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By Wallace F. Lovejoy

The conservation of mineral resources as a public policy question has received a great deal of attention in the area of petroleum and practically no attention in other mineral areas, except, of course, soil and water. Some insights into mineral conservation problems and how these problems can be approached in the social decision-making process are significant. THE MEANINGS OF CONSERVATION Conservation means many things to many people .2, 11 Too often it is a label attached to a proposed program or policy to add respectability and to gain public acceptance. It is a term applied to specific resources in some contexts and to resources generally in other contexts. The oft-quoted comment of President William Howard Taft that conservation is something everybody is for, no matter what it means, succinctly illustrates the confusion over both the meaning of the concept and the policies required to implement a conservation program. This confusion goes quite deep and is more than a matter of semantics or emphasis. For example, the efficient exploitation of a mineral deposit which might be applauded as good conservation in terms of that mineral, might well result in destruction of or harm to the environment which might be viewed as bad conservation. Economics provides some tools to help solve this sort of problem, but there may be fundamental differences in value systems among groups in this society, so that ultimately society must collectively make a subjective political choice as to what is good or bad conservation policy.a An Economic Definition of Conservation The economic concepts of conservation have more relevance and are more easily applied to minerals than to many other natural resources. This does not mean that economics goes all the way in understanding mineral conservation, but at least it provides a framework for analysis which later can be altered to include noneconomic variables. Perhaps the greatest confusion in discussing mineral conservation arises in attempting to relate purely physical concepts with economic concepts. An economist is interested in maximizing or conserving values; he is not interested in maximum physical recovery or utilization. He wants to know the costs and benefits of using, or not using, resources. The economic theory of mineral-resource conservation can be labeled variously as the theory of exhaustion, the theory of resource exploitation, the theory of resource utilization, or simply as a special case of the broad theory of capital.4,28 Consideration of these labels illuminates the concerns of the econo-

Jan 1, 1976

APRIL BEGAN with increased disorder in the Ruhr and some blood-shed. The war cloud in the East disappeared, however, with the signifi- cance by the Turks of their intention to return to Lausanne to negotiate a treaty of peace with the Allies. The French occupation of the Ruhr continued during April without there being any spectacular develop-ments. Of course there was surliness on the part of the Germans. In the meanwhile the statesmen on both sides were intimating what they might give and what they might take, sounding the sentiment of their respective populaces. The British Government found that its revenue for the last fiscal year has been greatly in excess of expenses. The surplus was applied to reduction of the debt. A consequence of this development has been a reduction in British taxes for the ensuing year, which has naturally created a much better feeling in Great Britain. On the other hand the unemployment situation in Great Britain caused increasing alarm. At the begin-ning of April about 1,500,000 men were out of work and the thought was developing that this might be not merely a temporary emergency, but a long continuing condition. The uneasiness of the workers themselves began to be exhibited in increasing strikes and threats of strikes. There were important domestic events during April. The six miners who were on trial in Illinois for the Herrin massacre were acquitted, following which the State dropped further prosecutions on the ground that Williamson County is so thoroughly under labor domina-tion that justice could not be had there. The Supreme Court of the United States on Apr. 10 handed down a decision that an act of Congress fixing minimum wages for women in the District of Columbia was unconstitu-tional, being interference with the freedom of contract included within the guarantees of the fifth amendment. Advances of wages became more general during April. The leading event under this head was the action of the United Steel Corporation putting into effect an.11 per cent. increase in the wages of common labor on Apr. 16, by virtue of which the rate per hour was raised from 36 c. to 40 c. This was dictated by competitive conditions, the labor difficulties of the steel industry being due less to a scarcity of men than their disinclination to take jobs in that industry while the building and other industries were paying as high as 60 c. per hour for similar work.

Jan 5, 1923

By J. B. Warriner

S. A. TAYLOR, Pittsburgh, Pa.-What was the distance of haul? J. B. WARRINER.-There is practically no limit to the haul. The length is determined entirely by the feasible location for a dump. -I have known of hauls up to 2 miles in length. R. V. NORRIS, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.-This paper was originally presented to the Anthracite Section as the result of the appointment of Mr. Warriner as the Chairman of the committee to study this matter and present this paper. As he has stated, he obtained data very freely from all the stripping operations in the region, and it is a type of paper of which we should have more in the Transactions. Two or three things in it strike me as particularly valuable. The two tables, 1 and 2, showing the coal remaining, have been the result of a great amount of study, as it is not an easy matter to obtain data as to the amount of coal left in mining. As an example, one of the, anthracite mines was mined and robbed out in 1850, so the maps show. That mine is today producing 250,000 tons of coal, over 50 per cent. from the bed which on the maps is marked as exhausted. What actually happened is that the seam was on a light pitch inconvenient to mine. There was ample thickness of coal and the chambers were driven at a convenient pitch through this 30,-ft. bed, leaving top and bottom, taking out about 10 ft. The pillars were removed and the working caved and marked as gone. That is the type of area that is now being stripped, which explains the reason for the enormous amount of coal left in, and the fact that Mr. Warriner has worked out the actual results from a large number of strippings is of great interest to the operators in any region handling thick coal which has been mined over in the past, generation. The modern mining, of course, is different. We do not have all the coal we want in big veins, and we do not mine it that way. Another interesting feature of the paper to me was the study of losses. It is not uncommon to assume that after you have stripped off the overburden all the coal goes to market. Mr. Warriner has shown that there is a loss ranging up to 10 or 15 per cent. that does not go, so 'that estimates made on stripping, figuring on all the coal, are subject to this very material correction.

