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By H. R. Aldrich

This paper is not a treatise on the theory and practice of magnetic surveying. It presents a diagram upon which have been plotted observations taken with the simplest form of magnetic instrument, the lowly dip needle, over a large area astride the Lake Superior syncline of northern wisconsin. The exposures of the underlying formations are not sufficiently great in number nor fortunate in distribution to have provided the fuller understanding of the geology which has been secured by the use of the magnetic observations as an auxiliary tool or accessory in the hands of the geologist. The diagram (Fig. 2) in large part speaks for itself if studied in connection with the geological map (Fig. 1) for which it is the main control. It is presented to demonstrate the extent to which the use of such methods may aid in the solution of geological problems in a covered country. The diagram is probably unique in assembling the expression of such a wide range of formations, affected by so wide a range of secondary processes, and deformed by so many different structures in terms of magnetic variation. Few geologists outside of the Lake Superior country have had any first-hand experience in the taking of magnetic observations and the interpretation of the results in terms of geological conditions; nor have the Lake Superior men gone with the methods far afield from the mere tracing of iron formations. In more recent years the oil companies have gone heavily into investments in magnetometers, balances, and dip needles in the quest of concealed structural anomalies which are the favorable loci of petroleum accumulation. But these geophysicists come back from the fields with their collections of observations facing the question of interpreting the geological meaning of their magnetic anomalies. It is considered probable therefore, and certainly it is the hope of the writer, that the appended charts, or magnographs, which show how character of the country rock and its changes, structural strike and dip and their changes, depth of burial and its variation, contact metamorphic

Jan 1, 1929

By C. E. Birchenall, W. Batz, H. W. Mean

AT temperatures between 1095' and 1347ºC, 13 runs have been made on the diffusion of silicon in iron. In two of the runs the couple compositions were entirely within the loop of the Fe-Si system; the base alloys contained 0.0 and 1.0 wt pct Si. The other runs in which the couples consisted of a 2.3 wt pct Si alloy welded to a 3.7 pct Si alloy were a phase throughout. The alloys were made by melting electrolytic iron and commercially pure silicon. Trace impurities were not determined. The butt welded couples were diffused in an inert atmosphere of argon or hydrogen. After cooling, cuts of two mils or greater thickness were machined parallel to the weld interface. The chips were analyzed for silicon. When the concentration and distance data were examined on the conventional probability plot,' no marked variation of the diffusion coefficient with concentration was indicated over the narrow composition ranges employed. Therefore, a single diffusion coefficient is recorded for each run in Table I. The temperatures and atmospheres of the diffusion anneal are listed along with the compositions of the base alloys. For a iron the silicon diffusion coefficient is given by the equation: D = 0.44 e-48,000/RT where R is the gas Constant and T, the absolute temperature. However, since the scatter in the data is fairly large, the activation energy may be in error by as much as 6000 cal per g-atom. The two ? iron points do not permit estimation of the activation energy with any reasonable certainty. They do indicate that the coefficients reported by Smithells2 and Jost,3 based on the work of Fry,4 are much too high. Although very dilute solutions in iron of manganese,5 nickel,8 cobalt,7 and molybdenum8 give dif- fusion coefficients quite close to those obtained for self-diffusion in iron, the silicon values are considerably higher, though of the same order of magnitude. This seems to be consistent with the fact that the silicon atom is the only one of those listed here which is appreciably smaller than iron. The authors are grateful to the Office of Naval Research for their support of this work under Contract N6ori-47, Task order IV, Project NR 031-184, to J. K. Stanley and the Westinghouse Research Laboratories for the silicon alloys used, to several steel companies for the silicon analyses, and to C. Wells, of the Metals Research Laboratory, Carnegie Institute of Technology, for numerous suggestions during the course of the work. References 'C. Wells: Atom Movements (1951) Chapter 2. A.S.M. 2C. J. Smithells: Metals Reference Book (1949) p. 405. Interscience. Pub. Co. 3W. Jost: Diffusion (1952) p. 223. Academic Press. 4 A. Fry: Stahl und Eisen (1923) 43, p. 1039. T. Wells and R. F. Mehl: Trans. AIME (1941) 145, p. 315. "C. Wells and R. F. Mehl: Trans. AIME (1941) 145, p. 329. 7M. F. Hawkes and R. F. Mehl: Trans. AIME (1947) 172, p. 467; Metals Technology (August 1947). .J. L. Ham: Trans. A.S.M. (1945) 35, p. 331.

