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By Theron Wasson

Michigan's production of 17,301,000 bbl. in 1945, which is in line with previous years, has been maintained by extensions to old fields like Deep River, Adams, Fork, and others. There were a number of new discoveries but, as in the past, these are not given very much importance because enough drilling has not been done to develop their potentialities; however, judging by the past, some of them will develop enough production so that 1946 -will probably be in line with other years. Activities in Michigan were confined to the Basin area of the lower Peninsula, which has been under development since 1925.

Jan 1, 1946

By G. M. Ellis

When developing a mineral processing facility, the mining company management and engineering staff should have some knowledge of the construction industry in order to work with the contractors involved as a team. Of course, the situation varies with the nature of the project and its size, but relations among owners, engineers, and contractors always will be enhanced if the mining company has a knowledge of three construction industry facets: (1) the makeup of a construction company, (2) the functions performed by its staff, and (3) the various types of contracts and tendering procedures available. There are several options open to a company wishing to bring a new mine into production from the grass roots, depending upon corporate structure, capabilities, and financial strength. A company that already employs a substantial engineering staff may elect to manage and perform the design requirements itself, and may handle some or even all of the actual construction work. But in cases where bank financing is required, the loan is often dependent upon adequate professional construction help being used.

Jan 1, 1978

By R. G. Baughman

With the constantly increasing sales competition, coal to be sold today must meet the test of quality in every respect. The producers must be able to make all marketable sizes that will meet such general requirements as follows: 1. Ash content must be consistently low, depending upon the use to be made of the coal. 2. Sulfur content must be controlled accurately according to requirements. 3. All sizes must be positively free from visible impurities. 4. Free moisture of washed sizes must be reduced to a minimum. 5. The freezing of wet coal in cars must be prevented. 6. The percentage of fines in small mixed sizes must be controlled to give the uniform and proper combustion when used on various types of automatic stokers. 7. The undersize particles or degradation caused by handling must be kept to an absolute minimum in all sizes loaded. Many difficulties may be met in bringing any particular coal to meet these quality requirements, because the extent to which the quality of a coal may be controlled is determined largely by its physical characteristics. Preparation of an Impure Coal Bed The application of modern and scientific methods in the controlled preparation of bituminous coal from a bed in the mid-western field will illustrate the results that can be accomplished by adequate preparation: The bed referred to contains coal inherently excellent as to low ash and other desirable characteristics; in fact, the coal itself is one of the best in the field. It is, however, divided into four layers by dirt bands of soft shale 1 to 2 in. thick. It also contains much sulfur in the form of sulfur lenses and laminated sheets. Horsebacks or rolls varying from 6 in. to 12 ft. in width are encountered in the mining of the bed and heretofore have rendered it practically unworkable. The mines operating in this

Jan 1, 1931

By Theo B. Comstock

TO the large majority of visitors the unique features of the National Park are interesting chiefly on account of their novelty. Scientists of all schools may find here food for reflection, and much that is rare and marvelous; but the real, practical uses of the reservation, aside from its pleasure-giving adaptations, are not as yet fully appreciated. Since 1873, the writer has on frequent occasions expressed freely his own views upon the proper means of utilizing the Park for the best interests of science.* Some of the recommendations made have been adopted by the authorities. At the suggestion of friends I present here a brief statement of facts concerning matters which may be of advantage for visiting engineers to know, hoping that the very limited stay of the Institute may thereby be rendered a little more profitable, and that our common profession may possibly receive some benefit. First, then, it should be understood that, as in many other cases in. the West, the present routes to the Park from the south are not the most direct. The expedition of Captain (now Major) Jones in 1873 discovered a practicable route for a, wagon or railroad via the head of Wind River, through To-gwo-tee Pass and Two-Ocean Pass, by which the distance from Point of Rocks, Wyoming, on the Union Pacific R.R., to the Yellowstone Lake, is only 290 miles. Eventually, it is probable that a railway line from Cheyenne or some other point in Wyoming will be constructed, which, taking advantage of