Jan 4, 1917

By H. L. Washburn, G. L. Judy

DURING recent years thermal drying of fine coal has increased at a tremendous rate, but very little discussion of the several excellent units has found its way into print. This is particularly true for operating and maintenance costs, and the operator who is faced with his first fine coal drying installation must depend chiefly on hearsay when trying to determine what his drying costs will be. This article presents the maintenance and operating costs for the seven drying units now installed in preparation plants of Pittsburgh Consolidation Coal Co. and lists other cost information that should be obtained before any particular drying unit is selected. Plant Description: The fine coal drying section of Plant A consists of four Flash driers operating on two furnaces equipped with spreader stokers. Plant B has one Flash drier operating (together with a screen-type coarse coal drier) on one furnace equipped with a spreader stoker. Plant C has two Cascade-type driers operating on a single furnace with a spreader stoker. Plant Costs: Tables I, 11, and III present the cost of operating these units as reported by the individ- ual plants. As can be seen, the labor rates vary, depending on the amount of overtime paid and the time interval the cost figures cover. There is considerable variation in thermal units used and in the value given to the thermal units at the particular mine. There is some difference in power costs at a given location and, finally, the power costs of conveyors leading to the drying plants were included in some cases. Maintenance supply costs are simply a tabulation of the cost of all supplies used on the driers, furnaces, and stokers. Depreciation is not included, and the tables omit items such as supervision, plant cleanup, oiling, general maintenance, taxes, and insurance. These tables in themselves do not offer a true comparison of costs. This information must be reduced to some common basis. But what is this common basis to be? A mine operator must calculate his overall mine and preparation plant costs in terms of tons of clean coal sold. Unit costs on pieces of equipment within a given plant are correctly calculated on the same basis. However, when unit costs are compared between one plant and another, some thought must be given to unit design. This reasoning is similar to the old argument concerning i solid bowl vs basket-type centrifuges—the units themselves are not directly comparable without their supporting equipment. So it is with thermal driers. Except in rare cases of low entering moisture i content, driers are sized on the basis of water that must be evaporated, while the wear each unit gets de-

Jan 1, 1958

By Carter S. Cole

Mr. Chairman, Fellow Members and Guests, our chairman this morning got over into the geneological field, so perhaps I may be pardoned if I revert to some of my ancestral training and give you a text. I always like to talk about some special little text that may illustrate what we want to say. So the text that I will take for this afternoon is a very simple one, "Win the War." That is the guide for all of our actions, or should be. We should question everything we do to see what it does to contribute to winning the war. If we fail to do that, nothing else is going to count. On the wall of the office of one of the branch chiefs in the Copper Division in Washington there is a little slogan which I think we should take very deeply to heart, "The difficult we do right away. The impossible takes a little longer." I think that is a very good guide for us to follow in the work that lies ahead of us in the metallurgical field and in the handling of these secondary metals and the things that result therefrom. My subject is "Conservation and Specifications." Some people would wonder just where that fits in, and how you might define "conservation." One very good definition would be "the utmost use of our resources." If you will pardon my going back to some of my earlier experience for a little simile, those of you who know me know that for ten years after the last war I was in the railroad business. If we are with the engineman in a cab, and we have a green signal ahead of us, that is a clear signal and tells us to proceed at full authorized speed. Now suppose we come to a yellow signal that is caution, slow down to one-half authorized speed and be prepared to stop. Now if you do slow down, the chances are that that obstruction that was ahead of you will move out of the road, and you may get another yellow or caution signal at the next block, and be able to keep going at a slow speed. As of the date of Pearl Harbor our tin supply took on a very yellow tinge, and it threw the caution sign right in our faces. If we had not heeded that sign, and cut down our consumption of tin, we would not have any today; but because we have done so we are in a much better position today than we were a year ago, that is comparing our visible supply with our present rate of consumption as contrasted with the visible supply a year ago and our then rate of consumption.