Jan 1, 1953

By George A. Roberts, Robert F. Mehl

When austenite first forms from aggregates of cementite and ferrite, it is not homogeneous.' This inhomogeneity, consisting of both undissolved carbide and carbon concentration gradients, has a profound effect upon the characteristics of the austenite-pearlite reaction. The rate of formation of pearlite is increased by the presence of inhomogeneities2,3 and because of this (when the inhomogeneity is sufficiently pronounced) the hardenability of the steel is reduced.4,5 In addition to this kinetic effect, inhomogeneities will cause the direct formation of spheroidite from austenite at temperatures just below the Ael.6-11 The present report attempts quantitatively to evaluate the effect of inhomogeneity upon the rate of the austenite-pearlite reaction, presents a method of determining the austenitizing cycle necessary to obtain "practical homogenization," and considers the effect of inhomogeneity on hardenability. Effect of Inhomogeneities on Reactions Near Ae1 Few quantitative data are available representing the effect of undissolved carbide or of carbon concentration gradients upon the rate of the austenite-pearlite reaction. In procuring such data it is necessary to separate the effect of undissolved carbide from that of grain size, and this is not an easy task. The solution of carbide is always accompanied by an increase in the grain size, both effects contributing to the retardation of the reaction rate. It has been possible to make this separation and to obtain data that are independent of the grain size by the use of steels that differ only with respect to their tendency toward grain-coarsening. Steels C and D in Table I are such steels. These steels have been studied previously ;l,2,12 they differ only with respect to deoxidation practice; C was deoxidized with silicon while D, teemed from a portion of the same heat, was deoxidized with additional auantities of aluminum in the mold. C therefore is what is normally termed a "coarse-grained steel" and D is a, "fine-grained steel." These steels can be compared at the same grain size by heating c to a low temperature and heating D to an elevated temperature, producing a structure of austenite plus residual carbide in the former while forming homogeneous austenite in the latter; in such

Jan 1, 1943

By George A. Roberts, Robert F. Mehl

When austenite first forms from aggregates of cementite and ferrite, it is not homogeneous.' This inhomogeneity, consisting of both undissolved carbide and carbon concentration gradients, has a profound effect upon the characteristics of the austenite-pearlite reaction. The rate of formation of pearlite is increased by the presence of inhomogeneities2,3 and because of this (when the inhomogeneity is sufficiently pronounced) the hardenability of the steel is reduced.4,5 In addition to this kinetic effect, inhomogeneities will cause the direct formation of spheroidite from austenite at temperatures just below the Ael.6-11 The present report attempts quantitatively to evaluate the effect of inhomogeneity upon the rate of the austenite-pearlite reaction, presents a method of determining the austenitizing cycle necessary to obtain "practical homogenization," and considers the effect of inhomogeneity on hardenability. Effect of Inhomogeneities on Reactions Near Ae1 Few quantitative data are available representing the effect of undissolved carbide or of carbon concentration gradients upon the rate of the austenite-pearlite reaction. In procuring such data it is necessary to separate the effect of undissolved carbide from that of grain size, and this is not an easy task. The solution of carbide is always accompanied by an increase in the grain size, both effects contributing to the retardation of the reaction rate. It has been possible to make this separation and to obtain data that are independent of the grain size by the use of steels that differ only with respect to their tendency toward grain-coarsening. Steels C and D in Table I are such steels. These steels have been studied previously ;l,2,12 they differ only with respect to deoxidation practice; C was deoxidized with silicon while D, teemed from a portion of the same heat, was deoxidized with additional auantities of aluminum in the mold. C therefore is what is normally termed a "coarse-grained steel" and D is a, "fine-grained steel." These steels can be compared at the same grain size by heating c to a low temperature and heating D to an elevated temperature, producing a structure of austenite plus residual carbide in the former while forming homogeneous austenite in the latter; in such

Jan 1, 1943

By W. B. Daly, A. S. Richardson

The application of artificial refrigeration, or air-conditioning, to the ventilation of deep, hot mines has long been a subject of interest to the operators of such properties. Artificial cooling of the air in theaters, railroad coaches, and various industrial plants has been so successful within recent years that it has been natural to assume that the adoption of similar methods would afford a ready solution to the difficult problem of mine ventilation. It should however, be obvious, that although there may be nothing technically impossible in the application of this process to mine ventilation there is a great economic distinction between the maintenance of a high standard of comfort for a large number of people in a relatively small space such as a theater and the cooling of air to improve working conditions for miners scattered throughout the extensive workings of a large mine. Many methods of air-conditioning have been considered by the management of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. at various times, but until the development of the process to be described in this paper none has seemed economically practicable. The Ventilating Problem at Butte The main obstacle to satisfactory ventilation in the Butte mines is the normally high temperature of the granite country rock. In the present operating zone, rock temperatures as high as 120' F. have been noted, and in some parts of the district the rate of increase of temperature with depth has ranged as high as 3.5" F. per 100 ft. Other factors, such as the decay of mine timber and the oxidation of sulfide minerals in the ore bodies, contribute to raise the temperature of the air in the working places but, particularly in the development of the mines to greater depth, the naturally high temperature of the rock is of predominant importance. In few other places, probably, are the ordinary ventilating measures more hindered than at Butte. At an operating depth now exceeding 3000 ft., all of the air required for ventilation must pass through timbered shafts which, because of heavy ground, are of small size and offer great resistance to the flow of air. Shaft compartments are rarely more than 4.5 X 5 ft., and the shaft area open to the flow of air usually does not exceed 65 sq. ft.; in only two shafts is the area as great as 85 sq. feet.