Jan 1, 1888

By Robert Stefanko

With passage of the Clean Streams Act of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and its impact on the coal industry, considerable research has been conducted to explore various approaches to the problem, including deep-well disposal. Available drillhole data from gas and oil wells were used to develop cross -sectional maps for various portions of the state and potential disposal zones were evaluated. Bethlehem Mines Corp., faced with a severe water problem at its Marianna operation in Washington County, cooperated with the Dept. of Mining at The Pennsylvania State University in establishing a 1500-ft well into the Salt Sands for the purpose of determining the feasibility of mine water disposal. The thickness, porosity, and permeability of the formation at the well site proved to be below what had been anticipated from drillhole data. Further, subsequent hydraulic fracturing did not improve the flow characteristics of the well; pumping pressures remained in the range of 1800-2000 psig for disposing of water at the rate of 150 gpm. The legal problems of disposal at the site were very formidable. When the Salt Sands proved to be less than satisfactory, permission could not be obtained to dispose in other promising formations. The paper details many of the problems associated with the experimental well and makes an assessment of the potential for deep-well disposal of mine water. The concept of disposing of liquid industrial wastes by deep-well injection is not a new one. Brines associated with crude oil long have been disposed of in this manner, with the additional benefit of aiding secondary oil recovery. More recently, with the expansion of nuclear energy, the lethal, highly radioactive wastes which are by-products of the fission process have created severe disposal problems. During the past ten years, a variety of industries have resorted to subsurface disposal, some of the details of which are given e1sewhere.l,2 The list reveals wide variations in injection rate, pumping pressure, cost, and waste disposition. Included are successful installations in Western Pennsylvania. Enactment of more restrictive clean-water legislation in Pennsylvania recently had a great impact on the coal industry. Among its provisions was the reclassifica-tion of most mine water as industrial waste whose dis-posal is prohibited in any stream of the Commonwealth. This had the effect of accelerating research in a variety of areas, although treatment methods still retained primary interest. When a feasibility study of deep-well disposal was proposed to the Pennsylvania Dept. of Mines and Mineral Industries, the Coal Research Board (CRB) approved it. This paper summarizes the efforts on this project. Acid mine water is a chemically complex liquid. having no definite quantitative relationship among its constituents. However, it is the iron disulfide (FeS2) associated with practically all coal seams that produces the objectionable products present in acid mine water when combined with air and water. The principal contaminants are sulfuric acid (H2SO,) and ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)2. Ferric hydroxide is a rust-colored gelatinous precipitate that coats stream bottoms and destroys aquatic life. However, other ions and bacteria are present in acid mine water in varying amounts.

Jan 1, 1971

By J. Moore Samuel

INTRODUCTORY BEFORE the year 1909, no measurements of dust losses and flue gases had been made at the Copper Queen Reduction Works, at Douglas, Ariz. At that time the "unaccounted" loss of the smelter had reached a figure, that drew attention to the possibility of large stack losses. The measurement of dust losses had not been studied much at that time, and estimates of dust losses, with a few exceptions, were the results of tests by what has been termed "chemical methods," that is, the aspiration and filtration through cotton, wool or some similar medium of a few liters of gas, the dust being weighed on a chemical balance, and the volume of gas computed from the volume of aspirator water. The possible error of this method is enormous, and the probable error much too large for reliable results. Since the object of these tests was to discover not only the extent of the dust losses, but also the possibility of profitably reducing the same, it was decided that the method adopted must have the following characteristics: 1. The sample of gas taken for filtration must be representative of the whole volume of gas, that is to say, it must have the same dust content. This condition will be fulfilled in all cases if the gas sample is drawn off without change of rate of flow. Then it will contain the same proportion of entrained or suspended particles of dust as the original gas. In the case of flue gases which contain only fume, at a temperature above or near the sublimation point, this condition need not be adhered to since the fume will not behave as entrained particles, but more nearly as a true gas. Consequently the gas sample in this case only may be drawn off at any rate of flow. 2. The gas sample taken must be large enough (a) to yield sufficient dust to permit of accurate chemical and physical examination; (b) so that the ratio of the total volume of gas passing through the flue to the volume of gas sample taken shall not be too large.