Jan 1, 1943

By F. M. Lewis, J. F. Myers

The paper reports the development of a large, slow speed ball mill closed circuited with a hvdro-scillator. This increased grinding efficiency 28 pct over conventional units. AS the title indicates, this is a progress report for the first year of experimental operation of a relatively large diameter, slow speed ball mill with 1-in. balls, with and without various classifiers, and including a hydroscillator. Several years ago the authors came to the conclusion that if any further progress were to be made in our flotation process, an understanding of the chemical and physical reactions and the control thereof, in the grinding circuit, was essential. It may be stated, at this point, that the preparation of a correct feed for the flotation process is still the number one objective of our grinding studies. This progress report deals with grinding "per se," and not with the chemical and physical reactions as the result of grinding. Prior to this time we had taken the naive position, that since grinding had been practiced by the industry for some fifty years or more, it had been well exploited and developed by a host of investigators. Consequently, we had given the matter only superficial attention. At the start of our study, we were aware of the fact that some difference in opinion existed, but we were not prepared for the controversial evidence that developed nor for the extent to which the experts differed in their viewpoints. There seemed nothing else to do but to tour the continent and decide for ourselves what was right and what was wrong, read all the published literature and visit with anyone who had ideas about the matter. This we did over the next few ensuing years. Since our study has met with some measure of success, we report, herewith, these data that ultimately they may be of help to other investigators. In 1944 it became necessary to increase our grinding capacity and at the same time to grind the sulphide portion a little finer. This provided the impetus to put our ideas into effect. As has been previously described, our grinding flowsheet at that time consisted of a 6x12 rod mill, followed by two 5x10 ft, and one 6x12 ft trunnion overflow ball mills, with conventional rake classifiers. Naturally, we first considered all the possibilities of altering or adding to the existing equipment. It became evident that if any appreciable increase in grinding efficiency could be obtained, it would pay to scrap the existing small mills and classifiers and install one big mill with adequate classification. Trying to determine just how much more efficient a big mill could be, in which were incorporated all

Jan 1, 1951

QUICKSILVER is a body that consists of flowing and liquid materials, almost like water with a shining whiteness; it is composed by Nature of a viscous, subtle substance with an overflowing abundance of moistness and coldness together. This composition, in the opinion of the philosophic alchemists, is a thing that is very disposed to become metal-indeed they say that it is the original seed of all metals. When it lacks the warmness and dryness or the specific time that they require, it cannot congeal and so remains in the form that we see as an imperfect thing without becoming metal. These clever investigators have also called it mercury in consideration of its properties, perhaps because of its resemblance to the planet of him whose actions place him between gods and men, according to the poets in their stories. Thus these investigators think that this has a similar place among perfect metals, since it is the primary mineral matter. It might also be that they called it so because like the god Mercury it is winged and fugitive, and by virtue of its powerful subtlety penetrates all things and can issue forth from them at will. But let it be called by any name they wish-it does not matter to us. I, like them, shall sometimes call it mercury and sometimes [23 ] quicksilver as it has been named to me, and you will understand it as such. Now I shall leave aside the disputes on whether it is the primary matter of metals or not, since I have said enough concerning this question in the first chapter of the First Book. In order to approach what the philosophers say about it, I say that it may well be material about to be converted into metal, but since it is seen to be so ill-proportioned and so badly decocted, I cannot believe that it can be disposed to the generation of all kinds of metals. Indeed, if it is, I think that if its necessary processes had not been interrupted it would be more apt to generate lead, tin, iron, or even silver rather than copper or gold. And if we wish to consider it in relation to the natural complexions [of metals] or to the power of the, planets, I think that mercury is far distant from those of gold and from the power of the sun and of the moon. Therefore I say that if it is not what I have said, it is a thing that Nature has been pleased to make as it is. I am led to say this because all of it that I have seen has had the same

Jan 1, 1942

By H. W. Page

Petroleum requirements since V-J day have been appreciably higher than predicted. Foreign operations now exceed maximum wartime levels by about 14 per cent. Domestic operations since V-J day have averaged 92 Per cent of the wartime peak. In spite of maximum foreign refinery runs, large exports of all products, except residual fuel oil, are necessary to meet foreign demand. During the next few years it is expected that foreign operations will continue at capacity, including new installations, but that, because of increases in foreign demand, exports will continue at about their present level. Domestic operations will increase during this period and crude production probably will exceed maximum efficient rates. Even after 10 years some exports probably will be required, but eventually these will be supplanted by increased output of foreign refineries, except for small tributary exports. The increase in domestic requirements will exceed the decline in exports. Unless findings of crude oil exceed present expectations, the increasing demand will be met by increased imports and synthetic methods-—such as the Hydrocarbon Synthesis Process for conversion of natural gas and coal to gasoline and distillates. Catalytic cracking installations will increase as crude availability decreases. This will help to meet the increasing demand for gasoline but will intensify the domestic shortage of residual fuel oil. Eventually larger imports will be required to satisfy the demand for this product. Introduction Under the pressure of the wartime period, there was time only occasionaly to look ahead in anticipation of what the postwar era held for the petroleum industry. Perhaps the general expectation was that a rather pronounced decline in the level of industry petroleum operations would take place shortly after the end of the war, with the impact felt mainly on the economy of the United States- It is of interest now, nine months after V-J day, to take inventory of the near-term situation and see what significant forces are at work. With this as a starting point, it should be possible to engage in something more satisfactory than pure speculation concerning trends in the immediate future and 10 to 20 years ahead. Present and Near-term Situation During the nine-month period following V-J day, foreign crude oil production and rebery operations have actually increased the These activities were at maximum capacity on V-J day but the continuation of drilling programs, the completion of new and rehabilitated refineries and of transportation facilities during the Past nine months have increased the foreign capacity. This added capacity has been fully utilized. Foreign crude oil production in May 1946 is about 14 per cent higher than during July 1945 and refining operations some 12 per cent higher' During the same period there has been a falling off in similar activities within the

