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By Fred E. Beasley

Metallurgists have, in the last ten years, overcome many difficulties of high zinc in lead blast-furnace slags. This problem was brought to the front at the close of the war, by the price obtained for lead and the high cost of labor, fuel, and flux. The Port Pirie plant of the Broken Hill Associated Smelters, Australia, early in 1919 had increased the zinc oxide in its blast-furnace slags from 13.5 to 20 per cent., at the same time reducing the iron oxide in the slag from 33.5 to 25.6 per cent. These results were obtained by the addition of 10 to 12 per cent. granulated slag to the roaster charge, improved conditions of the crushing, mixing, and roasting of the constituents of the sinter. By experiments and improvements, the practice at this plant has developed a normal slag that carries 22 per cent. zinc oxide, and at times runs as high as 33 per cent. zinc oxide, with only slight furnace trouble. The granulated slag is used not only as a diluent to the sulfur in the roaster charge, but on account of its value as a slag-forming material and the physical properties it imparts to the finished sinter. The ore is mixed with flux and given a double roast. All the first roasting is by sintering with the Dwight & Lloyd machines. The final roasting is performed partly by Dwight & Lloyd machines and partly by H. & H. pots. The charge to the blast furnace consists chiefly of the final sinter, slag shells, siliceous and non-bearing sulfur lead ores. High blast and ore columns are the practice. The greatest care is taken to obtain in the final sinter as low a sulfur content as possible. Attracted by the success of the Port Pirie plant, The Consolidated Mining & Smelting Co. of Canada, at Trail, B. C., in 1920 treated its crushed primary sinter with about 15 per cent. granulated slag. The Trail smelter at this time was short of ore and a large part of the charge to the roasters consisted of the zinc-plant residue having the following analysis: 12 to 16 per cent. lead, 12 to 16 per cent. zinc, and 25 to 30 per cent. iron. The lead in the final sinter was low and the physical condition was so bad that all the sinter had to be screened before it could be charged to the blast furnace. Also it disintegrated on being trammed and dumped

Jan 1, 1925

By P. W. Neurath, R. E. Waite

INFORMATION is available on the effect of stress on permeability, coercive force, and hysteresis for a variety of materials' but for the technically important grain-oriented 3 pct Si-Fe' the stress effects are not adequately covered in the literature; in addition, most of the stress data do not permit estimation of what would happen to the 60 cycle watt losses of the material under stress. Direct measurement of these effects therefore has been made and appears to be of considerable theoretical as well as practical interest. Losses were measured on the central 25 cm portion of 40~3~0.035 cm samples which could be stressed in a small tensile machine built for this purpose. Under tension the following effects, illustrated in the figures by a particular example, were observed: 1—"Unstrained" material of commercially acceptable loss level shows no change or a small increase in loss at low elastic stresses. For the sample shown in the figures, this is illustrated during the initial run, where a 7 pct increase is observed (Fig. 1). 2—There is no additional change in loss when the sample is further strained up to the elastic limit (Fig. 1). Within that limit the loss-stress curve is reversible. This is not illustrated in Fig. 1. 3—Even in the plastic range only small increases in loss are observed as long as the sample is kept under stress (Fig. 2, point N); often no increase can be observed (Fig. 1). 4—A large increase in watt losses is observed after removal of the stress subsequent to plastic deformation (Figs. 1 and 2). 5—All, or nearly all, of the foregoing increase in loss due to plastic deformation can be eliminated by a reapplication of tensile stress but returns upon removal of this stress. This is illustrated in the third run (Fig. 3). This run remains within the elastic limit and shows the reversibility of the stress-loss curve under this condition. These findings have been confirmed on large Samples (approximately 200~10~0.035 cm and larger) except that under 1 no initial increase in loss was ever observed on these. The accuracy of the watt loss measurements is of the order of 1 pct. Neither bending of the sample in the tensioning device nor a redistribution of flux along the width of the sample accounts for these results. They therefore must be explained on the basis of either a change in the domain configuration due to stress or a change in the domain wall mobility. Acknowledgment The assistance of Mr. Robert L. TenBroeck with the instrumentation is gratefully acknowledged.

Jan 1, 1956

By D. V. Carter, Dan C. Williams, John R. Coombs

Exploration was active in East and East Central Texas during 1944. Ten oil fields were discovered during the year, of which four show promise of development. The discovery wells of the Sand Flat and Tyler, South fields were drilled to a depth greater than 10,000 ft., and the latter field now produces from the Pettit at a depth of 9890 ft. The Sand Flat well was plugged back to the Paluxy. The other two fields are Glen Rose producers near 8000 ft. The Pickton field produces from the Bacon Lime and Winnsboro from the Rodessa section. The Eylau field, Bowie County, was significant as the first Smackover production in Texas. Magnolia drilled a test in the Concord field, which topped salt. The most extensive and significant development in the district was the Carthage gas-condensate field. It expanded from the 8000 acres of last year to an estimated 190,000 acres, or about 300 sq. miles, and is not defined as yet. The first oil production in the Carthage area was made from the Travis Peak in 1944 in the Rogers Lacy's Cameron Lumber Company well No. I, on the northwestern side of the field. The New Hope field, Franklin County, scored the largest number of completions during 1944 with 24, bringing its total number of wells to 27. Two more pays were opened and produced as dual completions with the older horizons. The Manziel field, Wood County, had 19 new wells added during the year, for a total of 29, while the Pittsburgh field, Camp County, reached a total of 23 wells by completing 14 new ones. Material shortages and drilling restrictions dropped the total number of producing wells completed in the district from 171 during 1943 to 141 for 1944. Abandonments increased from 531 during 1943 to 609 for 1944. Of this number, 479 were in the East Texas field. Subsidy payments had very little effect in the district and it was mostly a few of the old fault-line fields that had any wells to fall within the requirements for subsidy payments. The prices of crude oil remained constant in the district except for increases as a result of subsidy payments. Production and Probation Wartime demands called for increased allowables for many fields, consequently the condensate and oil production for 1944 increased to 190,016,180, which is up 6.9 per cent over 1943. The East Texas field, of course, remained the principal producer of the district, accounting for 134,768'499 bbl. during the year, or 71 per cent of the district total production of condensate and oil. The field topped its own 1943 production by 4.8 per cent and became the first field in the world to produce 2 billion barrels of oil. The Hawkins field remained the second largest oil producer in the district, with 13,317,088 bbl. for the year, a drop of 6.8 per cent from 1943, while Van field was third with 11,635,708 bbl. The