Jan 6, 1916

By J. L. Huitt, B. B. McGlothlin

The introduction of new fracture propping agents that are brittle but much stronger than sand created the problem of what loading strength is required for a propping agent to be effective in a given formation. It is shown that the load at which the propping agent crushes should exceed the load at which total embedment in the fracture faces is possible. Simple laboratory tests to determine loading strength of the propping agent and embedment in the fracture faces, and use of these data in selecting a propping agent for a given formation, are discussed. INTRODUCTION One of the most important factors in the design of hydraulic fracturing treatments is the selection of a propping agent that can effectively provide the fracture flow capacity needed for stimulation of a well. Sand, once generally accepted as being synonymous with propping agent in hydraulic fracturing, is now recognized as having limited effectiveness in many formations because of its low resistance to crushing. Sand particles are brittle and have relatively low strength. Because of this property, sand particles are crushed in rocks that offer high resistance to the penetration of fracture faces by the proppant particles when the fracture attempts to close under the action of the overburden load. For rocks that offer a high resistance to penetration, deform able particles are more effective propping agents than sand. However, for this same type of rock, a propping agent that does not deform, yet does not crush, is often more effective. Thus, a rigid propping agent with sufficient strength to prevent crushing is desirable. A method for determining the strength required for a rigid propping agent to function effectively in given formations is discussed. BEHAVIOR OF RIGID PROPPANTS AND FRACTURE FACES RELATED STUDIES An early qualitative description of the reaction of propping sand in fractures was given by Hassebroek et al.' In discussing fracturing in deep wells, the authors mentioned that even though propping sand entered the fractures, a high flow capacity did not result due to crushing or embedding of the propping sand. Dehlinger et al.2 in discussing the reaction of propping sand surmised that, because of the hardness of sand particles, deformation occurred in the fracture faces contacting the propping sand. In later studies,3,4 methods of determining the embedment of propping sand in fracture faces of soft rock and the critical load at which propping sand is crushed by the fracture faces in hard rock were discussed. In working with de-formable proppants, Kern et al. considered proppant particles to be deformed into cylindrical disks by action of the overburden and then pressed slightly into the fracture faces by further action of the overburden. Rixie et al.'0 reported on embedment pressure and presented a method of selecting a propping agent for use in given formations. The propping agents included sand, walnut shells and aluminum pellets. All these studies have contributed materially to a better understanding of propping agent behavior; however, the strength of brittle proppants (sand, glass and ceramics) required to result in embedment rather than crushing has not been discussed. This topic will be covered in the ensuing discussion. PROPPANT PARTICLE CRUSHING—-EMBEDMENT For this discussion, a rigid propping agent is considered to be one that is brittle and fails under tensile stress when loaded to a critical value. In an earlier study4 it was shown that the Hertzian4 loading theory could be applied to a spherical brittle propping agent if the propping agent and fracture faces behaved elastically. At the failure of the proppant, the ratio of the load to the square of the diameter of the particle should be constant for a given material combination, or: Lc/dp2=C ............(1) A partial derivation of this equation from proppant and formation properties is included in the Appendix. Should a rigid particle not be crushed as a load is applied, it embeds in the fracture faces. A study3 of particle embedment in fracture surfaces has been published. The embedment can be described by an equation based on Meyer's metal penetration hardness relationships: d1/dp=B 1/2[L/dp2]m/2..........(2) In Eq. 2, B and m are constants that are characteristic of the rock; the significance of the other terms is shown in Fig. 1. A STANDARD DEFINITION FOR PROPPANT LOADING STRENGTH Eq. 1 is useful in appraising propping agent strength," but it is strictly applicable only when the area of contact between a particle and a fracture face (or loading plate)

Jan 1, 1967

By John W. Cabot

THE following series of analyses, which may, be of interest to Bessemer-steel makers, is submitted as a contribution to the much-vexed discussion of manganese in Bessemer steel. They were made by the writer in the spring of 1881, at the works of the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Company Limited, during a period of about eight days, part of, which time the rail-steel showed great variation in rolling qualities. During the first part of the time in question, it rolled well; later on it began to roll worse until, finally, it cracked very badly, reaching its worst stage. After this it rapidly improved until it again rolled smoothly. During this .time of transition 'from. good rolling to bad, and back to good again, the course of the manganese was followed' quite closely. It is the striking correspondence between these varying manganese contents and the differences in rolling which is here presented as worthy of notice. The other ordinary elements were determined occasionally, but showed no unusual variation Tim steel, in question, was ordinary rail-steel of about "the following composition : C=.35.P=.08.Mn=.98. Si=.08. S=.05. The samples for manganese determinations were taken at first from an average of two days' work, and later on, when the steel