Jan 1, 1934

By William J. McCaughey, Richard L. Barrett

FOR sixty years-in fact, ever since the inception of the basic steelmaking process -basic slags have been the subject of study by chemists, metallurgists and petrographers, with the purpose of providing a better understanding of the reactions between the slag and the metal during the refining process. The result of this work and of the researches of mineralogists and physical chemists into the chemistry of oxide systems is a considerable body of literature dealing not only with slags themselves but with equilibrium relationships in systems synthesized from pure components. Since any actual slag is a multicomponent system more complex than any yet worked out in the laboratory, a complete solution to the problem is still far away. The writers have recently published a paper1 which they believe sheds light on the role of the slag in the elimination of phosphorus and it is the purpose of the present paper to discuss the metallurgical applications of that work. Since the pioneer investigations on the constitution of basic slags carried on by Stead and Risdale, Carnot and Richards, Hilgenstock and others in the 1880's, a considerable body of literature on this subject has appeared. Many of the more important of these papers were summarized in the previous paper,' therefore they will not be reviewed here. PETROGRAPHIC STUDY The present writers have had occasion, over a period of years, to examine petrographically a great number of basic steel- making slags having a very wide range of chemical compositions and made under various conditions of operating practice. Although certain of these slags exhibit some unusual features, it is a remarkable fact that the great majority of mature slags show certain typical characteristics, which persist throughout the wide range of chemical compositions. The typical mature slag usually appears under the microscope to consist of two phases. The phase of primary crystallization is light colored and doubly refracting. If separated mechanically and subjected to chemical analysis, it is found to consist essentially of SiO2, CaO, and P2O5. Sometimes, although not usually, two such silicate-phosphate phases are found. The other conspicuous phase is dark in color and optically isotropic, and occurs as the interstitial material between the grains of the light colored phase. This dark colored interstitial phase when analyzed is found to consist essentially of FeO,Fe2O3, MnO, and MgO. In some slags high in iron oxide, particularly those from low-carbon heats, dicalcium ferrite is found. This phase is dark reddish brown in color and anisotropic.

Jan 1, 1944

By H. C. Miller

The gas-lift method of flowing oil from wells is the outstanding feature of petroleum technology today. Its forerunner, the air-lift, was used successfully first, in the Baku fields of Russia, in 1899, and later in the Gulf Coast fields of Texas and Louisiana and the Kern River field of California. It is still used to a limited extent in certain oil fields. The use of compressed natural gas for lifting oil from wells has supplanted the air-lift method in a measure in those fields where a sufficient quantity of gas accompanies the oil to make the gas-lift possible, or where natural gas is plentiful and inexpensive. We find, therefore, in California, that natural gas is used at practically every well where a gaseous medium is employed to flow the oil. The use of natural gas has many advantages over that of air. It is possible to recover and save the gasoline from the gas that accompanies the oil to the surface. This gasoline would be wasted if air were used as the lifting medium. Also, certain proportions of air and gas form an explosive mixture that cannot be handled safely by compressors. Another advantage that gas has over air is that gas under pressure is more soluble in oil. Gas in solution in oil reduces the viscosity of the oil that is being produced and causes it to flow more readily through the tubing and flow lines. The gas-lift has made it possible to recover many thousands of barrels of oil from deep wells in California that could not have been produced otherwise. It would not have been economical, had it been mechanically possible, to produce such wells as the world's deepest producing oil well (Miley Athen's No. 6, Rosecrans field, California) by any other method of pumping known today. At this well, production is obtained from between 7305 and 7591 ft. and 11 months after completion of the well, production was being maintained on the gas-lift at approximately 2000 bbl. a month. The crookedness of the hole, or its diameter and depth will not prevent the successful application of gas-lift pumping when other conditions are favorable.

Jan 1, 1928

By H. Bloom, H. E. Hawkes

STREAMS and rivers are the principal channels into which the weathering products of rocks and their contained ores are funneled. The inorganic load of a stream system is a crude sample of all the earth materials in the drainage basin of the stream, and the heavy mineral assemblage of sediments is one of the oldest and most successful guides to certain kinds of bedrock ore in unexplored terrain. Early application of this method was made possible by the ease of separation and identification of heavy minerals in the field with the simplest equipment. Water analysis for traces of base metals became a practical possibility about eight years ago with the development of rapid chemical tests that could be carried out at the field site.' , Since that time the water method has been widely used in mineral reconnaissance, and a substantial number of discoveries have been reported. Here again, the techniques developed for this work were relatively simple and could be performed easily at the field site. Sediment analysis by chemical methods, as distinguished from mineralogical, has received less at- tention. Some experimental work was done by Lovering and others," but to the authors' knowledge, chemical analysis of sediment samples has not been used in routine exploration programs until very recently. In spite of the obvious promise of this method, it was not pursued vigorously because of the lack of a simple and portable chemical test that could be used conveniently at the field site or in a field camp. Procedures that had been developed for trace analysis of soils all called for a rigorous chemical attack with hot acids—tests more conveniently applied in processing large volumes of routine soil samples at an established field headquarters. Recently an extremely rapid and simple test was developed by Bloom.4,5 The extractant used in this procedure is a cold solution of ammonium citrate. Elements measured are the heavy metals, principally zinc, lead, and copper. This method differs from the established procedures for soil analysis in that it measures only a small fraction, about 5 pct, of the total metal content of the sample. It has been found, however, that the significant pattern of metals in the sediments of streams below a base-metal deposit can be brought out as well and sometimes better by this simple cold-extraction procedure than by the more tedious methods requiring hot acids. To understand fully the significance of the relation between the readily extractable and the total