Jan 1, 1947

By Joseph E. Worthington

Many thousands of years ago when our earliest ancestor first swung out of a tree, picked up a rock, and threw it at what he hoped might be his lunch, the minerals industry, in a manner of speaking, was born. It was then a very long step indeed to the primitive metal industry of our early civilizations, for we know that precious metals were accumulated and some metal objects were produced several thousand years ago. Prospecting, or "exploration" to use the modern euphemism, consisted of little more than outcrop examination and the use of a gold pan, and it probably did not change much from our earliest civilizations until relatively recent times. In a general sense, all the early explorers of North America were also prospectors, for mineral wealth was certainly one of the goals of the first pioneers and settlers. The earliest pioneers didn't do too badly either, for they discovered copper and iron in various places in the Appalachians and Michigan, gold in the Southeast Piedmont and many mineralized areas in the Southwest. In most places these were outcropping ores or gossans, and the prospecting was incidental to the arduous task of ekeing out a living in a new land. It was the explosive discovery of rich placer gold deposits at Sutter's Mill in California that caught the public fancy and precipitated the establishment of prospecting as a full-time occupation. After the end of the Civil War in 1865, full-time prospecting became an important occupation and continued as such for almost three generations. Prospectors equipped with picks, shovels, gold pans and four-footed transportation swarmed all over what are now our Western States, discovering thousands upon thousands of mineral showings-and certainly most of today's large mining districts. Our vigorous western mining industry is a tribute to the courage and persistence of these men. The techniques of these picturesque prospectors, however, were essentially the same as those of their predecessors-examination of every outcrop and assiduous use of the gold pan. The great increase in discovery at this time was therefore due to increased activity rather than to different techniques. An important result of this in- creased prospecting was the growth of interest in geology. It was during this period that the U.S. Geological Survey began to grow. Many of the major mining districts were mapped, and geological studies and projections began to have an impact on further ore discovery. Ore search and development gradually became more geologically oriented and the geologist became a fixture in most mining camps by the 20th century. The development of mass-mining techniques in the early part of the century also changed exploration concepts.

Jan 1, 1971

By H. Q. Golder

With the development of open-pit mines of ever increasing depth, the stability of the pit slopes in soil and rock is of growing economic importance. How is it, considering the newness of the problem that we know anything at all about the stability of man-made slopes? How much do we know and how did it all begin? We can make a reasonable estimate of the stability of a slope in soil, but we know as yet woefully little about slopes in rock because the problem is much more complex. It is only with the development of the capacity of the computer to handle wearisome calculations that any but the simplest of stability problems in rock have become possible of solution. But what we do know is a guide of immense value in the design of slopes in rock. But remember that the computer is a great elevator; it takes everyone's feet off the ground! So our study began with soils and what is now known as "Soil Mechanics", which is a translation of the German term "Bodenmechanik". It is a pity that the title of Terzaghi's book "Erdbaumechanik" was not used instead. But here the task of the translator is difficult because English lacks the facility of German to string together several words and make a new one whose meaning is unequivocal. Thus, we have the three German words 'Erde' 'Bau' and 'Mechanik'. 'Erde' means "earth" in almost all the English senses including "soil". 'Bau' and 'bauen' convey the meaning of building and construction, and 'Mechanik' means "mechanics" which includes statics and dynamics and the 'mechanics of materials', etc. So that a correct translation of the German is a phrase like "the mechanics of construction with, in or on, earth or soil." However we are stuck with 'Soil Mechanics' and that is where it all began. Now this study or subject did not begin with 'Terzaghi' although his contribution to the subject is unquestionably greater than that of any other single person. Every scientific discipline has its 'classical problem' and that of soil mechanics is 'the earth pressure problem' and it began in the 17th century. In fact, it probably began before this with the introduction of gunpowder to Western Europe in about the 15th century, but the first known reference to the problem was by Vauban, a distinguished French military engineer who lived from 1633 to 1707 and who gave rules for the dimensions of retaining walls from 6 to 80 ft. in height. The soil properties were not mentioned by Vauban probably because the rules were intended to be applied to fortifications only, but Poncelet (1840) claimed that Vauban's rules were based on a theory, and not simply on military and practical