Jan 1, 1882

By B. L. Landrum, P. B. Crawford

The rise of a new laboratory model for studying tran-sient fluid flow problems, is described. The theory of he model is based on the analogy between the equa-ions which describe the flow of compressible fluids in porous media and the conduction of heal m solids. The "thermal model" is used to study the Iransient Pressure distributions during fluid displacement in five Standard well patterns. The studies indicate quantita-ively how die pressures change with lane at any poit in the reservoir. It was found that, in general, the equipressure contours are more radial about the wells early in the program than after steady-state conditions are established. In addition two studies of fractured five-spot patterns are presented to illustrate the opplicability of the model for a wide range of reservoir conditions. INTRODUCTION In reviewing the oil recovery techniques involving fluid displacement it was found that a very considerable quantity, if not all of the fluid within the pattern, mav be displaced (during a time-dependent or transient period rather than the usually applied steady-state conditions. Since the oil is displaced during a transient period, it was believed desirable to study the nature of the transients for several of the commonly used fluid displacement patterns. A literature review indicated fairly complete studies of the streamlines and isopotentials for steady-state: yet few data were available on the transient displacement process. Several simulated steady-state multiwell displacement programs were carefully mapped by Foster and Lodge on an electrical conducting sheet as early as 1875, hut the more recent work of Muskat provides the best source for steady-state phenomena having direct petroleum production applications. In order to study the transient phenomena a new lab-oratory model was developed which is based on the similarity of the equations that describe the flow of fluids and the conduction of heal. The equations describing heat flow were developed early in the nineteenth century. Regorous solutions tor most transient problems are in gcneral complex and usually limited to fairly restricted houndary conditions.2 the thermal model may be used to obtain approximate solutions for many transient problems without some of the restrictions required for analytical solution. The application of the analogy between heat conduc-. tion in solids. electrical flow and fluid flow, in a porous media has long been recognised. Techniques originally developed for the solution of heat conduction prol?lems have in many instances proved useful in ohtaining solutions to fluid flow prohlcms. Ir is not surpri5ing then that a heat conduction or thermal model might bf usefull in sludying transient fluid flow. As an example ol the problems suitable for the study with the thermal model, transient pressure distributions during fluid displacement programs are studied for the five-spot, line-drive, staggered line-diibe. seven-spot 211 two fractured patterns. A model was constructed of an iron plate of geometry similar to the reservoir patterns under study. The principle of mirror images as suggested by Bryan was employed in shaping the model. A temperature differential was obtained by soldering two sections of copper tubing to the plate at points analogous to the well location in the field. Hot and cold water was passed through the tubing. The temperature distribution, analogous to the pressure distribution in the field. was obtained a a function of time from thermocouplcs distributed over the plate.

