Search Documents

By T Goldsmith

The mining industry is cyclical, but those are more than normal business cycles. In the early 2000s the industry saw the start of China as a game changer for the mining industry which lead to catch phrases like ‘stronger for longer’ and even ‘stronger forever’. Enter the global financial crises and the more recent slow-down in the Chinese economy and confidence that the future is bright has dimmed! This paper looks at the long-term forces that are likely to impact the global mining sector and explain why the industry has an excellent future. However, the industry is not without its many challenges and while demand may be in a prolonged step change, the ability to generate profits will depend on the fitness of each asset and company.The author also discusses the hated terms of ‘boom’ and ‘bust’ and considers how the industry can reduce them, but normally exacerbates them. The ability of the junior sector to raise funds being a primary example and one that remains closed to all but the very best exploration assets. There is also consideration of Australia’s position as a mining country in the future world.CITATION:Goldsmith, T, 2014. The future of the global mining sector, in Proceedings Ninth International Mining Geology Conference 2014 , pp 15–20 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 18, 2014

Hydraulic backfill is generally retained in stopes using permeable barricades. Mitchell et al (1975), Mitchell (1992) and Grice (1989) have shown that under normal drainage conditions, barricades experience low levels of loading. Cowling et al (1988) have also shown that barricades are susceptible to piping failures if excess water has ponded on the upper backfill surface and if leakage of backfill from the barricades has occurred. During 1997, six hydraulic backfill barricades failed in four different Australian mines. Fortunately, in each case, the quantity of backfill slurry released was small, and no injuries to personnel nor damage occurred. Detailed investigation of two of the incidents showed that the primary cause of failure could be attributed to the delivery of excess quantities of transport water from the low-density slurry. For each of the incidents investigated there was evidence of the development of piping failures, which resulted in hydrostatic loading conditions on the barricades from the ponded water on the upper backfill surface. The circular failure surfaces in the barricades were characteristic of the application of point loading conditions. This paper discusses the circumstances that led to these incidents and analyses the modes of failure. The standards for the safe operating of hydraulic backfill systems are reviewed along with requirements for ongoing management and control. The design requirements of barricade construction are analysed and some appropriate guidelines introduced.

Jan 1, 1998

Confirmation that acid drainage (AD) was a significant environmental issue for the Australian minerals industry came in 1992 with the first national workshop on the topic. Subsequently the extent of AD was documented in a national survey published in 1997. The recommendations arising out of that survey served as a platform for actions by government, industry and industry-support organisations such as the Australian Centre for Mining Environmental Research (ACMER) to enable more effective prevention and management of AD. This paper briefly documents the extent of AD in the industry, the government regulations and guidelines for AD management, industry initiatives, the role of ACMER and other organisations in assisting industry through research and technology transfer, and the efforts being made to deal with AD at derelict mines. Future management of AD in the industry will be assisted by the linkage of Australia (through ACMER) into the International Network for Acid Prevention (INAP) which is facilitating the interchange of knowledge on AD as well as coordinating global research on the topic.

Jan 1, 2003

By J Kinal

Plant trials are at the best of times difficult to perform; given variations in the ore, operating practice and economic constraints placed on a plant. Testing grinding media at industrial scale adds a further level of complexity that needs to be accounted for.Laboratory test programs consistently demonstrate that altering the grinding chemistry through the application of inert grinding media has the potential to provide significant metallurgical benefit. However, prog- ressing from laboratory testing to industrial trial is often an agonisingly slow process that can lead to inconclusive results which raise more questions than give answers. There are many factors that need to be considered when conducting plant trials aimed at demonstrating the impact of inert grinding media on metallurgical performance. The decisions (or lack thereof) made during the planning stage can heavily impact on whether a statistically meaningful result is achieved. Various factors such as how the trial is conducted (dumping or purging the charge); the circuit configuration; collection of the right data; and even the human factor will affect the outcome. The authors will use examples to demonstrate the importance of proper planning and controlled operation on grinding media plant trials.

Jan 1, 2009

By Y Zhu, W Liang, P Knights

In recent years, Chinese companies have invested billions in Australian mineral exploration, development and processing. In 2008 - 2009 alone, the Foreign Investment Review Board approved $26.4 B of investment. Much of this investment has been by merger and acquisition (M&A) of Australian resources companies. This paper sets out to investigate how Australian CEOs perceive the cultural and institutional challenges in operating Australia mining companies recently acquired by Chinese interests. HofstedeÆs cultural dimensions and institutional theory from management science were used to develop a structured questionnaire, which was subsequently used to conduct telephone interview of the CEOs of six recently acquired mining companies. Analysis of the survey results indicated that, in all cases, few changes were made to the operational management of the Australian companies post-M&A. The three major benefits for Australian companies as a result of the M&A are the ability to; access long-term debt at lower cost; secure finance for growth plans in financially volatile times; and maintain existing management structures. Some perceived negatives involved longer and more convoluted decision-making as a result of Chinese state approval required for investment decisions. The study identified building æGuanxiÆ and an aversion to losing æfaceÆ as important cultural learnings for Australian CEOs. Maintaining effective communications is regarded as key for successful cultural integration.CITATION:Liang, W, Zhu, Y and Knights, P, 2012. Cultural challenges in Chinese/Australian mining mergers and acquisitions - A CEOÆs perspective, in Proceedings International Mine Management 2012, pp 251-260 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 20, 2012