Jan 1, 1957

By William Johnson

IT is now recognized that several important types of reactions in metallic systems proceed by the formation of nuclei and the growth of these nuclei. The process of freezing is a simple example of this, as Tammann pointed out years ago.1 Tammann held that ' the rate, of freezing is determined by a rate of nucleation, expressed as the number of nuclei formed per unit volume of unfrozen liquid per second, and a rate of growth of these nuclei, expressed as the linear rate of radial growth in units of length per second. For isothermal freezing the conception is simple; for ordinary freezing, extending over a range of temperature, it is not as simple, for the values of the two constants must change with change in temperature. There is ample evidence that the postulated mechanism is correct even though a quantitative derivation of the rate of isothermal or of ordinary freezing in terms of the two constants has been lacking. In recent years other reactions have been found to proceed in a similar fashion. It has been well established, particularly by Bain,2-8 that. the formation of pearlite from the eutectoid decomposition of the solid solu-tion austenite proceeds in such a way, and Polanyi and Schmid, Tammann and Crone, Karnop and Sachs, and others9-11 have shown that the process of recrystallization proceeds in a similar way. Isothermal reaction rates have been determined for eutectoid decom-position by a number of investigators. Bain's2-8 work on the formation of pearlite from austenite is especially valuable in this respect-the type of isothermal reaction curve obtained, as illustrated in Fig. 13, showed an initial slow rate, accelerating to an intermediate maximum rate which then decelerated to the completion of the reaction; similar curves have been obtained by Wever and his collaborators.12 Other eutectoid decompositions show similar behavior: for example, the decomposition of the beta eutectoid in the copper-aluminum system, studied by Smith

Jan 1, 1939

By H. l. Burghoff, J. S. Porter

THIS paper presents the results of an investigation of the effect of cold-working and annealing treatments upon the occurrence of preferred orientation in annealed brass wire. The subject has received less consideration than has the same phenomenon in annealed brass sheet or strip, and perhaps very properly so in view of the obvious and undesired results obtained in the forming or drawing of strip having preferred orientation, which results are in contrast with the lack of any spectacular visual evidence in wire. The factors of cold-working and annealing that control preferredness in strip are naturally expected to function similarly in wire. Indeed, one might expect the condition to be commoner in annealed wire, because the severity of the cold-working between anneals in commercial practice is usually much greater for wire than for strip. For example, a wire that is to be finished in the annealed condition on a diameter of 0.040 in. is commonly subjected to a final reduction of 96 per cent between the last two anneals, the large reduction being accomplished in the successive drafts of a multiple-die machine. Wire for rivets, for instance, on 0.125-in. diameter, although given a slight reduction of about 10 per cent after the final anneal, may have been given a prior reduction of 75 to 80 per cent. Barrett1 states the fiber axis of annealed 70-30 brass wire to be [111] with some indication of [100] as a secondary fiber axis. Croft and Sachs2 have reported briefly on some differences in brass wire with random and with preferred orientations. They showed statistical plots of the twin-band angles with respect to the wire axis or direction of drawing as observed on an axial plane. They also pointed out that the resistance of the wire to corrosion-cracking when externally stressed and exposed to a mercurous nitrate solution decreased as the degree of the preferred orientation increased. MATERIAL AND PROCEDURE All the wire for the investigation was processed from one. portion as cut for extrusion from a cast billet of the following analysis: 70.13 per cent copper; 0.01 lead; 0.01 iron; 0.02 nickel; 29.83 zinc (by difference). The billet section, 8 in. in diameter, was extruded hot to 3/4 -in. diameter, after which it was processed by alternate cold-drawing and annealing treatments as indicated in Fig. I. The earliest anneals in process were at about 1100°F. and the next to the last reductions by drawing were 58 per cent. The diameter of the finally annealed wire was 0.132 in. Semifinal anneals were at 800°F., 950°F. and 1100°F. and reductions of 47.5, 74, 83.5 and 89.5 per cent were employed in drawing to 0.132 in. The final anneals were at 875°F., 1050°F. and 1250°F. and were

