here are intended to provide material information for use in calculating the response of geologic materials to high rate deformations. These data can be applied directly to determine parameters such as the elastic modulus and Poisson ratio as a function of stress. Furthermore, these data can be used to derive an understanding of yield/fracture and the effect of rate on the yield/fracture surface. The work presented is a first step, and is

Jan 1, 1972

By Leo F. Reinartz

This is the fourth and final installment of Leo Reinartz' summation of the steelmaking industry over the first one hundred years. ALTHOUGH basic open-hearth steel has been in the limelight for many years, it has had to share some of its glory with two lesser but nevertheless important rivals, one 50 years old and one a rejuvenated process. Electric steel Electric-steel manufacture began in a humble way in the United States in 1906, when the first heat was tapped from a 3-ton Heroult electric furnace at the Halcomb Steel Co., Syracuse, N. Y. During the intervening years, it has completely eliminated the crucible process. For many years electric melting furnaces were located predominantly in relatively small, nonintegrated plants, making all kinds of high-grade alloy steels. Most of these furnaces, with capacities ranging from 5 to 20 tons, had basic bottoms. During and after World War II, many large basic electric furnaces, some up to 200 tons in capacity, were installed in integrated plants to make commodity steels. There were several reasons for building electric furnaces. Capital investment per annual ton of capacity was low and furnaces could be installed quickly. Since these furnaces used mostly scrap iron in the charge, no extra expensive coke- and blast-furnace capacity had to be added. The perfection of the top-charging design, and the development of large transformers and furnaces, made possible tons per hour as high as from modern 350-ton. open-hearth furnaces. Electric furnaces have high availability and repair costs are low. The process is flexible. Alloy and plain carbon steels of high quality can be made. Where power costs are low, the operating cost can

Jan 1, 1961

IN CIRCLES where mining men are wont to fraternize, a statement often heard is: "Yes, I spent six (or two, or ten, or thirty) years down at 'Chuqui.' " This means Chuquicamata, the site in Chile of what in all probability is the world's largest deposit of copper ore. One hears similar remarks regarding Braden and Andes, and, in fact, regarding a score of other big mines in South America, Africa, and elsewhere, but Chuqui seems to lead the others as the locale of engineers who have done a stint in foreign countries. One reason probably is that it is the Anaconda Company's premier foreign operation. Because of its unusual size and the diversity of its operations a great many men are needed. It is a sort of training school for young engineers; but, also, Anaconda has sent down a great many mature members of its big organization for special assignments like metallurgical research or plant construction. Chuquicamata is about 150 miles northeast of Antofagasta, at an elevation of 9,500 ft. It is in an almost rainless desert country where the wind (it is alleged by some) blows most of the time. However, the copper mining entrepreneurs have done their best to make up for what nature has neglected to do in creating a pleasant environment for the people who operate the mines. These include about 160 "foreigners" of whom 86 are from the United States, most of them accompanied by their families. There are 165 Chileans on the staff. Comforts, conveniences, and many luxuries are provided to offset in some measure the disagreeable features of the climate. Nevertheless, as I have implied, engineers at Chuqui generally jump at the chance to become "alumni" when opportunity offers. At the same time, they appear to take pride in their alma mater.