Jan 1, 1945

By Thomas Fraser, H. F. Yancey

PRIOR to the war just ended, Germany was the greatest coal producer in continental Europe. In 1943 the production of coal, bituminous and higher in rank, together with brown coal calculated to the equivalent amount of bituminous coal, is estimated to have been about 240 million metric tons, according to the War Department. Before the war production in Germany exceeded consumption. No other country in continental Europe except Poland had a large surplus. However, England's surplus was the largest in Europe as a whole. Before World War II the Ruhr Basin normally supplied about 70 pct of the total production of high-rank coal, the Saar and Aachen about 6 pct each, Upper Silesia about 14 pct, and Silesia and Saxony the remainder. Nearly one third of the brown coal was produced in the Rhineland, a little less than one half in central Germany west of the Elbe River, and about one fourth east of the Elbe. Bituminous coal and brown coal together constituted by far the most important energy resources of the old German Reich. Bituminous coal furnished nearly 70 pct of the total energy requirement, brown coal supplied about 25 pct, and water power, wood, petroleum and alcohol together aggregated only 7 pct. Because it was the most important single mineral resource of Germany, an excess of coal enabled the Reich to import nearly all the other mineral products that she lacked, such as iron ore from Lorraine. The area adjacent to the coal fields was supplied with gas from an interconnected grid. Similar electric grids are based on brown coal with the power stations at the mines. Coal tar provided the foundation for the development of the extensive German chemical industries as exemplified by the I. G. Farbenindustrie. For almost a century, German scientists have been adequately supported both by the State and by industry in studying improved methods of utilizing coal. In Germany the mineral rights were reserved by the State and ordered extraction of coal was enforced. Each lease comprised a relatively extensive area, which accounts for the generally large size of the mines and mining companies. In 1938 there were 160 mines in the Ruhr, with a total output of 125 million tons but go pct of the production was controlled by 20 companies. By far the largest single coal-mining company in Germany was the Gelsenkirchener Bergwerke A. G., which produced nearly 27 million tons in the Ruhr in 1937. Second was Saargruben A. G., a State-owned company operating in the Saar, which produced more than 13 million tons. Third was Bergwerksgesellschaft Hibernia A. G., with 10 million tons, also in the Ruhr. Briquettes are made from both bituminous coal and brown coal, but in 1938

Jan 1, 1946

By John M. Kelly

New Mexico produced 31,913,816 bbl. of oil in 1942, the lowest annual production since 1936, and dropped one place to rank eighth among oil-producing states. This production decreased 7,838,052 bbl., or 19.71 per cent, from the 1941 figure is the result of transportation difficulties caused by the dislocation of tanker sailings to east coast ports. The average per-well allowable in New Mexico on Jan. I, 1942, was 43 bbl. and at the end of the year was 38 bbl. Allocations as set by the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission followed the recommendations of the Petroleum Administrator for War. After setting the daily outlet, however, the average daily pipe-line runs were 87,545 bbl.—11.06 per cent short of these allocations. Production for Lea County was 26,812,949 bbl., Eddy County 4,624,578 bbl., northwestern New Mexico 473,609 bbl., Chaves County 2,680 barrels. Drilling activity for New Mexico in 1942 was approximately 84 per cent of that in 1941 with 339 completions. Of these completions 254 were oil wells, II gas wells, and 74 dry holes. Proven fields accounted for 55 of the dry holes and 19 were wildcats. Three new oil fields and one new gas field were discovered as the result of wildcat drilling. Extensions were made to one oil field and one gas field. By the close of the year, the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission had designated 59 areas as proven for oil and/or gas. Southeastern New Mexico Lea County Monument was again the largest producing field in the state, with 5,729,336 bbl.; Eunice was next, with 5,217,965; Vacuum produced 3,295,624 and Hobbs 2,973,488. The Hobbs field has the largest accumulated production, which at the close of 1942 totaled 100,381,417 bbl. The 100-million-barrel mark for Hobbs focused attention on the fact that this is the first field in the state to attain this figure, and also that, as Hobbs has been under continuous proration since July 1930, or approximately the entire life of the field, this 100-million-barrel recovery was obtained with 86 per cent of the wells in the pool still flowing and having a drop in bottom-hole pressure of only 3.5 Ib. per million barrels recovered. Hobbs stands out as perhaps the best regulated major oil field in the world. Two new oil fields were discovered in Lca County, the most inlportant being the area designated as East Lusk, consisting of the south 4 tiers of Sections in T. 19 S., R. 32 E. The discovery well was drilled in the SW. SW. 1/4 of sec. 21, T. 19 S., R. 32 E., by Culbertson and Irwin, Inc., and others. It was completed at a total depth of 2751 ft. in the Seven Rivers formation of Permian age. The initial potential of the well was 237 bbl. per day on pump. The oil produced has a gravity of 24.10 A.P.I., with sulphur content of 0.9 per cent. This oil has an asphaltic base and because