Jan 1, 1944

By R. W. Guard

ALTHOUGH etching techniques have been developed for revealing dislocation sites in several metals and ionic crystals,h t is valuable to extend the technique to new metals. An etch pit method for nickel has been developed on the basis some suggestions of Dr. John R. Cuthill of the National Bureau of Standards who had observed etch pits in creep specimens of nickel. The etchant used was proposed first by wensch2 for revealing grain size in nickel. The present paper describes the evidence that the technique can be used to reveal dislocations and gives the conditions under which etching can be carried out. The specimens examined were vacuum melted high-purity Ni (99.985 pct Ni) and commercial "A" nickel (99.8 pct Ni). Both materials contained greater than 0.008 pet C and had been annealed in nitrogen or dry hydrogen at 1100o to 1200°C. This gave a grain size of 1.5 mm in the high-purity nickel and 0.050 mm in "A" nickel. Tensile specimens (0.254 in. diam) were deformed from 0.25 to 10 pct at room temperature and then heated for 1/2 hr at different temperatures from 400" to 900°C. The specimens were sectioned longitudinally then polished electrolytically in 60 pct H2SO4 and etched in 35 pct H3PO4 solution at 0.2 to 0.4 v for 30 sec to 3 min. The best method for setting the proper voltage for etching is to increase the voltage until gas bubbles are evolved vigorously from the specimen and then cut it back by 10 pct. It is necessary to heat the specimen above 500°C after deformation in order that etch pits will be formed. This "decoration" treatment permits carbon to segregate to the dislocation rendering them sensitive to etching. It was demonstrated that carbon was the decorating impurity by decarburizing some specimens in wet H2 at 1200°C. The susceptibility to etch pitting was lost following this treatment but could be restored by carburizing in contact with graphite. Some rearrangement of the dislocations in the as-deformed structure occurs on heating at 500oC and above so that the technique can not be used to study the nature of dislocation patterns in deformed specimens. Extended etching does not change the number of pits although the background becomes rough and the pits quite large. The polycrystalline specimens with various strains were examined after annealing at different temperatures. Typical patterns are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In the unstrained specimen, Fig. 1, the density of pits is 2.5 X 10' per sq cm. All grains show pits regardless of their orientation although there is a

Jan 1, 1961

By L. Adler

A relatively simple and effective technique is proposed to deal with the failure of geologic masses containing weakness planes. This technique, termed irextended" rupture envelope, provides a means to clearly distinguish rock and soil from fractured rock and, on a theoretical level, considers a matrix-inclusion system. It may also constitute the link between Mohr's and Griffith's failure theories. Included in the article are five sample problems concerning site location, structural design, strengthening the plane of weakness, changing the magnitudes of major and minor principal stresses and changing the orientations of major and minor principal stresses. Engineers trying to solve design problems in rock and soil mechanics have often assumed an iso-tropic and homogeneous medium. For naturally occurring geologic masses this assumption has always been viewed with regret. The following analysis which deals with the effects of plane anisotropy on failure presents a solution to this. The planes of weakness are joints, faults, bedding planes, fracture and cleavage (natural and induced), foliation and schistosity. The physical properties of these weakness planes include an undulating surface, frictional resistance, discontinuous extent, filling material, tightness and presence of water to cause a hydrostatic pore pressure. All of these properties relating to failure can be summarized in Mohr's rupture envelope for the plane of weakness. This, along with the geometrical orientation, strike and dip, of the plane of weakness produces what is termed an irextended" rupture envelope. MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE AND RUPTURE ENVELOPE The significant features of these concepts are listed below.' 1) A point on the u - r coordinate plane represents the normal and tangential stress components on a reference area in the material. This area can have any orientation. (Fig. la)

Jan 1, 1963

By E. W. McAllister

THE decision of the California Oil Umpire's1 office to accept well potentials established from subsurface-pressure data has brought to the attention of many operators for the first time the application of such data to production problems. This paper reviews the development and application of subsurface-pressure data in Kettleman Hills, where these data have been used in production work since 1932. The Kettleman Hills field was discovered in October 1928. The first subsurface-pressure surveys were made early in 1932 and by the middle of 1933 the two major operators in the field were making routine pressure runs in their respective wells. Shortly thereafter, these companies agreed to exchange pressure data, and later a third company entered into the agreement. This made it possible to analyze the effects upon the reservoir pressure of past production practices, which are discussed in the latter part of the report. It is interesting that many of the applications of subsurface-pressure data discussed herein were anticipated by C. L. Clarks and C. B. Kimberlin‡ in a reports dated March 1933. PRODUCTIVITY INDEX In the majority of individual well problems involving the use of subsurface pressure data, it is necessary to use a factor known as the "productivity index," which indicates the ability of a well to produce and represents the number of barrels of oil or oil and water per day that will enter the well bore for each pound per square inch pressure drop made opposite the producing interval of the well. The productivity index may be determined from pressure and production data for one or more rates of flow and a static or shut-in pressure survey or from production and pressure data for two or more rates of flow. Productivity indices may be based upon either net oil or total fluid production. All indices referred to in this report are based upon net oil. The value of the productivity index for Kettleman Hills wells decreases generally with time and it is not uncommon for the index to vary in value at any specific time for various rates of flow. The decline of the productivity index may be attributed partly to the loss of reservoir pressure. As. the reservoir pressure decreases, gas originally in solution is released from the oil, congesting the flow of fluids through the formation and increasing the viscosity and surface tension of the oil; thus the flow resistance of the fluids through the formation is increased, resulting in a decrease of the productivity index. For convenient reference, the productivity indices for each well are plotted against time and a curve is drawn through the points showing the trend of the average index value. Plotted on Fig. I are index values for five