Jan 1, 1957

By J. J. Gilman

WHEN a cleavage crack that is moving through a crystal intersects a screw dislocation, a jog is created in the crack front. As the crack continues to move, the jog leaves behind a cleavage step. This mechanism was proposed by Amelinckx and Votava,' Pratt, bnd Gilmanh t about the same time. At that time the evidence for the mechanism was largely indirect. Other evidence has been presented by Low, Bilby and Smith,5 and Forty.' It is the purpose of this paper to present more direct evidence of this mechanism and to show that observations of cleavage steps can be used to detect screw dislocations. Experimental Lithium-fluoride crystals that were purchased from the Harshaw Chemical Company, as well as natural mineral crystals and metal crystals, were used in the experiments. Although cleavage steps can be observed on transparent crystals with a metallurgical microscope, the contrast is poor. Marked improvement in the contrast is obtained by depositing thin (1000A) films of silver or aluminum onto the surfaces. The contrast also can be improved by using a phase-contrast microscope, but the simpler silvering method gives just as good results. Tolansky interferometric microscopy, and electron microscopy were used to measure the heights of cleavage steps. The etching techniques developed by Gilman and Johnstonh ere used to detect dislocations in the LiF crystals. Results The dislocations that create cleavage steps can originate in three ways: a) They can be grown into crystals b) They can be introduced by plastic deformation prior to cleavage c) They can be formed just in front of the tip of a propagating cleavage crack.' These three situations will be considered in turn. Grown-in Dislocations—It is not possible to see the individual monomolecular cleavage steps that emanate from isolated screw dislocations in crystals.

Jan 1, 1959

By T. L. Joseph

BLAST furnaces are most efficient thermally when the C02 in the top gas is highest. Oxygen introduced in the air blast is converted to CO in the combustion zones. The extent to which CO, generated in front of the tuyères, is converted later to C02 depends upon the ratio of ore to coke in the charge and the degree to which C02, formed by reduction of iron oxides with CO, reverts to CO by the secondary reaction C + C02 = 2C0. About 300 to 400 lb. of carbon1 per ton of pig iron is normally involved in the solution-loss reaction or direct reduction of FeO with carbon, which produces the same over-all results; that is, lower C02 in the top gas. Riche has recently reported a reduction in fuel consumption at slower rates of blowing on two furnaces in spite of higher heat losses per ton of iron. Lower fuel consumption at slow operating rates was due to more complete reduction of the ore that resulted in higher C02 in the top gas and consequently more efficient use of carbon. Kinney3 has reported substantial savings in fuel as a result of crushing and sizing the ore charge. Improvements in practice brought about by sintering magnetite concentrates, flue dust and fine ores have been due to the establishment of conditions favoring more complete reduction of the ore in the upper part of the furnace. The extent to which oxides and fluctuations in composition in pig iron affect the quality of steel and finished product needs further study. There is evidence that more thorough preheating and reduction of the ore in the upper part of the furnace tend to give a better quality of iron. Bogatzkii4 found from laboratory work that the amount of oxygen enter-

Jan 1, 1936

By Frank Firmstone

In the summer of 1842 my father, William Firmstone, was engaged by Charles Jackson, Jr., of Boston, to examine the conditions in the Lehigh valley as a site for blast-furnaces using anthracite for fuel. In consequence of his report, he was further engaged by Mr. Jackson to build a furnace for him and his partners on the Lehigh canal, 2 miles above the mouth of the river at Easton. Work was begun in the fall of 1842, and the first furnace blown-in in 1844. The history of the works, therefore, from 1844 to 1887, when my own connection with them ceased, covers only four years less than the whole period of the rise, culmination, and commencement of the decline in the smelting of iron with anthracite in America, the beginning of which, in a commercial sense, may be put in 1839.' Although this paper, as the title indicates, is concerned almost exclusively with the furnaces at Glendon, still what was done there was more or less influenced by current opinion in the district, and even reflects, to some extent, the changes in opinion and practice with mineral fuel the world over. No. 1 Furnace was built of red brick, on four piers, had three tuyeres and fore-hearth and tymp, as was universal with furnaces using mineral fuel until the introduction of Lurmann's cinder-tuyere. The dimensions and profile are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The first hearth (Fig. 1) was of sandstone; all after were of fire-brick (Fig. 2). The profile was no doubt derived directly from Gibbons's furnace,2 for it appears from W. Firmstone's note-books that in October, 1840, he visited " Gibbons' new furnaces building at Corbyn Hall," and I have an old drawing,