Jan 1, 1943

By John M. Kelly

New Mexico produced 31,913,816 bbl. of oil in 1942, the lowest annual production since 1936, and dropped one place to rank eighth among oil-producing states. This production decreased 7,838,052 bbl., or 19.71 per cent, from the 1941 figure is the result of transportation difficulties caused by the dislocation of tanker sailings to east coast ports. The average per-well allowable in New Mexico on Jan. I, 1942, was 43 bbl. and at the end of the year was 38 bbl. Allocations as set by the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission followed the recommendations of the Petroleum Administrator for War. After setting the daily outlet, however, the average daily pipe-line runs were 87,545 bbl.—11.06 per cent short of these allocations. Production for Lea County was 26,812,949 bbl., Eddy County 4,624,578 bbl., northwestern New Mexico 473,609 bbl., Chaves County 2,680 barrels. Drilling activity for New Mexico in 1942 was approximately 84 per cent of that in 1941 with 339 completions. Of these completions 254 were oil wells, II gas wells, and 74 dry holes. Proven fields accounted for 55 of the dry holes and 19 were wildcats. Three new oil fields and one new gas field were discovered as the result of wildcat drilling. Extensions were made to one oil field and one gas field. By the close of the year, the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission had designated 59 areas as proven for oil and/or gas. Southeastern New Mexico Lea County Monument was again the largest producing field in the state, with 5,729,336 bbl.; Eunice was next, with 5,217,965; Vacuum produced 3,295,624 and Hobbs 2,973,488. The Hobbs field has the largest accumulated production, which at the close of 1942 totaled 100,381,417 bbl. The 100-million-barrel mark for Hobbs focused attention on the fact that this is the first field in the state to attain this figure, and also that, as Hobbs has been under continuous proration since July 1930, or approximately the entire life of the field, this 100-million-barrel recovery was obtained with 86 per cent of the wells in the pool still flowing and having a drop in bottom-hole pressure of only 3.5 Ib. per million barrels recovered. Hobbs stands out as perhaps the best regulated major oil field in the world. Two new oil fields were discovered in Lca County, the most inlportant being the area designated as East Lusk, consisting of the south 4 tiers of Sections in T. 19 S., R. 32 E. The discovery well was drilled in the SW. SW. 1/4 of sec. 21, T. 19 S., R. 32 E., by Culbertson and Irwin, Inc., and others. It was completed at a total depth of 2751 ft. in the Seven Rivers formation of Permian age. The initial potential of the well was 237 bbl. per day on pump. The oil produced has a gravity of 24.10 A.P.I., with sulphur content of 0.9 per cent. This oil has an asphaltic base and because

Jan 1, 1943

HAVING previously told you about lodestone, azure, emery, and manganese, things that perhaps belong more properly to the stones than to the metals, the desire has come to me to describe rock crystal as well and, with this, some of the better-known gems, although they are things that are not classified with metals, as far as I know, or even with the serniminerals. In truth, they are neither one nor the other, but they are stones and have the nature of stones. But let them be what they may, in order to avoid straying from the subject we have begun, we shall say that they have mineral properties in their species, as for instance, in respect to their colors. It would seem an error to me if, while I am giving you information on so many other useful things, I did not give you this as well, if for no other reason than because it is a fine accomplishment for a gentleman to have some knowledge concerning gems. Thus since I have proposed to do this, beginning to speak of crystal, I tell you that it is a lustrous, transparent, and limpid stone, composed by Nature with a predominance of wateriness. Thus, contrary to the order of natural things, it has been believed by many that Nature has generated it of pure water by means of a powerful and continuous coldness that always exists in those mountains and places where it is found, for the waters and snows can never melt there because of the great cold. They have tried to prove this opinion of theirs by saying that crystal still retains the nature of frozen water, and that this is. shown not only in its appearance but also in the fact that, like ice, it floats without sinking to the bottom when it is put in water. They also say that it is customary to put it under the tongues of the thirsty on account of the, coldness and moistness which it gives, and that it quenches the dryness of their thirst. But even if all these things were true, as they are not, they do not upon consideration bring us to the conclusion that it is water, because the diamond and the beryl would do the same. Therefore it does not seem to me credible [391 that it is as they claim, for it is a stone generated as such by Nature. And then, if this were true in those places where it rains often and many snows are formed, and these should freeze and never melt but