By M. A. Torcaso, P. Raimondi

To study mass transport in systems simulating oil recovery processes, different porous media were saturated with a mobile (carrier phase) and a stationary phase. Slugs of carrier phase containing a small amount of solute were displaced with pure carrier phase. By analogy to the chromato-graphic processes, the velocity of the solute can be predicted from a knowledge of the partition coefficient and the saturation provided that equilibrium between the two phases exists. Equilibrium was found to exist for different porous media, solutes and rates. The conditions were varied over the range normally encountered in the laboratory and in the field. The longitudinal dispersion of a solute undergoing interphase mass transfer was also investigated. INTRODUCTION The production of hydrocarbons by gas cycling, enriched gas drive and C02 or alcohol displacement involves, among other factors, relative motion between two phases and compounds, hereafter called solute, which are soluble in both phases. The solute is carried forward by the faster flowing phase at a lower velocity than the average velocity of that phase. Retardation of the solute is caused by chromatographic absorption and desorption in the slower flowing phase and by the degree of departure from equilibrium. At equilibrium the concentration of solute in the two phases can be related by the equation* CSw = K Cso ,............(1) where C, and C are the concentration of solute in the aqueous and oleic phases respectively and K is the equilibrium ratio, or partition coefficient. Displacement theories must contain an explicit assumption with regard to equilibrium, i.e., whether the compositions can be related by Eq. 1. The existance of equilibrium depends, in general, on the relative velocity between the phases. Unfortunately, other factors such as gravity segregation and viscous fingering, also depend on velocity. For this reason, whenever effects of rate on displacement were observed,2-4 it was practically impossible to discern what caused them — lack of equilibrium or the factors mentioned above. Equilibrium between phases has been the subject of extensive studies in fields such as extraction or chroma to graphy. It has received only small attention in flow through the type of porous media encountered in oil production.5 For this reason a method was developed which makes it possible to study the movement of a solute as it is affected by rate, type of porous media, partition coefficient and carrier phase, but in the absence of segregation or fingering. The information obtained enables one to determine when the assumption of equilibrium can be made. Briefly, the method consists of (1) saturating the core with a mobile and an immobile phase, (2) injecting a slug made up of the same fluid as the mobile phase and a small concentration of mutually soluble solute, (3) measuring the lag and the peak height of the slug at arrival and (4) correlating these variables with fluid properties such as partition coefficient and mixing constants of the medium. PROPOSED MECHANISM The principles of chromatography are combined with the equation of longitudinal mixing to predict the velocity of a solute slug compared to the bulk velocity and the peak height of a slug.6-9 The equation so obtained is valid under equilibrium conditions only. Therefore, a comparison between experimental and predicted results will give a measure of departure from equilibrium. This work was done with either the oleic or the aqueous phase being immobile. For simplicity, the following development is based on the case where the oleic phase is immobile. However, the treatment is the same in either case.

Jan 1, 1966

Jan 1, 1906

By John J. Curzon

The existence of mineralized ground in the area near Lake Chelan has been known since 1887, when Major A. B. Rogers, a locating engineer for the Great Northern Railway, came up Lake Chelan to Railroad Creek in search of a pass over the Cascade Mountains. The steep mountainsides near the crest of the Cascades proved too difficult for railroad construction, and the project was abandoned. Upon his return to Seattle, Major Rogers apparently told his friends, the Denny family, about the large, red, oxidized patches he had seen on the valley walls along Railroad Creek. The Dennys, being true pioneers in spirit, grubstaked J. H. Holden to explore the area and to stake any promising mining ground, and thus began the chain of events that culminated in the construction of the plant that is now known as the Chelan Division of the Howe Sound Company. Holden staked the first group of claims in 1892. Soon afterward, A. H. Murdock, who was then a storekeeper in Chelan, and who is still living at Waterville, and his partner, W. P. Robinson, staked adjacent ground. These two groups of claims formed a substantial part of the mining property being worked today. During the period from the original staking in 1892 up to 1928, when the Britannia Mining and Smelting Co. optioned the property, many attempts were made to bring the property into production, through the formation of several stock companies and by examination and testing by engineers from several well-known mining companies. Although the Britannia organization optioned the property in 1928, not much was done until 1930, when a subsidiary was formed—the Chelan Copper Mining Co.—to explore further the possibilities of the ground. Some work was done during the next few years, but it was not until March 1937 that the Chelan Division of the Howe Sound Co. took over with a program of "full speed ahead," and active development of the mine and construction of the complete plant was begun, including docks, tug and barges, 54 miles of power line, 11 miles of road, mill, shop buildings and complete camp. Production began in April 1938, and has continued without interruption, except for regular change days and holidays and a six-weeks strike in 1939. This interval of time has seen the gradual evolution of a mine and mill originally planned for a rate of 1000 tons per day into a compact operation that last year averaged 2264 tons per operating day. This operation, although rather small when compared with the large copper producers of the Southwest, is important to the state of Washington for several reasons: It has provided employment for several hundred people continuously since construction days in 1937; it has helped materially in the war effort, through production of vital copper and zinc, without which no war can be won; and last, but not least, it has conclusively refuted the old pessimistic arguments that a successful mine would never be found in the Cascade Mountains of Washington. The Holden mine has been producing