Jan 1, 1910

By Heinrich Ries

With the rapid development of Canadian industries calling for the use of fire-brick for the lining of furnaces or cement-kilns, for constructing brick-kilns or coke-ovens, for lead-furnaces, etc., the question has often arisen whether the provirices within the Dominion have not the necessary raw materials for the manufacture of such refractory wares. As an indication for the need of such products in Canada, me find that the imports in 1910 amounted in value to $519,454. The materials came in part from Great Britain, and part from the United States. Those supplied by the latter country are obtained largely from Pennsylvania and Ohio, and when shipped to distant points, such as British Columbia, the item of transportation is a serious factor. Scotch fire-brick is used both in eastern and western Canada, but in the latter case the shipments are made by water route to Vancouver. During the past four years I have been investigating the clay-deposits of Canada, for the Canadian Geological Survey, and while all types of clay have been included in the study, special pains have been taken to ascertain the occurrence of refractory clays. As a result of this work we are able to report on the existence of beds of refractory clays at the followiug localities: Inverness and Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia; St. Remi, d'Amherst, Quebec; Dirt Hills and Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan; Sumas Mountain, near Clayburn, B. C., and Kyuquot, on northwestern Vancouver Island. A map of Canada, showing the fire-clay deposits, is given in Fig. 1. It is possible that other deposits may be discovered in the future in districts remotely located from the present lines of railroad.

Jan 1, 1914

By Alexandre Pourcel

The phenomena of liquation in steel or iron ingots of all sizes, but naturally to greatest extent in the heaviest ingots, have been noticed ever since the commencement on a large scale of the Besse mer and open-hearth manufactures; but they have been studied with care during the last few years only. The English and the Ameri cans were the first to publish the results of investigation upon phe nomena of this clam, to which they have given the name of segregation. Historical. Passing by that which has been written concerning the segregation observed in gray pig-iron, of which instances were given by Karsten, we shall confine ourselves here to that which is known of this subject with exclusive reference to ingot steel and iron. Mr. H. M. Howe, of Boston, in his Metallurgy of Steel, the most complete and well-arranged treatise upon steel, gives a resume of observations, with the results of numerous analyses, bearing upon the phenomena of segregation. According to Tchernoff (with whom we discussed this question at length in 1878, in connection with the cast-steel plates of large dimensions designed for the Italian fleet, which we showed him at Terre-Noire), Kalakoutsky called attention in 1866 to the lack of homogeneity in Bessemer ingots, especially when cast in sand. Our own attention had been called to the phenomena of liquation in 1868 by a somewhat surprising fact which appeared in almost every one of a number of steel-rail ingots coming from the works of Messrs. Pierre and Emile Martin at Sireuil, to be rolled at TerreNoire. In the heating or in the first groove of the rolls, a slice of from 6 to 10 centimeters (2.4 to 3.9 inches) separated itself from the head of each ingot. As a general consequence, the section of

Jan 1, 1894

By J. W. Powell

A Federal statute, enacted several years since, provides for the preparation of a geologic map of the United States. There are three requisites for a geologic map. The first is a suitable base- or surface-map upon which the rock-formations may be platted by means of conventions ; the second is a classification of the rocks and formations, and the third is a system of conventions by which the rocks and formations may be represented on the map. When the work of the Federal bureau created to prepare the geologic map was commenced, a topographic survey of the country was undertaken for the purpose of making maps suitable for the use of geologists in the field and for the representation of the geology; and this work has ever since been continued. The surveys have now extended over about one-fifth of the national domain, and are mapped on a series of atlas-sheets, each constituting a section of the great map of the United States. About 700 of these atlas-sheets are completed. They are in extended use among engineers, miners, prospectors, map-publishers and educators, and are thus widely known; moreover, these base-maps have been exhibited, described and discussed at meetings of the Institute, and thus do not require detailed consideration. Classification of Bocks and Formations. Modern classification is designed to express natural relation. In the beginning of observational science, or natural science, objects were discriminated and grouped by differences and resemblances; but at first the differences and resemblances recognized in the classification were external, even superficia1,'and often confined to single features. Later, groups of features and characteristics, both external and internal, were recognized as the basis of classification ; and of recent years, throughout the entire domain of biology, and to a considerable extent in the kindred sciences, classification is based not

Jan 1, 1893