Jan 1, 1942

By Ralph E. Esarey, George V. Cohee

In Indiana, 349 wells were drilled for oil and gas in the year 1942. Of this number, 125 oil wells and 21 gas wells were successfully completed and 203 were dry holes. Drilling activity declined 37 per cent as compared with that of the year 1941. This reduction was brought about largely by Federal Conservation Order M-68, restricting drilling to one well on 40 acres, in order to save steel. This Order was later supplemented to permit closer spacing of wells drilled to sandstone formations in southwestern Indiana. Most of the drilling in 1942 was in the southwestern part of the state. Posey County ranked first, with 94 completions and 44 producers; Gibson County, second, with 77 completions and 38 producing oil wells and 2 gas wells. There were 58 drilling operations in the state at the end of the year. During 1942 a total of 589,734 ft. of hole was drilled, of which 231,702 ft. was wildcat footage. The total initial production of the oil wells completed was 9974 bbl. and of the gas wells, 11,148,000 cu. ft. (Table 2). Of the 349 wells completed, 122 were wildcat wells (Table 3); 26 were completed as oil wells; 17 were extensions to proven fields and 9 discovered new pools. Posey County was foremost in wildcat drilling, with 37 wells completed (Table 6). Thirty-five per cent of the wells drilled in 1942 were wildcat, as compared with 25.5 per cent in 1941. It is anticipated that the percentage of wildcat wells drilled in 1943 will be greater, although the total number ol ,wells drilled in the state will probably be less. The new discoveries in Indiana in I942 were, for the most part, one-well pools in the southwestern part—in Posey, Gibson and Spencer Counties (Table 4). Most of the development in pools took place in the . Hazelton and Kirksville pools in Gibson County, Mr. Vernon pool in Posey County and the Vernon Heights pool in Vander-burgh County. Deeper production was obtained from the Osage limestone in the Hazelton pool at a depth of 2402 ft., 650 ft. below the productive McClosky limestone. The well had an initial production of 140 barrels. Extensions to 17 pools in the southwestern part of the state were successfully completed (Table 5). An interesting development during 1942 was new production from the Devonian limestone in the Dodds Bridge pool, Sullivan County. The Ohio Oil Co. deepened one of its wells, which had been producing from a shallow sand, to the,Devonian, and it was completed for an initial production of 77 bbl. Five other Devonian producing wells were completed in that area. Crude-oil production in Indiana in 1942 was 6,609,000 bbl. (Table I). The Griffin field, Gibson and Posey Counties, which produced approximately 3,550,000 bbl., accounted for more than half of the state's production. The Mt, Vernon and New Harmony fields were next in importance of production, with 684,000 and 523,000 bbl., respectively. The price of crude oil was $1.22 a barrel for the old

Jan 1, 1943

By George V. Cohee, Ralph E. Esarey

In Indiana, 349 wells were drilled for oil and gas in the year 1942. Of this number, 125 oil wells and 21 gas wells were successfully completed and 203 were dry holes. Drilling activity declined 37 per cent as compared with that of the year 1941. This reduction was brought about largely by Federal Conservation Order M-68, restricting drilling to one well on 40 acres, in order to save steel. This Order was later supplemented to permit closer spacing of wells drilled to sandstone formations in southwestern Indiana. Most of the drilling in 1942 was in the southwestern part of the state. Posey County ranked first, with 94 completions and 44 producers; Gibson County, second, with 77 completions and 38 producing oil wells and 2 gas wells. There were 58 drilling operations in the state at the end of the year. During 1942 a total of 589,734 ft. of hole was drilled, of which 231,702 ft. was wildcat footage. The total initial production of the oil wells completed was 9974 bbl. and of the gas wells, 11,148,000 cu. ft. (Table 2). Of the 349 wells completed, 122 were wildcat wells (Table 3); 26 were completed as oil wells; 17 were extensions to proven fields and 9 discovered new pools. Posey County was foremost in wildcat drilling, with 37 wells completed (Table 6). Thirty-five per cent of the wells drilled in 1942 were wildcat, as compared with 25.5 per cent in 1941. It is anticipated that the percentage of wildcat wells drilled in 1943 will be greater, although the total number ol ,wells drilled in the state will probably be less. The new discoveries in Indiana in I942 were, for the most part, one-well pools in the southwestern part—in Posey, Gibson and Spencer Counties (Table 4). Most of the development in pools took place in the . Hazelton and Kirksville pools in Gibson County, Mr. Vernon pool in Posey County and the Vernon Heights pool in Vander-burgh County. Deeper production was obtained from the Osage limestone in the Hazelton pool at a depth of 2402 ft., 650 ft. below the productive McClosky limestone. The well had an initial production of 140 barrels. Extensions to 17 pools in the southwestern part of the state were successfully completed (Table 5). An interesting development during 1942 was new production from the Devonian limestone in the Dodds Bridge pool, Sullivan County. The Ohio Oil Co. deepened one of its wells, which had been producing from a shallow sand, to the,Devonian, and it was completed for an initial production of 77 bbl. Five other Devonian producing wells were completed in that area. Crude-oil production in Indiana in 1942 was 6,609,000 bbl. (Table I). The Griffin field, Gibson and Posey Counties, which produced approximately 3,550,000 bbl., accounted for more than half of the state's production. The Mt, Vernon and New Harmony fields were next in importance of production, with 684,000 and 523,000 bbl., respectively. The price of crude oil was $1.22 a barrel for the old

Jan 1, 1943

By W. E. Horst

John Dasher (Central Research Laboratory, Crucible Steel Co. of America, Pittsburgh. Pa.)— Getting spodumene to float quickly and cleanly can be a problem. The author has presented an excellent account of a valid and useful approach to the scale-up of such problem floats. This indicated advantages for doubling retention time, i.e., buying another set of flotation cells. The author states that 21 pct of the spodumene floated in 2 min in the laboratory cell, that the grade of the rougher was about 75 pct spodumene, and that the final tailing contained 4 to 12 pct spodumene in different sizes with the present cells and 1 to 9 pct spodumene with twice as many cells. About 20 years ago, this writer obtained in the laboratory the flotation of over 90 pct of this spodumene in a King's Mountain sample in 1 min at a grade of 90 pct spodumene in the rougher and a final tailing that contained only 1 pct spodumene. The methods of Norman, Ralston," and Gieseke' were used, which teach that spodumene floats quickly and cleanly if its surfaces have been properly conditioned chemically and/or mechanically prior to flotation. Although feed preparation is not discussed, the results reported indicate that it is inadequate. This writer suggests that improvements in this area might be more effective than doubling the number of cells. W. E. Horst (author's reply)—Dasher's comments are appreciated by the author and require some clarification. He suggests that improved spodumene flotation performance may be obtained by feed preparation techniques rather than increased retention time in flotation. Certainly flotation performance is dependent on feed preparation and this is an important feature in the flotation process. It is true that certain types of spodumene ores, particularly weathered ores, require more complicated feed preparation processing than clean ores to achieve the desired flotation results. It was not implied that current feed preparation techniques are the same as experienced during the scale-up investigations. Although discussion of feed preparation was omitted from the article on scale-up relationships, the important feature was that pre-treatment processing was the same for each level of operation investigated— laboratory, pilot plant, and plant scale. Under these similar conditions large differences existed in recovery for comparable time intervals in each scale of operation. It is highly probable that feed preparation techniques could be modified and thereby increase the flotation rate for each scale or all scales of operation discussed. However, modifications would have to be justified on an economic basis.