Jan 1, 1972

By J. K. Stanley

IT has been known for many years that the magnetic properties of a ferromagnetic material are very sensitive to internal strain. Any structure-sensitive property such as ferromagnetism, which is a-function of the regularity of the atomic arrangement, and discontinuities such as grain boundaries must show deviations from an equilibrium state when the regularity of the lattice is disturbed. Experience has shown that such distortions have a marked effect on the magnetic properties of a ferromagnetic material. The purpose of this paper is to show the feasibility of using magnetic methods in detecting internal strains. More specifically, it will be shown how such properties as permeability, remanence, and coercive force change on cold- working of aluminum iron and how these magnetic properties change during the annealing below the recrystallization temperatures. This work was conducted for two reasons. One was the desire to see in what manner strains are relieved in aluminum iron at low temperatures-a subject of practical importance in soft magnetic materials-and the other was the feeling that a study of cold-working and strain relief might shed some light honour understanding of what takes place in the deformation of metals DEFINITION IN TERMS It is necessary to define the terminology used in this paper because magnetic nomenclature is usually unfamiliar to the metallurgist, and certain other terms, such as recovery, have been used ambiguously by metallurgists and others. Magnetic terms are best explained by reference to the common hysteresis loop of ferromagnetic materials (Fig. I). In Fig. I the coordinates are magnetic induction, B, (ordinate) and magnetizing force, H, (abscissa). The c.g.s. unit for the magnetic induction is the gauss, the number of flux lines per square centimeter, and the unit for the magnetizing force is the oersted, the number of lines of force per centimeter in air or vacuum. If one starts with a completely de- magnetized specimen and magnetizes it, a typical virgin magnetization curve beginning at the origin is obtained. This curve is also the locus of tips of a family of smaller hysteresis loops. From this curve it is to be noted that the induction is not proportional to the magnetizing force, and that it appears to approach a limiting induction called the saturation value, and does so for values of H of 1000 oersteds. The ratio of the magnetic induction (gauss) to the magnetizing force (oersteds) is called permeability, p. Thus µ = B/H and if the magnetizing force H (oersteds) is specified as 10 or IOO oersteds, the permeability is written as µ10 or µ100. This is the accepted notation, and will be used in this paper. The values of permeability for H = 10 or 100 are chosen as indices for

Jan 1, 1945

By J. F. Myers, F. M. Lewis

The paper reports the development of a large, slow speed ball mill closed circuited with a hvdro-scillator. This increased grinding efficiency 28 pct over conventional units. AS the title indicates, this is a progress report for the first year of experimental operation of a relatively large diameter, slow speed ball mill with 1-in. balls, with and without various classifiers, and including a hydroscillator. Several years ago the authors came to the conclusion that if any further progress were to be made in our flotation process, an understanding of the chemical and physical reactions and the control thereof, in the grinding circuit, was essential. It may be stated, at this point, that the preparation of a correct feed for the flotation process is still the number one objective of our grinding studies. This progress report deals with grinding "per se," and not with the chemical and physical reactions as the result of grinding. Prior to this time we had taken the naive position, that since grinding had been practiced by the industry for some fifty years or more, it had been well exploited and developed by a host of investigators. Consequently, we had given the matter only superficial attention. At the start of our study, we were aware of the fact that some difference in opinion existed, but we were not prepared for the controversial evidence that developed nor for the extent to which the experts differed in their viewpoints. There seemed nothing else to do but to tour the continent and decide for ourselves what was right and what was wrong, read all the published literature and visit with anyone who had ideas about the matter. This we did over the next few ensuing years. Since our study has met with some measure of success, we report, herewith, these data that ultimately they may be of help to other investigators. In 1944 it became necessary to increase our grinding capacity and at the same time to grind the sulphide portion a little finer. This provided the impetus to put our ideas into effect. As has been previously described, our grinding flowsheet at that time consisted of a 6x12 rod mill, followed by two 5x10 ft, and one 6x12 ft trunnion overflow ball mills, with conventional rake classifiers. Naturally, we first considered all the possibilities of altering or adding to the existing equipment. It became evident that if any appreciable increase in grinding efficiency could be obtained, it would pay to scrap the existing small mills and classifiers and install one big mill with adequate classification. Trying to determine just how much more efficient a big mill could be, in which were incorporated all

Jan 1, 1951

AS I told you in the chapter on salts, saltpeter is a mixture composed of many substances extracted with fire- and water from arid and manurial soils, from that growth which exudes from new walls or from that loosened soil that is found in tombs or uninhabited caves where the rain cannot enter. It is my belief that it is engendered in these soils from an airy moisture that is drunk in and absorbed by the earthy dryness. Considering its effects, I do not know how to decide and say exactly what the nature of saltpeter is. The learned and very wise physicians find it salty and with a subtle sharpness both in taste and in their medical experiments. Considering its strong biting qualities, they decide to say that it is of a hot and dry nature; on the other hand when they see that it is engendered from the air and that when touched by fire it becomes inflammable and vaporous, and rises with a fearful impetus when mixed in powder for military guns, it manifestly shows itself to be of a hot and moist airy nature. And then when they see that it is shining and transparent with whiteness and is fusible in every fire in a manner corresponding to a thing of a watery nature, and since it. is heavy, it seems that it can be said to be watery in nature. To this is added the experience of touch and of the great cooling action which it has on water in summertime when wine is to be cooled, and since it crushes and breaks with but little pressure, it might be thought to be earthy in nature; especially when it is seen to change into a hard, white stone when burned with an equal amount of sulphur. Thus it seems that every one of the elemental qualities is predominant in it. Now the ancients called this, or a similar thing, nitrum. [150] Pliny, in Book XXXI of his Natural History, has said that it was a thing not much different from salt, that doctors do not seem to have yet known its nature, that it is found in various places, and that the best is found in Macedonia. But among the moderns and especially in our regions, it is not known today what it is that Pliny and other writers refer -to, since according to the aforesaid Pliny and other ancient writers it is a natural mineral. Some say that in place of, the natural kind the artificial will serve for the same medicinal purposes, since it has the same nature and is perhaps more powerful.