Jan 1, 1946

By W. Kennedy

THROUGHOUT northeastern Texas we have an extensive series of iron-ore deposits, occupying portions of nineteen counties and having approximately an actual ore-covered area of 1000 square miles. The existence of these ores has long been known. Kennedy* says: "Iron-ore is distributed in profusion throughout Texas, being found almost everywhere except in the level region of the coast." Before this, C. Newell† had mentioned the existence of these ores thus: " Iron is found in abundance in the eastern, northern and middle portions of Texas;" and in 1849 Edward Smith‡ said: " We met with immense hills of iron which were said to be, and appeared to be, of excellent quality, in Cass and Titus counties.. . .. It is well known that Texas abounds with iron of first-rate quality." In 1859, Dr. Shumard? reports that detailed surveys had been made in several counties, and says: " Our labors have demonstrated the important fact that we have a vast iron-region in the eastern part of the state, embracing considerable areas in Cass, Harrison, Rusk, Panola, Smith, San Augustine and Shelby counties. The ore-deposits belong to the Tertiary era and consist chiefly of hematites and limonites, of which there are several varieties. We have also found in this district extensive beds of carbonate of iron." Dr. Shumard gives no very exaggerated description of Cass county§ as it then existed when he says : " Cass county alone is capable of supplying a number of furnaces with an abundance of excellent iron-ore for many years." Of Rusk county he says: "Our de-

Jan 1, 1895

By Park Wright

THE fact that granite has been encountered by the drill by those in search of oil and gas in Kansas is becoming more and more a matter of interest, not only to the oil producer but to everyone directly and- indirectly connected with the oil business. It is, therefore, time that someone should offer an explanation for its presence and form a definite opinion based on all the data available in regard to the effect it will have on the future prospects of the area affected as probable oil- and gas-producing territory. At present there seems to be no consensus of opinion. To the writer's knowledge, only one attempt has been made to explain; by Erasmus Haworth, State Geologist of Kansas, in a paper entitled Bulletin, Number Two on Crystalline Rocks in Kansas. The purpose of the present paper is to offer a theory for the presence of the granite and to draw conclusions which will aid in determining the prospective oil and gas value of the area in question. In taking up this question it will be well to consider first the tests in which granite has been reported, with a general history of each. The accompanying map (Fig. 1) shows the location of all wells described. The first well in which granite was reported was that drilled just south of Zeandale in section 27, township 10 south, range 9 east, by a local company which had taken up a block of leases in that vicinity. At a depth of 958 ft. (291.99 m.) granite was encountered. Drilling was continued to a depth of 1,093 ft. (333 m.) in the same formation, at which depth the hole was abandoned. Another well was started 1 mile east of the first well and the same rock was found at a depth of 945 ft. (288 m.). Drilling was continued to a depth of 1,200 ft. (365.76 m.) with the bit in the sane formation. Samples of the drill cuttings have been examined and they are undoubtedly crushed granite. The next well in which granite was found was that drilled by DeLaat and Shepard, independent wildcat operators, in section 34, township 19 south,. range 7 east, near the town of Elmdale. Granite was struck at 1,707 ft. (520 m.) and the hole was abandoned in the same formation at 2,525 ft. (769 m.). Mr. DeLaat watched the drilling of this well very closely and he has described to me in some detail the formation immedi-

Jan 8, 1917

By Kendall Y. Keuhey

The Mercur Mine, developed and operated by Getty Mining Company, is designed to process 3,000 tons/day of gold ore from the historic Mercur Hill mining district. The mill process involves crushing, grinding, and cyanide carbon-in-leach for recovery of gold from ores ranging from 0.08 to 0.10 oz/ton. During the mining of normal grade ore, a substantial tonnage of material containing 0.02 to 0.05 oz/ton is mined and would be available for heap leaching. Also, Getty Mining is developing methods to test and prepare lower grade material for heap leaching by rejecting a coarse rock fraction from the grinding SAG mill circuit. This lower grade fraction is suitable for heap leaching, and its removal will upgrade the regular mill feed. Other test methods are directed toward leaching techniques on some 4.0 million tons of tailings that resulted from roasting and/or cyanide leaching Mercur ores in the early 1900's. The natural carbons associated with the Mercur deposits require special treatment to reduce their gold adsorption effects when leached with cyanide.