Jan 1, 1960

By C. A. Hartnagel

The production of petroleum in New York state in 1942 amounted to 5,410,000 bbl. This represents an increase over each of the four preceding years, and, with the exception of 1937, is the largest production since the peak of over six million barrels in 1882, shortly after the discovery of oil in Allegany County. The oil industry in New York is virtually stabilized and there has been little or no exploration for new sources of supply in recent years. The boundaries of the present fields were established more than 30 years ago and since then no additional reserves have been found. Deep drilling for natural gas during the past 10 years both within and without the oil fields has failed to find oil in quantity below the present producing sands of Devonian age. Oil Since 1882, the New York fields have produced approximately 140 million barrels of oil. Of this amount, 65 million was produced up to the year 1919 by ordinary pumping methods; that is, without flooding by water or the use of other secondary-recovery methods. In the year 1919, when a law was passed making the use of water-flooding methods legal, the oil production, of the state amounted to only 851,000 bbl. In the 23 years since 1919, there have been produced in the state 75 million barrels, or 10 million more than in the previous 37 years, which included the period of flush production. Price.—On March 26, the price of crude oil was raised from $2.75 to $3.00 per barrel, hut this increase had little or no effect on the number of wells drilled. In the Allegany field, which accounts for three fourths of the state's oil production, 1259 wells were completed in 1942, 7 less than in 1941. The smaller number of wells drilled was not only due to the shortage of labor but also was caused by the fact that in water-flooding territory a definite program for drilling wells is followed, and the flush period of an oil well is not usually reached in time to profit by any given price increase. Daily Production.—All of the oil wells in New York state, some 21,000 in number, are small producers. The average daily oil production is 7/10 bbl. per well. Under good flooding conditions, a maximum production of 5 to 8 bbl, a day is reached about one year after the flood begins to act on the well. In 5 years the daily production usually is less than one barrel. Although most of the oil in New York is produced by flooding, an estimated 2500 old wells produce without flooding. Some of these produce as little as 1/20 bbl. a day and are pumped only at intervals. The small producing Wells are mostly on lands leased to the larger oil companies and later will be included in a flooding program. At present, they are pumped only because the owners of the land insist on the royalty. Government Aid Needed.—Because of its good lubricating qualities, New York oil is one of those for which there is an insistent and growing demand, but even at its present price of $3.00 per barrel, many of the operators are producing at a loss.

Jan 1, 1943

By C. A. Hartnagel

The production of petroleum in New York state in 1942 amounted to 5,410,000 bbl. This represents an increase over each of the four preceding years, and, with the exception of 1937, is the largest production since the peak of over six million barrels in 1882, shortly after the discovery of oil in Allegany County. The oil industry in New York is virtually stabilized and there has been little or no exploration for new sources of supply in recent years. The boundaries of the present fields were established more than 30 years ago and since then no additional reserves have been found. Deep drilling for natural gas during the past 10 years both within and without the oil fields has failed to find oil in quantity below the present producing sands of Devonian age. Oil Since 1882, the New York fields have produced approximately 140 million barrels of oil. Of this amount, 65 million was produced up to the year 1919 by ordinary pumping methods; that is, without flooding by water or the use of other secondary-recovery methods. In the year 1919, when a law was passed making the use of water-flooding methods legal, the oil production, of the state amounted to only 851,000 bbl. In the 23 years since 1919, there have been produced in the state 75 million barrels, or 10 million more than in the previous 37 years, which included the period of flush production. Price.—On March 26, the price of crude oil was raised from $2.75 to $3.00 per barrel, hut this increase had little or no effect on the number of wells drilled. In the Allegany field, which accounts for three fourths of the state's oil production, 1259 wells were completed in 1942, 7 less than in 1941. The smaller number of wells drilled was not only due to the shortage of labor but also was caused by the fact that in water-flooding territory a definite program for drilling wells is followed, and the flush period of an oil well is not usually reached in time to profit by any given price increase. Daily Production.—All of the oil wells in New York state, some 21,000 in number, are small producers. The average daily oil production is 7/10 bbl. per well. Under good flooding conditions, a maximum production of 5 to 8 bbl, a day is reached about one year after the flood begins to act on the well. In 5 years the daily production usually is less than one barrel. Although most of the oil in New York is produced by flooding, an estimated 2500 old wells produce without flooding. Some of these produce as little as 1/20 bbl. a day and are pumped only at intervals. The small producing Wells are mostly on lands leased to the larger oil companies and later will be included in a flooding program. At present, they are pumped only because the owners of the land insist on the royalty. Government Aid Needed.—Because of its good lubricating qualities, New York oil is one of those for which there is an insistent and growing demand, but even at its present price of $3.00 per barrel, many of the operators are producing at a loss.