Jan 1, 1942

By H. W. Page

Petroleum requirements since V-J day have been appreciably higher than predicted. Foreign operations now exceed maximum wartime levels by about 14 per cent. Domestic operations since V-J day have averaged 92 Per cent of the wartime peak. In spite of maximum foreign refinery runs, large exports of all products, except residual fuel oil, are necessary to meet foreign demand. During the next few years it is expected that foreign operations will continue at capacity, including new installations, but that, because of increases in foreign demand, exports will continue at about their present level. Domestic operations will increase during this period and crude production probably will exceed maximum efficient rates. Even after 10 years some exports probably will be required, but eventually these will be supplanted by increased output of foreign refineries, except for small tributary exports. The increase in domestic requirements will exceed the decline in exports. Unless findings of crude oil exceed present expectations, the increasing demand will be met by increased imports and synthetic methods-—such as the Hydrocarbon Synthesis Process for conversion of natural gas and coal to gasoline and distillates. Catalytic cracking installations will increase as crude availability decreases. This will help to meet the increasing demand for gasoline but will intensify the domestic shortage of residual fuel oil. Eventually larger imports will be required to satisfy the demand for this product. Introduction Under the pressure of the wartime period, there was time only occasionaly to look ahead in anticipation of what the postwar era held for the petroleum industry. Perhaps the general expectation was that a rather pronounced decline in the level of industry petroleum operations would take place shortly after the end of the war, with the impact felt mainly on the economy of the United States- It is of interest now, nine months after V-J day, to take inventory of the near-term situation and see what significant forces are at work. With this as a starting point, it should be possible to engage in something more satisfactory than pure speculation concerning trends in the immediate future and 10 to 20 years ahead. Present and Near-term Situation During the nine-month period following V-J day, foreign crude oil production and rebery operations have actually increased the These activities were at maximum capacity on V-J day but the continuation of drilling programs, the completion of new and rehabilitated refineries and of transportation facilities during the Past nine months have increased the foreign capacity. This added capacity has been fully utilized. Foreign crude oil production in May 1946 is about 14 per cent higher than during July 1945 and refining operations some 12 per cent higher' During the same period there has been a falling off in similar activities within the

Jan 1, 1947

By J. K. Stanley

It has been known for many years that the magnetic properties of a ferromagnetic material are very sensitive to internal strain. Any structure-sensitive property such as ferromagnetism, which is a function of the regularity of the atomic arrangement, and discontinuities such as grain boundaries must show deviations from an equilibrium state when the regularity of the lattice is disturbed. Experience has shown that such distortions have a marked effect on the magnetic properties of a ferromagnetic material. The purpose of this paper is to show the feasibility of using magnetic methods in detecting internal strains. More specifically, it will be shown how such properties as permeability, rema-nence, and coercive force change on cold-working of aluminum iron and how these magnetic properties change during the annealing below the recrystallization temperatures. This work was conducted for two reasons. One was the desire to see in what manner strains are relieved in aluminum iron at low temperatures—a subject of practical importance in soft magnetic materials—and the other was the feeling that a study of cold-working and strain relief might shed some light onour understandingof what takes place in the deformation of metals. Definition of Terms It is necessary to define the terminology used in this Paper because magnetic nomenclature is usually unfamiliar to the metallurgist, and certain other terms, such as recovery, have been used ambiguously by metallurgists and others. Magnetic terms are best explained by reference to the common hysteresis loop of ferromagnetic materials (Fig. I). In Fig. 1 the coordinates are magnetic induction, B, (ordinate) and magnetizing force, H. (abscissa). The c.g.s. unit for the magnetic induction is the gauss, the number of flux lines per square centimeter, and the unit for the magnetizing force is the oersted, the number of lines of force per centimeter in air or vacuum. If one starts with a completely demagnetized specimen and magnetizes it, a typical virgin magnetization curve beginning at the origin is obtained. This curve is also the locus of tips of a family of smaller hysteresis loops. From this curve it is to be noted that the induction is not proportional to the magnetizing force, and that it appears to approach a limiting induction called the saturation value, and does so for values of H of 1000 oersteds. The ratio of the magnetic induction (gauss) to the magnetizing force (oersteds) is called permeability, . Thus u= B/H and if the magnetizing force H (oersteds) is specified as ro or 100 oersteds, the permeability is written as or l00 This is the accepted notation, and will be used in this paper. The values of permeability for H = 10 or I00 are chosen as indices for 106