Jan 1, 1984

By H. R. MacMichael

IN the Chihuahua district of Mexico the first smelting was that inaugurated by the early Spaniards for the production of silver bullion. The ores treated were high in silver and lead. Silver-lead bullion was first produced and the lead then cupelled to waste, with the slag produced running from 5 to 10 per cent in lead and about 25 to 40 per cent silica. The ore was mined by peon labor, often being carried out of the mine on the backs of the men, and then transported by burros. Furnaces were of primitive construction, adobe or rock being used in the earlier period and some iron later when it became available. Blast was originally supplied by bellows manually operated. Such smelting was carried on to a greater or lesser extent until the latter part of the last century, and so extensive was it that many hundred thousand tons of leady slag remained to be treated in modern furnaces. In 1908 a smelter was placed in operation at Chihuahua by the American Smelting & Refining Co. At that time the ore was practically all oxidized and by a little selection, self-fluxing mixtures could be made, but with an average lead content usually under 10 per cent and sometimes as low as 7 per cent. The bullion produced would carry from 150 to 300 oz. silver per ton. The slag made approximated 30 per cent SiO2, 42 per cent FeO, 21 per cent CaO, and perhaps 3 per cent Zn. The ores varied from hard, coarse material which was passed through a crusher, to a considerable quantity of fines which had to be smelted as it came, as crushing the coarse was the only preparation for smelting.

Jan 1, 1933

Meeting of Jan. 23, 1914.-The President reported the appointment of Arthur S. Dwight and E. Gybbon Spilsbury as tellers to canvass the votes for the Annual Election of Directors. The President reported the appointment of the Committee on Precious and Base Metals, reorganized in accordance with the list on page xlvi. . The Treasurer was authorized to invest the sum of approximately $1,000, accruing from the sale of Life Memberships during the past year, by the purchase of one gold bond of the Interborough Rapid Transit Co., due 1966, at 5 per cent. The By-Laws of the San Francisco Local Section were approved. The recommendation of the Lord Kelvin Memorial Fund Committee that the balance of the fund unexpended be applied to the establishment of a Kelvin Gold Medal was approved. Forty-two members who had paid up all arrears of clues were reinstated. The sum of $100 was appropriated to the Columbia Local Section. The price of each of the three Volumes of Transactions of the year 1913 was established as $5 in paper and $6 in half-morocco. Forty-three Members, One Associate and four Junior Members were elected to membership in their respective classes.

Jan 2, 1914

By Gail F. Moulton

The production of petroleum in Illinois in 1928 was approximately 6,500,000 bbl., a decline of about 500,000 bbl. from the previous year and of about 1,500,000 bbl. from 1924. Production increased about 200,000 bbl. in Indiana to slightly less than 1,000,000 bbl. Production for 1929 is estimated at approximately 6,000,000 bbl. for Illinois and 1,000,000 bbl. for Indiana. Illinois Because production from most of the wells in the state has declined to a small daily average and the low prices for crude oil discouraged wildcatting, the number of wells drilled fell below that for any previous year since the development of commercially important production in the state. The Ohio Oil Co. discovered a pool of apparent commercial importance in southwestern Illinois near Dupo, in St. Clair County, and favorable showings of oil were encountered in a well in southeastern Illinois, near Harrisburg in Saline County. New production from the Dupo area is expected to check the rate of decline for the state. Thc following tablel summarizes field developments for 1927 and 1928 (for important detail by counties see notes at foot of table): 1027 1928 Completions........................................... 162 145a Initial production, bbl.................................. 2244 1840b Dry holes........................................,.... 66 58" Gas well completions................................... 13 8d 0111 wells abandoned.................................... 45" a Crawford, 44; Lawrence, 28; Wabash, 40. b Crawford, 501; Lawrence, 403; St. Clair, 165 (4 completions); Wahash, 668. o Crawford, 12; Wabash, 19. d Crawford, 6. b Lawrence, 21; Wabash, 15. The discovery well in the Dupo field in St. Clair County, produced about 150 bbl. per day from the Trenton lime at 660 ft. It is located in a northern extension of the Columbia-Waterloo anticline on which the Waterloo pool was developed in 1921. The best information on the.