Jan 1, 1943

By P. E. Doherty, R. S. Davis

Sub boundaries and micropores, as well as certain other imperfections, may be revealed in aluminum by the formation of pits on the surface during cooling from elevated temperatures. The pits are attributed to the condensation of vacancies from supersaturated solution. This "vacancy pit" phenomenon has been used as an etching technique for studying the structure of aluminum specimens grown from the melt. Three fundamental structures were studied: stria-tions, cells, and dendrites. Two types of striations, as well as a crosswise structure are reported. Mic-roporosity is observed to occur in the cell walls on freezing. Subboundaries between primary, secondary, and tertiary branches are observed in dendritic growth. A special case is cited in which cellular growth suppresses the formation of striations. SMALL, well-defined pits have been observed to form on the surfaces of electropolished aluminum specimens during cooling from elevated temperatures.' This phenomenon was attributed to the condensation, from supersaturated solution, of vacancies at particular points on the surface. It was shown that the amount of cooling required for the formation of pits increased exponentially with decreasing holding temperatures in a way that was consistent with the thesis that a critical supersaturation of vacancies was required for the pits to form. Pits do not form in the vicinity of certain imperfections, namely, subgrain or normal graind boundaries, phase boundaries, certain surface irregularities, and pores. The width of the pit-free region increases with decreasing cooling rate. This observation suggests that the imperfections in question are effective sinks for vacancies and that the pit-free region around them is material that is not sufficiently supersaturated with respect to vacancies to nucleate the surface pits during cooling.

Jan 1, 1962

By F. R. Hensel

THE absorption of oxygen by molten metals is a quick and convincing method to determine the metallurgical characteristics of various types of furnaces.1 The investigation was restricted to the use of coreless induction furnaces. A major variable in induction furnace practice is the frequency and its influence was studied by comparing melts made in a 5000-cycle and a 60-cycle induction furnace respectively.2 The authors are not aware that such a comparative study has been made before and therefore present this paper in the belief that the results will be of general interest. ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF OXYGEN IN NICKEL An analytical procedure for determining NiO by a quick and simple, laboratory method has been worked out in collaboration with Dr. Herty, of the Pittsburgh Station of the Bureau of Mines. It was found that Dr. Herty's aluminum method as used for the. determination of FeO in iron and steel was very suitable for use with nickel if instead of hydrochloric acid a 10 per cent solution of nitric acid is used for bringing the metal into solution. Essentially this method involves deoxidizing the nickel-oxygen alloy with aluminum (2Al + 3NiO = Al203 + 3Ni) and determining the resulting Al203 by a residue analysis. The original oxygen content can then be calculated from the amount of Al-20,. The method as suggested by Dr. Herty3 is referred to in the present paper as method B. A slight modification of method Bled to the application of method A, a description of which is given below according to F. W. Beiter?:3

Jan 1, 1932

By C. A. Hartnagel

The production of petroleum in New York in 1940, totaling 4,999,000 bbl., was only slightly under the amount produced in each of the previous three years. The year 1940 started auspiciously with a posted price on Jan. I of $2.75 a barrel. Four price reductions, beginning in May, resulted in August in a low of $1.85 a barrel, after which two increases brought the year's closing price to $2.15 a barrel. The favorable crude price at the beginning of the year stimulated an increased drilling program, especially in the water-flooding districts. In the Allegany County region, which accounts for about two-thirds of the state's oil production, 886 wells, including water-intake wells, were drilled; 200 more than in the preceding Year. During the closing months of the Year there was a marked decline in the number of wells drilled. The unfavorable position in which the industry found itself before midsummer was due largely to the loss of export markets for its high-grade lubricants, constituting approximately 25 per cent of its business. As a result of this situation, runs to refineries were curtailed as much as 30 Per cent at the middle of the Year. Improvement in market conditions toward the end of the Year found the stocks of available crude at an almost record low. Deep DRILLING with the gradual exhaustion of some of the important natural and flood-oil-produc-ing areas of the Allegany and Bradford pools, overproduction will not be a serious problem in the future. The possibility of finding new territory or deeper producing sands has been further lessened by the drilling of additional deep wells for gas in and about the present oil fields. Many of these wells drilled to the Oriskany sand-stone were over 4000 ft. deep and have tested the entire thickness of the Devonian formation, the upper 2000 ft. of which contain all the important oil-producing strata in the state. Water-flooding It is thus evident that the problem of the New york oil producers is not one of find-ing new supplies but of obtaining as much 6 oil as possible from the old developed fields that during the 60 years of their life have 1 produced I 3o,ooo,ooo bbl. of oil. Although a few floods were in operation before I9I9, when the production of oil by flooding was 1 made legal, the output for that year amounted to only 85I,000 bbl. From 1919 I on there has been an almost constant increase, which during the past four years has averaged well above 5,000,000 bbl. annually. During the last 22 years, which constitutes the period of important flooding operations, 651337,000 bbl. of oil have been produced in the state. Careful estimates indicate that between one-third and one-half of the oil fields are being flooded or are already watered out. Some of the flooded and watered-out areas include territory with unusually thick sands, which were highly productive during the early history of the fields. From a recent study of operations in the New York oil fields, it is estimated that about 65,ooo,oo bbl. of oil