Jan 1, 1945

By Rush Greenslade

THE oil and gas lease is the basic contract of the oil and gas industry; it is the foundation stone upon which the producing industry, particularly, is based. As the industry is precarious and highly speculative, the foundation contract should be of the utmost integrity and certainty. But right there an anomaly exists; the oil and gas lease is the most obscure, most uncertain, doubtful contract in the realm of law today. That is a condition that must be considered when taking oil and gas leases, and when buying, selling, and holding them. It may fairly be asked why should this industry rest upon so insecure a foundation. Why should not the oil industry rest upon the contract that is the basis of all industry, the warranty deed? There are many contributing reasons, but the principal one is business expediency. The Anglo-Saxon idea of ownership of land is that every land owner owns from the center of the earth to the sky all that is above and all that is below-consequently the oil and gas are owned by the person who owns the surface. That idea is not exactly true with reference to oil and gas, for many states have adopted the doctrine that oil and gas are like wild animals; they are fugacious and migratory and belong to the man that traps them. But, except for that doctrine, we believe that oil and gas are owned by the owner of the surface, wherein we differ from the Latin-American countries where the mineral rights are owned by the government. The United States was settled largely by homesteading. The owners of land were, in the main, farmers, who did not have the means or the faith to drill for oil or gas. The operators or speculators did not want to buy the land on the mere possibility of finding oil; hence a compromise resulted by which the land owner gave the speculator or the operator what he called an oil and gas lease, or a right to go upon his land and drill for oil and gas. What is supposed to be the first oil lease placed on record reads as follows: Agreed this 4th day of July, A.D. 1853, with J. D. Angier of Cherrytree township in the county of Venango Pennsylvania that he shall repair up and keep in order the old oil springs on land in said Cherrytree township, or dig and make new springs, and the expense to be deducted out of the proceeds of the oil, and the balance, if any, to be

Jan 8, 1924

By J. E. Hilliard

A procedure is described for determining, from measurements on a section, the moments of any degree n (i.e., the mean value of Dn, where D is a linear dimension) of the size distribution of particles (or grains) in an opaque sarnple. The analysis is applicable to particles of alnzost any shape and to any mixture of shapes. However, if absolute values of the wloments are required, it is necessary to know what shapes are present and the relative frequency of their occurrence. In addition, certain shape-dependent parameters have to be evaluated before the formulas can be used. The measurement required is the distribution of intercept lengths. This can be determined either visually or with an automatic scanning instrument. Corrections me derived for the bias due to instrumental end effects. The proposed analysis has the following advantages over existing ones: 1) Confidence limits are easily estimated for the measured properties or, conversely, the number of counts required to achieve a given accuracy can be determined. 2) The analysis is not restricted to particles of a special shape. 3) The error resulting from any known degree of departure of the actual from the assumed particle shape can be estimated. 4) The computations are simple and, apart from a change in constants, are independent of particle shape. 5) The number of particles per unit volume can be determined by a simple counting procedure. MANY procedures have been described for determining the size distribution of particles from measurements on a section (or plane of polish). They differ from one another in the property measured on the section (radius, intercept length, profile area) and in the method used for the numerical solution of the integral equation relating the property to the particle size distribution. However, all existing analyses share at least two of the following disadvantages. 1) They are limited to a particular shape of particle (usually spherical). 2) It is very difficult to determine how the statistical sampling error is propagated into the computed size distribution. The investigator thus has no means of knowing the reliability of his result and, what is of equal concern, he is unable to estimate how many measurements are required to obtain a result of the required accuracy. 3) It is also difficult to assess the error resulting from any deviation between the actual and assumed particle shape. The foregoing limitations stem from the complex relationship between the particle size distribution and the distribution of the property measured on the section. As will be shown, they can be avoided by defining the size distribution in terms of discrete parameters

Jan 1, 1969

By F. J. Radd, R. L. McGlasson

The mechanisms of corrosion and corrosion fatigue damages to sucker rods are examined from a fundamental electrochemical viewpoint, and the relationships of sucker rod microstructures to these damaging effects are defined. The common corrosive agents in crude oil production and storage are discussed as to types of attacks that they cause. The variations of fatigue strength with alloy content, surface preparation, and stress ranges are analyzed. Finally, conclusions are drawn as to how microstructures largely influence and control sucker rod performance. INTRODUCTION Greater than 90 per cent of the crude oil produced by artificial lift methods is produced through sucker rod pumping systems. In the USA each year more than $14 million is spent for sucker rods in new and old pumping installations. It is important to make this investment a wise one. Essentially, the sucker rod system is a long series of steel rods, operating under alternating stress loadings and under mechanical vibrations, which connect the surface power source with the subsurface pump. These rods often operate in a variety of corrosive media, including water, brines, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sul-fide, and air. Basically, this paper is concerned with the problem of the behavior of certain steels in various corrosive media under high and dynamic stress patterns. The main objective of this paper is to show how, once the stress effects and the corrosive environments are defined, one can still realize structural control and beneficial influence upon corrosion and corrosion fatigue. FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND ANALYSIS In the corrosion and stress behavior of this solid state mixture of iron and iron carbide called steel, one must analyze upon what major factors does its service life depend and of what, exactly, is steel composed. The former question can be referred to two external factors and two internal factors. The two major external factors are: 1. the nature of the stress patterns — size and range of stresses present 2. the nature of the corrosion — erosion environment — the corrodent and/or wear involved The two fundamental internal factors that govern the strength and useful life of a steel both in normal duty and in heavy-duty corrosion service are: 1. the nature of the steel volume properties 2. the nature of the steel surface properties For the latter question normal steel is defined as a solid mixture of iron and iron carbide particles, generally with certain accidental and intentional elements present. (The amount of iron carbide present is determined by the carbon content of the steel.) These additional elements generally dissolve into either the iron (ferrite) or the iron carbide (cementite) components.