Jan 1, 1941

By A. M. Hall

Sulphur, even in small amounts, may often be harmful to nickel and high-nickel alloys, causing impairment of mechanical strength and destruction of malleability and ductility, as shown by Merica and Waltenberg.l,2 It may act either in the form of nonmetallic inclusions produced in the liquid state during furnacing or as reaction products resulting from its diffusion into the solid metal. In recognizing the action of this element, ability to identify its various forms by means of the microscope is often of considerable importance, especially when direct quantitative methods are inapplicable. Of the sulphur compounds associated with nickel and high-nickel alloys, the sulphides that may be found in malleable nickel, Monelt and Inconel are an important group. These sulphides were investi- gated by metallographic methods in order to provide descriptive data by which to identify them. The nominal compositions of malleable nickel, Monel and Inconel are given in Table I. The term "sulphide" is employed here in a very general sense, to designate a substance in which sulphur and one or more metallic elements are combined. The term includes any combinations of compounds and solid solutions. Method of Investigation Three groups of small laboratory melts were made, one group to represent each of the three types of alloy under investigation. Within each group, a number of ingots with a sufficient variety of chemical analyses were prepared so that the effect of each of the elements entering the complete commercial alloy could be isolated and observed. In most cases, to facilitate metallographic study by exaggerating the number and size of the resulting sulphides, somewhat greater amounts of the minor elements were added than are present in the commercial alloys. Likewise, considerably more sulphur was added than is normal, but not enough to complicate the system. Transverse sections were cut at a point one third of the distance from the butt to the head of each ingot, polished and examined with an inverted stage metallo-graph equipped with a combination polar -izing-analyzing vertical illuminator. The light source was a tungsten-mercury vapor arc lamp.

Jan 1, 1943

By A. M. Hall

Sulphur, even in small amounts, may often be harmful to nickel and high-nickel alloys, causing impairment of mechanical strength and destruction of malleability and ductility, as shown by Merica and Waltenberg.l,2 It may act either in the form of nonmetallic inclusions produced in the liquid state during furnacing or as reaction products resulting from its diffusion into the solid metal. In recognizing the action of this element, ability to identify its various forms by means of the microscope is often of considerable importance, especially when direct quantitative methods are inapplicable. Of the sulphur compounds associated with nickel and high-nickel alloys, the sulphides that may be found in malleable nickel, Monelt and Inconel are an important group. These sulphides were investi- gated by metallographic methods in order to provide descriptive data by which to identify them. The nominal compositions of malleable nickel, Monel and Inconel are given in Table I. The term "sulphide" is employed here in a very general sense, to designate a substance in which sulphur and one or more metallic elements are combined. The term includes any combinations of compounds and solid solutions. Method of Investigation Three groups of small laboratory melts were made, one group to represent each of the three types of alloy under investigation. Within each group, a number of ingots with a sufficient variety of chemical analyses were prepared so that the effect of each of the elements entering the complete commercial alloy could be isolated and observed. In most cases, to facilitate metallographic study by exaggerating the number and size of the resulting sulphides, somewhat greater amounts of the minor elements were added than are present in the commercial alloys. Likewise, considerably more sulphur was added than is normal, but not enough to complicate the system. Transverse sections were cut at a point one third of the distance from the butt to the head of each ingot, polished and examined with an inverted stage metallo-graph equipped with a combination polar -izing-analyzing vertical illuminator. The light source was a tungsten-mercury vapor arc lamp.