Jan 1, 1941

By C. A. Hartnagel

The production of petroleum in New York in 1940, totaling 4,999,000 bbl., was only slightly under the amount produced in each of the previous three years. The year 1940 started auspiciously with a posted price on Jan. I of $2.75 a barrel. Four price reductions, beginning in May, resulted in August in a low of $1.85 a barrel, after which two increases brought the year's closing price to $2.15 a barrel. The favorable crude price at the beginning of the year stimulated an increased drilling program, especially in the water-flooding districts. In the Allegany County region, which accounts for about two-thirds of the state's oil production, 886 wells, including water-intake wells, were drilled; 200 more than in the preceding Year. During the closing months of the Year there was a marked decline in the number of wells drilled. The unfavorable position in which the industry found itself before midsummer was due largely to the loss of export markets for its high-grade lubricants, constituting approximately 25 per cent of its business. As a result of this situation, runs to refineries were curtailed as much as 30 Per cent at the middle of the Year. Improvement in market conditions toward the end of the Year found the stocks of available crude at an almost record low. Deep DRILLING with the gradual exhaustion of some of the important natural and flood-oil-produc-ing areas of the Allegany and Bradford pools, overproduction will not be a serious problem in the future. The possibility of finding new territory or deeper producing sands has been further lessened by the drilling of additional deep wells for gas in and about the present oil fields. Many of these wells drilled to the Oriskany sand-stone were over 4000 ft. deep and have tested the entire thickness of the Devonian formation, the upper 2000 ft. of which contain all the important oil-producing strata in the state. Water-flooding It is thus evident that the problem of the New york oil producers is not one of find-ing new supplies but of obtaining as much 6 oil as possible from the old developed fields that during the 60 years of their life have 1 produced I 3o,ooo,ooo bbl. of oil. Although a few floods were in operation before I9I9, when the production of oil by flooding was 1 made legal, the output for that year amounted to only 85I,000 bbl. From 1919 I on there has been an almost constant increase, which during the past four years has averaged well above 5,000,000 bbl. annually. During the last 22 years, which constitutes the period of important flooding operations, 651337,000 bbl. of oil have been produced in the state. Careful estimates indicate that between one-third and one-half of the oil fields are being flooded or are already watered out. Some of the flooded and watered-out areas include territory with unusually thick sands, which were highly productive during the early history of the fields. From a recent study of operations in the New York oil fields, it is estimated that about 65,ooo,oo bbl. of oil

Jan 1, 1941

By D. C. Porterfield

-4s a result of world economic conditions brought about by the European war and the consequent loss of European markets for Venezuelan crude, production in Venezuela decreased from 205,433,000 bbl. in 1939 to 186,134,000 bbl. in 1940, or 9.4 per cent. This decline interrupted a steady annual increase in production from the country, which had been continuous since 1932. The Maracaibo Lake Basin in western Venezuela accounted for 135,738,000 bbl. during 1940, or 73 per cent of the total, as against eastern Venezuela's production of 50,396,000 bbl., or 27 per cent of the total for the country. Corresponding figures for 1939 were 167,688,000 bbl., or 82 per cent of the total from the Lake Basin, and 37,744,000 bbl., or 18 per cent from the east. These comparisons indicate the increasing importance of the newer developments in eastern Venezuela, but it is unlikely that production from the east will ever exceed that from the west. In all, 429 new wells were completed in Venezuela during 1940 as compared to 438 in 1939. Of the 1940 completions, 411 were in proved areas and 18 were wildcats; 389 (95 per cent) of the exploitation wells drilled were producers, I was a gas well and 21 were dry holes, while 6 (33 per cent) of the wildcats drilled were producers and 12 (67 per cent) were dry; 263 of the exploitation wells and 4 of the wildcats were in the Maracaibo Lake Basin and 148 exploitation wells and 14 wildcats were in the east, mostly in the State of Anzoategui. Exploration of the light-oil areas in the Tia Juana and Lagunillas fields was con- tinued during the year with favorable results. Along the lake shore, drilling was confined principally to fill-in wells in the La Kosa, Tia Juana, Laguni!las and Bachaquero fields, although some important semi-exploratory drilling was done in the Pueblo Viejo area between Lagunillas and Bachaquero fields. The only other developments of particular interest in the west were the successful completion of a step-out well lying to the south of the former southern limit of Mene Grande field, which adds considerable proved acreage to that field; and the failure of two wildcats that were drilled near the Colombian border to determine whether the productive sands of the Petrolea field in the Barco Concession, Colombia, extend into Venezuelan territory. In the east no new fields were discovered during the year, although five wildcats were completed as producers. Three of these, Guario No. I, Jusepin-56 and LM-I (Leona), discovered important extensions to previously proved areas and the remaining two, Cantos-I and SPN-I (Socororo), were subsequently proved to have tapped productive sands of small extent and operations in these areas have been suspended. The greatest activity in the east was concentrated in the Oficina field, where 105 new wells were completed during the year and production was increased from 22,540 bbl. per day during January 1940 to 57,627 bbl. per day during December 1940. Important development work was also done in the Jusepin. San Joaquin and El Koble fields.