Jan 1, 1955

By J. B. Macelwane

Geophysics differs from geology and physics in in many respects. In the first place, geophysics is a complex science embracing the fields of seismology, geomagnetism, geoelectricity, geodesy, meteorology, vol-canology, physical oceanography, physical hydrology, tectonophysics and exploration geophysics. Geology is also a complex science and so extensive in its various fields that no one can master them all, and no part of geology deals in any sense with several of these fields of geophysics. In the second place, geophysics makes use of methods and instruments that are derived primarily from the science of physics. Geology, on the other hand, has methods of its own and it draws its borrowed techniques and its instrumental equipment not only from physics but also and perhaps primarily from chemistry and biology. The difference, therefore, between the geophysicist and the geologist lies partly in the phenomena that are observed, partly in the methods and instruments with which each carries on his exploration; but partly also, and perhaps principally, in the habitual attitude of mind and in the background of specialized training with which each approaches the problems presented by this planet of ours. The geologist as such, therefore, is no geophysicist. On the other hand, the physicist is not a geophysicist either. Isolation of each problem in a closed laboratow system under complete control is fundamental to the methods of the physicist. The geophysicist must apply physical instruments and physicomathematical reasoning to the study of physical quantities in their undisturbed natural environment. What, then, is a geophysicist? In the sense that he is a trained expert in all of the geophysical sciences, I do not believe that such a person ever existed. It would be beyond the possibilities of a single lifetime. I think there is confusion in our ideas and in our use of terms. We are not all thinking of the same thing when we say geophysics or geophysicist; yet we seem to talk as though we were. It is as absurd to say that the whole of geophysics belongs to geology because the field of a particular type of geophysicist—the exploration geophysicist —calls for some knowledge of geology as it would be to say that the whole of biology belongs to geology because a particular type of biologist—the paleontologist— needs some knowledge of geology. Development of a Geophysicist Since it is impossible to become an expert in all the fields of geophysics, and since students entering college seldom know the field they will choose as a career, what would we suggest as the best general preparation for work in geophysics, whether as a meteorologist, an oceanographer, a seismologist, a geodesist, a geomagneticist, a volcanologist, a tectonophysicist, a hydro1 ogist, or an exploration geophysicistp we may distinguish five phases in the development of a geophysicist: (I) his mathematical and scientific studies in high school; (2) the general mathematical and scientific

Jan 1, 1946

By G. W. Thompson

G. W. THOMPSON,* Brooklyn, N. Y.-This subject has two aspects, neither of-which can be ignored: these are the economic aspect and the technical aspect. Under ordinary conditions, economic law will take care of the conservation of tin. Under present conditions it seems desirable that economic law should still be permitted to operate as far as is practicable. It is true that this law operates rather slowly, and that under war conditions it cannot be depended upon to give our Government the supply it immediately needs. There should, therefore, be a designation of the essential industries by the Government, and tin should be supplied for those needs, letting the non-essential industries take what is left. At the same time, information ought to be forthcoming as to how tin can be conserved; with tin selling at 80 c. per pound, more or less, it is to the interest of every consumer to get the best information he can as to how he can save tin. Economic law would properly punish those who do not study their own interests in this way. I deprecate, therefore, any centralized socialistic effort toward avoiding penalties through failure to observe and obey economic law. In saying this, however, I am not unmindful that it is desirable for our Government to take such control of the tin situation as may be necessary to the prosecution of the war, practically regardless of the effect of such action upon individual industry, which should studiously seek to adjust itself to the new condition. The Government should promulgate such technical information as it can collect, showing how tin can be conserved, and should urge upon every consumer the exercise of his common sense in self-protection. There is very little danger of any one attempting to hoard or corner tin, in the present state of the market. Most consumers will be glad to live from hand to mouth, covering their sales by purchases, or vice versa. As to the technical aspects: Tin and tin alloys are used to give certain practical and also certain artistic results. The practical factors are those involved in proper adhesion, continuity of surface, protection, the right degree of hardness, proper working qualities, etc. The artistic results are those that appeal purely to the eye or to our cultivated sense of what is desirable. There is no doubt that a great deal of tin could be saved if there were not a demand for certain pleasing effects. How can this saving be brought about? The users of tin hearing alloys are not the only ones involved in this question. The manufacturers of solder and babbitt have for a long time sought to give certain appearances to their fabricated bars and ingots in order to make them more salable. The user of a solder is very apt to judge of its working qualities by the appearance of the bar; the same thing is true with regard to babbitts. Under ordinary conditions, manufacturers are justified in trying to

Jan 12, 1918