Jan 1, 1943

By John A. Putnam, Morrough P. O’Brien

DATA on the physical and thermodynamic properties of hydrocarbons have been made available in recent years but the formal method of applying these data to flow in porous media appears not to have been fully developed. By making usual thermodynamic assumptions and employing existing data on permeability to two-phase flow, Darcy's law may be applied to obtain the flow characteristics for representative combinations of flowing medium and geometry. The numerical examples presented herein are based on hydrocarbons for which complete physical and thermodynamic data are available under equilibrium conditions. INTRODUCTION Thermodynamic data are obtained in the laboratory under equilibrium conditions and their application requires the assumption that equilibrium also exists during flow. This assumption is at least usual in engineering analyses, though not easily justified in many instances, and will be followed here. In regard to hydrocarbons, laboratory experience in determining the pressure-volume-temperature relationships indicates that gas-liquid mixtures must often be stirred vigorously for periods of 15 to 20 min. before reaching equilibrium. On the other hand, boiling and condensation are known to occur on solid surfaces and the large surface exposed to the flowing substance by a porous medium may bring about rapid approach to equilibrium. For the purpose of providing at least a guide to experimentation and a standard for later comparison with experimental results, it will be assumed that the phases present in cross sections perpendicular to the direction of flow are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Another assumption usually made in the solution of problems of flow in porous media is that the fluid remains at a constant temperature; i.e., isothermal flow. This assumption is arrived at by considering the porous medium and surroundings to be an infinite heat source and the rate of heat flow to be infinite at a boiling front. Its validity depends in large measure upon the character of flow, the number of components, and the physical and thermodynamic properties of the fluid. However, the assumption of isothermal flow represents a limiting case. The other limit can be represented by the assumption that the fluid is thermally isolated; i.e., irreversible adiabatic. The thermodynamic process characterizing the actual flow of a given fluid system probably lies somewhere between these two limiting cases and might be thought of as a flow system in which the confining walls are maintained at a constant temperature. For isothermal flow the solid material of the porous media is considered as the infinite heat source capable, without loss in temperature, of giving up heat to the fluid as the latter tends to cool by expansion. For the thermally isolated system, the solid material is considered to give up no heat to the fluid. In the intermediate case the impervious walls confining the porous media are at constant temperature from which heat is transferred along various paths, solid and fluid, throughout the porous media. It would appear that an actual petroleum-

Jan 1, 1941

By H. Q. Golder

With the development of open-pit mines of ever increasing depth, the stability of the pit slopes in soil and rock is of growing economic importance. How is it, considering the newness of the problem that we know anything at all about the stability of man-made slopes? How much do we know and how did it all begin? We can make a reasonable estimate of the stability of a slope in soil, but we know as yet woefully little about slopes in rock because the problem is much more complex. It is only with the development of the capacity of the computer to handle wearisome calculations that any but the simplest of stability problems in rock have become possible of solution. But what we do know is a guide of immense value in the design of slopes in rock. But remember that the computer is a great elevator; it takes everyone's feet off the ground! So our study began with soils and what is now known as "Soil Mechanics", which is a translation of the German term "Bodenmechanik". It is a pity that the title of Terzaghi's book "Erdbaumechanik" was not used instead. But here the task of the translator is difficult because English lacks the facility of German to string together several words and make a new one whose meaning is unequivocal. Thus, we have the three German words 'Erde' 'Bau' and 'Mechanik'. 'Erde' means "earth" in almost all the English senses including "soil". 'Bau' and 'bauen' convey the meaning of building and construction, and 'Mechanik' means "mechanics" which includes statics and dynamics and the 'mechanics of materials', etc. So that a correct translation of the German is a phrase like "the mechanics of construction with, in or on, earth or soil." However we are stuck with 'Soil Mechanics' and that is where it all began. Now this study or subject did not begin with 'Terzaghi' although his contribution to the subject is unquestionably greater than that of any other single person. Every scientific discipline has its 'classical problem' and that of soil mechanics is 'the earth pressure problem' and it began in the 17th century. In fact, it probably began before this with the introduction of gunpowder to Western Europe in about the 15th century, but the first known reference to the problem was by Vauban, a distinguished French military engineer who lived from 1633 to 1707 and who gave rules for the dimensions of retaining walls from 6 to 80 ft. in height. The soil properties were not mentioned by Vauban probably because the rules were intended to be applied to fortifications only, but Poncelet (1840) claimed that Vauban's rules were based on a theory, and not simply on military and practical

Jan 1, 1972

By Frederick N. Rhines

BECAUSE of the nature of the environments in which metals are handled, it is natural that gases should be suspected of intruding into metallurgical operations, there to produce effects both beneficial and detrimental. The problem of tracing and controlling such effects is often made difficult by the complexity of the conditions surrounding 'their occurrence, even though the fundamental mechanisms involved may be simple and of familiar type. Many gas-metal reactions are known to be implemented by processes of diffusion. These form a homogeneous group of phenomena which become more readily understandable when viewed together, in that the knowledge gained from one serves to interpret the next. It is the purpose of the present paper to present, by means of examples drawn from practice, a brief survey, of the ways in which gas-metal diffusion serves and obstructs the purposes of the metal-fabricating industries. The selection of the cases described was made by consulting more than thirty-six practicing experts whose combined experience provided an extensive coverage of the field and who were in a position to supply examples of occurrences of present day interest. The response was generous and it is regrettable that space permits the description of only a limited number of typical examples with but brief mention of parallel cases. THE NATURE OF GAS-METAL DIFFUSION The term "gas-metal diffusion," although commonly used, is ambiguous in so far as it implies that a definite group of substances may be identified as gases and may be expected to behave in a manner distinct from other substances in association with metals. "Gases" such as oxygen and hydrogen when diffusing through a liquid or solid metal are properly components of the liquid or solid solution; they behave as alloying elements and are not to be distinguished in their diffusion characteristics from other elements, except that each has an individual rate of diffusion. On the other hand, a number of metals in certain temperature ranges are volatile to the extent that they may appear in the form of vapor in metallurgical operations. For the sake of greater definiteness, therefore, it will be convenient to- regard as "gas-metal diffusion" any process in which the result depends upon one or more of the diffusing elements appearing, at some stage, in the gaseous state, or as a compound gas. No element, gaseous or otherwise, can diffuse through a liquid or solid metal unless it is at least slightly soluble in that metal. The elements of low atomic number