Jan 1, 1941

By D. C. Porterfield

-4s a result of world economic conditions brought about by the European war and the consequent loss of European markets for Venezuelan crude, production in Venezuela decreased from 205,433,000 bbl. in 1939 to 186,134,000 bbl. in 1940, or 9.4 per cent. This decline interrupted a steady annual increase in production from the country, which had been continuous since 1932. The Maracaibo Lake Basin in western Venezuela accounted for 135,738,000 bbl. during 1940, or 73 per cent of the total, as against eastern Venezuela's production of 50,396,000 bbl., or 27 per cent of the total for the country. Corresponding figures for 1939 were 167,688,000 bbl., or 82 per cent of the total from the Lake Basin, and 37,744,000 bbl., or 18 per cent from the east. These comparisons indicate the increasing importance of the newer developments in eastern Venezuela, but it is unlikely that production from the east will ever exceed that from the west. In all, 429 new wells were completed in Venezuela during 1940 as compared to 438 in 1939. Of the 1940 completions, 411 were in proved areas and 18 were wildcats; 389 (95 per cent) of the exploitation wells drilled were producers, I was a gas well and 21 were dry holes, while 6 (33 per cent) of the wildcats drilled were producers and 12 (67 per cent) were dry; 263 of the exploitation wells and 4 of the wildcats were in the Maracaibo Lake Basin and 148 exploitation wells and 14 wildcats were in the east, mostly in the State of Anzoategui. Exploration of the light-oil areas in the Tia Juana and Lagunillas fields was con- tinued during the year with favorable results. Along the lake shore, drilling was confined principally to fill-in wells in the La Kosa, Tia Juana, Laguni!las and Bachaquero fields, although some important semi-exploratory drilling was done in the Pueblo Viejo area between Lagunillas and Bachaquero fields. The only other developments of particular interest in the west were the successful completion of a step-out well lying to the south of the former southern limit of Mene Grande field, which adds considerable proved acreage to that field; and the failure of two wildcats that were drilled near the Colombian border to determine whether the productive sands of the Petrolea field in the Barco Concession, Colombia, extend into Venezuelan territory. In the east no new fields were discovered during the year, although five wildcats were completed as producers. Three of these, Guario No. I, Jusepin-56 and LM-I (Leona), discovered important extensions to previously proved areas and the remaining two, Cantos-I and SPN-I (Socororo), were subsequently proved to have tapped productive sands of small extent and operations in these areas have been suspended. The greatest activity in the east was concentrated in the Oficina field, where 105 new wells were completed during the year and production was increased from 22,540 bbl. per day during January 1940 to 57,627 bbl. per day during December 1940. Important development work was also done in the Jusepin. San Joaquin and El Koble fields.

Jan 1, 1941

By L. G. Truby

This paper presents the results obtained after calculating matches of the observed pressure performance of five fields completed in a common aquifer. A general dejcription of the Central Basin Platform area in West Texas in which the five fields, Andector, Embear, Martin, TXL, and wheeler, are lo. cated is contained in the paper. The method of utilizing the electric analyzer to calculate simultaneously matches of the observed pressure performance of the five fields is outlined. The determination of boundaries of pressure communication is discussed and the extent of pressure interference between fields consistent with the configuration of the area aquifer is shown graphically. INTRODUCTION Anomalies in the pressure performance of the Andeector Ellenhurger Field resulted in an investigation of pressure interference between several Ellenburger fields located on the Central Basin Platform in West Texas. Four fields, Embar, Martin, TXL, and Wheeler, were found to contribute significantly to the pressure drawdown at Andector. An initial investigation of the pressure performance of the Andector Ellenburger Field revealed that the reservoir pressure could not be matched by the calculation technique usually applied to water drive reservoirs. In the past, many have advanced the opinion that fracturing in the Ellenburger was a local condition restricted to the immediate uplifted area around the field, in which case each field would in all probability be surrounded by its own relatively small aquifer. Following several unsuccessful attempts to account for the pressure performance at Andector, a system assuming a common aquifer involving several fields in the immediate vicinity of Andector was placed on the electric analyzer and the effect of lo. interference was noted. A refinement of the initial analyzer calculations involved the determination of the approximate boundaries of the aquifer, the calculation of detailed matches of the pressure performance of the interfering fields, and an evaluation of the degree of communication between fields. DISCUSSION Geology and Development The fields considered in this work are located in the Central Basin Platform, a north-south trending structural feature in West Texas lying between the Delaware Basin to the west and the Midland Basin to the east. The locations of various individual Ellenburger fields in this general are shown in Fig. 1 with the five major fields which appear to be definitely intercommunicating colored in black and located in the circled portion of the figure. Production from the five fields was first obtained from the Embar Field discovered in July 1942, followed by the Wheeler Field in 1943, the TXL Field in 1945, and the Martin and Andector Fields in 1946. The total reservoir fluid production from these fields is indicated in Fig. 2. As illllstrated in this figure, very little production was taken from these fields prior

Jan 1, 1952

By H. M. Warren, E. J. Powell, A. S. Biesecker

In the past, steam engines were used in practically all cases for driving the machinery in and about an anthracite breaker, and hence few or no accurate data were available as to the power requirements for starting and operating the individual machines, which make up the complete equipment. It was impossible to segregate the power necessary to drive each individual machine, first, because the equipment was driven in groups, and second, because it was impracticable to obtain graphic, integrated, or instantaneous records of the horsepower used. As a result of these conditions, it was found, when individual electric motors were applied to the various machines, that more accurate and complete data were needed in order to provide motors of the proper power and design for the particular services to be rendered. In order to obtain the desired information, the writers made and collected a number of tests, from time to time, on the individual motor drives in electrically operated breakers, and as these tests have been of great value, it occurred to them that a paper giving the results might be of service to other engineers interested in similar installations. Table I shows the results of these tests. All the motors tested were of the three-phase, 60-cycle, 440-volt, induction, squirrel-cage type, except a few, which, on account of size and starting conditions, were of the wound-rotor type. The instruments used in making these tests were: An integrating watt-hour meter, a graphic ammeter, and a graphic voltmeter. These instruments were connected in each motor circuit, and a record of a day's run of 9 hours was obtained from each machine. From these tests, the running light load, the average all-day load, and the instantaneous peak readings in amperes, volts, and kilowatt input, were obtained. By means of the characteristic curves obtained from these motors at the factory, the power factor, the efficiency, and the horsepower output were calculated for each particular test. Starting tests were made by the brake-arm method, in which the torque in pounds was measured directly on a spring balance.

Jan 1, 1916