Jan 1, 1929

By Stephen Taber

JOHN C. BRANNER, Stanford University, Cal. (communication to the Secretary *).-Wideawake teachers of geology are constantly on the lookout for good illustrations of veins, especially where the processes of formation are either clearly shown or suggested. And I long ago found out that one who would learn nature's laws must despise nothing. It thus happened that in 1910, Dr. George J. Peirce of the depart-ment of botany at Stanford University called to my attention a cracked and broken yellow earthenware dish, 8 ½ in. across the top and 2 ½ in. deep, that, to the ordinary observer, seemed to be of no further use, and quite ready for the waste can. The striking thing about this dish was that the thin glaze over much of the outside surface and over the upper margin of the inside surface had been lifted in small scales, varying in. diameter from ½ cm. to 1 cm., and thrust outward and held there by some sort of white fibrous mineral. The process looked very much like one we are familiar with in the Southern States where. we often see in the winter pebbles and soil thrust out from a clay bank or lifted from a clay soil and held there supported by what is popularly known as needle-ice. Upon inquiry I learned the following facts in regard to the history of this particular dish: In the summer of 1910, it had been partly filled with a concentrated salt solution taken from one of the salterns of the Stauffer Chemical Co. at Redwood City, Cal. A qualitative analysis of the original brine showed: Present: iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates (trace), bromides, carbonates, borates (trace), and considerable amounts of organic matter. Absent: calcium, lithium and iodides.

Jan 3, 1917

By James Boyd

Scientists and engineers must concern themselves not only with technical problems, but with the socio-economic difficulties of our scciety. The author states that raw materials are basic to the economic process and that mineral raw materials occur naturally in nearly limitless quantities. He feels that the economic pocess will provide sufficient raw materials for man's needs, and discusses in some detail the world economic environment. As our society grows in complexity, it becomes more urgently incumbent upon scientists and engineers to bring their experiences to bear on the solution, not only of technical problems, but also on socio-economic difficulties. It is to this field that I have directed a large part of my energies. RAW MATERIALS BASIC TO THE ECONOMIC PROCESS There are certain premises, frequently overlooked, which bear emphasis. As economics concerns the production, distribution, and consumption of goods, so our whole society is based on raw materials. Without the basic extractive industries of agriculture and mining, there would be no economic problems with which to deal. This principle has been expressed as "All productivity is based on three factors: 1) natural resources, whose form, place, and condition are changed by the expenditure of 2) human energy (both muscular and mental), with the aid of 3) tools.77* It seems strange that such an obvious statement needs to be made. It is forgotten by all of us, however, at one time or another when we get involved in the complicated theories of economics dealing with the financial and fiscal policies of the various governments, in the financing of enterprises, in marketing, and in labor relations. Unless decisions in all of these fields are made with this, and the rest of the "Ten Pillars of Economic Wisdom," consciously in mind, the resultant policies are doomed to eventual failure, whether these are policies of individuals, companies, or governments. The economic process is basic to society. But economics and the social aspects of humanity are inevitably intertwined. If human needs are not provided for within the basic economic structure, conflicts arise to disrupt the most carefully laid social plans. Similarly, it is the failure of society to cope with basic economic prerequisites that leads to discord within the body politic and thus to eventual economic disaster. We who are engaged in the various aspects of the mineral industry, therefore, have a large part to play in society's future development. MINERAL RAW MATERIALS OCCUR NATURALLY IN NEARLY LIMITLESS QUANTITIES Throughout my career in and out of government, I have formed my decisions on two principles: 1) Fundamentally, all mineral raw materials exist within the earth's crust in quantities greatly exceeding man's needs; 2) Any problems of supply of these materials are primarily economic in nature. With respect to my first assumption, analyses by geochemists enable them to estimate the quantities in which each of the known elements exist in the earth's crust. One of the most cautious and famous suggests that the average copper content of the lithosphere to a depth of ten miles is about 55 ppm. If this is valid, then the lithosphere contains about 1.4 quadrillion (1.4 x 10 ") tons of copper metal — an unimaginable quantity. This is 8,500,000-fold that which has been consumed by man in his existence. To illustrate further, consider that the deepest copper mine in history went to about 9000 ft below the surface; the present copper mines of the world now average less than 1500 ft in depth. We can assume that in most continental land areas of the world it is technically feasible to mine to a depth of at least one mile. The land areas of the world to an average depth of one mile, then, contain 343 billion tons (343 x 10') of copper metal, or 2000 times that which has been extracted to date. I don't believe man will ever expend his energies to extract copper from rocks which contain only a few parts per million, but he knows that each element

Jan 1, 1968