Jan 1, 1944

By E. J. Pasierb, H. W. Paxton

Mavkers ill a diffusion couple in the iron-chromium system move towards the high chromium side indicating Dcr > DFe at the marker composition. By a combituztion of measurements of D& and D a: a function of composition, this is also shown independently. DFe is calculated as a function of composition. and shown to be in reasonable agreement with measured values by other workers. MEASUREMENTS of marker movements in diffusion couples have been used from time to time to demonstrate that a vacancy or interstitial mechanism may be operative. Since there is a possibility that ring diffusion1 may be operative in chromium, the present experiments are of interest in showing some non-ring mechanism in iron-chromium alloys around the equiatomic composition. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The movement of markers originally at the interface between 1-in. sq sections of pure Cr (6 mm thick) and outer slabs of 30 Cr-70 Fe alloy was followed as a function of time at temperatures from 1150" to 1425"C, in a Kanthal-wound furnace. Temperature control was +5°C over extended periods. The analyses of these alloys are given in Table I. Selection of suitable markers presented a considerable experimental problem; the eventual solution was to draw quartz rod down to 0.01 cm and seat this in V-grooves 0.01 cm deep on each side of the chromium prior to welding. A preliminary experiment in which the groove was machined in the alloy gave identical results. Welding was accomplished by passing a heavy current through specimens under moderate pressure in a helium atmosphere. This method produced good welds with a planar interface as shown by subsequent metallo-graphic investigation. Any markers which did not adequately fill their groove and showed subsequent contamination from the atmosphere during heat treatment were not considered reliable. The composite sample was ground and metal-lographically polished on the four sides perpendicular to the interface. Fiducial marks (deep milled slots) were made outside the diffusion zone to check on total volume change. All necessary measurements were made on a metallograph reading to +0.0005 cm. The samples were wrapped in tantalum foil and given diffusion anneals for times to 200 hr in carefully purified dry hydrogen in a sealed McDanel porcelain tube. Chromium-zirconium chips were introduced near the specimen as an additional getter. The specimens were cooled relatively slowly after the diffusion anneal to preserve the McDanel tube but no significant error in effective time at temperature was thereby introduced. At least 1 mm was ground off the surface before measurements were taken. It was observed that the grain size following short diffusion anneals was several mm and was appreciably larger in the 30 Cr alloy than in the pure Cr. No significant grain boundary penetration was present as indicated by the etch limit. The results are presented in the next section. Measurements of D were made by standard sectioning techniques with chemical analysis. Machining difficulties limited the

Jan 1, 1961

By C. Stansfield Hitchen

THE introduction of the logarithmic sector method of quantitative spectrography by Scheibe and Neuhäusser in 1928, and the subsequent .modification and improvement of the method by Twyman and Simeon, would seem to have marked yet a further advance in quantitative spec-trum analysis and its industrial application, inasmuch as it offers a simple means of eliminating some of the uncertainties inherent in the older methods based upon mere visual comparison of line intensities. In their recent admirable review of the position and capabilities of industrial spectroscopy, Brownsdon and van Someren1 say: Ways and means of facilitating the comparison of line-intensities so as to give them numerical values are helpful, and of these a logarithmic sector rotating in front of the slit appears to he one of the most promising; . . . the success recently experienced by the author in using this method for the examination of steels and solutions of metallic salts prompted him ,to investigate its possible use in estimating the impurities commonly present in crude and refined tin. The results of this investigation are submitted in the present paper. Details of a number of spectrographic analyses of tin for various impurities have already been published. Thus, Schweitzer2 describes the spectrographic examination of tin for lead, bismuth and cadmium, and was able to distinguish between such atomic percentages as 0.01, 0.05, 0.10, 0.30, 0.60, 1.20, 3.00 and 10.00. Negresco3 investigated the bismuth content of tin over a range of from 0.0005 to 35 per cent. Meggers, Kiess and Stimson4 compare spectrographic and chemical analyses of tin metal for copper, lead, iron, zinc, silver, nickel and bismuth. They stress also the value of spectrum analysis in the examination of tin used for boiler plugs, where the requirements that only minute quantities of impurities shall be present render the chemical analysis both tedious and difficult.

Jan 1, 1933