By J Välivaara

The mining industry will face numerous challenges over the next 10–15 years as new deposits are likely to be more remote and lower grade and existing deposits will be mined deeper. As a result, mines and mining contractors operating in deep-mine conditions will need to focus on the quality of drilling and blasting to minimise unnecessary waste rock excavation to keep costs at an acceptable level. In addition, increased demand for improved safety and operator ergonomics will set greater demands on original equipment manufacturers of mining equipment. Finally, difficulties finding a skilled and experienced workforce, particularly in remote mine locations, have already negatively impacted mines’ ability to achieve high productivity and low operating costs.This paper introduces techniques and shares practical experiences in increasing productivity and reducing the costs of excavation in underground face drilling. The paper uses Sandvik’s new DD422i automated mining jumbo as an example of the type of equipment needed to deliver the features and corresponding benefits for future mine development. Case studies using this equipment are presented to illustrate the points made in this paper.CITATION:Välivaara, J, 2016. Automated drilling features for improving productivity and reducing costs in underground development, in Proceedings Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), pp 723–730 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2016

By P Kittler

In the spectrum of mining-related disciplines, geometallurgy sits between resource geology and metallurgical engineering. Unlike its neighbours, it is a relatively young discipline and its concepts, procedures and techniques are still evolving. Relevant geometallurgical issues differ from one deposit to the next so there is no single template that can be used in all situations, meaning that geometallurgy programs are nearly always customised and tailored to the deposit and the situation.Over time, a number of key mistakes are seen to emerge regularly. The eventual impact of these mistakes can vary from suboptimal performance of mine and plant to complete failure of the operation. For instance, poor characterisation of ore lithologies and their spatial distribution can have negative impacts on processing plant throughput. However, when combined with failure to identify critical blending constraints it can result in a totally inoperable plant.A number of common mistakes committed during geometallurgical programs are discussed and some preferred alternative approaches are suggested

Sep 5, 2011

The mining industry is quite often faced with declining selling prices for its products in the face of rising prices for the input cost resources that it uses. Blasting is a key activity within the mining system and has a vital role to play within the Mine to MillTM concept. It is therefore important that blasting makes a positive contribution to mine profit and productivity. There are several variables involved in considering the profitability and productivity of blasting. The rock types and structures, the bench height, the blast hole drill rig specifications, hole diameter, spacing and burden, explosive loading and initiation and blast size fragmentation. Productivity accounting is a methodology which is used elsewhere to give additional insights into the productivity and pricing factors that drive the financial performance of a business. Miners know intuitively that productivity and pricing influence costs and profit, but only with productivity accounting can the dollars involved be calculated. Drilling and blasting are part of a chain of unit operations in a mine. For an owner-miner, drilling and blasting would be considered as cost centres and a productivity accounting cost model approach would be relevant. On the other hand a contractor is likely to consider drilling and blasting as a profit centre, in which case a productivity accounting profit model approach would be appropriate. Both of these will be explained. The paper provides a basic outline of deterministic productivity accounting and demonstrates its application to blasting. Drilling and blasting data from a mine was obtained for a two-month period. The change in productivity and prices was calculated to obtain the dollar contributions from them towards the change in cost. It was determined that although there had been productivity dollar gains these were offset by larger pricing dollar losses, the net effect being that total drilling and blasting costs increased. The productivity accounting analysis gives the facts and the mine is in a position to establish priorities based on knowing the dollar contributions of each input used.

Jan 1, 2001

As the surrounding environment continues to change and evolve, mine managers face a changing climate of expectations. TodayÆs mine managers must juggle competing pressures to deliver sound social, environmental and economic results. Leadership is a fundamental tool for the effective mine manager. Whilst mine managers require solid technical and operational skills, importantly the manager must be able to engage a workforce, build and retain employees and seize opportunity for growth and development when presented. An important tool for engaging employees in the business at Rio Tinto Aluminium is the business improvement programme. At Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs Weipa mine, the business improvement methodology Six Sigma is used to deliver measurable, sustainable outcomes for the business. The next step in Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs improvement journey is to implement Lean Manufacturing at all managed operations. The operating environment for mine managers continuously evolves and effective mine managers must be flexible and adaptive to meet challenges. Governance and regulation constantly change in an environment of commodity cycles and finite resources. This increases pressure on the economic return achieved by the operation. As such, effective mine managers must be aware of and manage the operating environment û the broader, issues-based environment not just the immediate day-to-day responsibility of mine managing. This includes delivering on safety, community and environmental priorities. At Rio Tinto Aluminium, part of managing the business is via investment in the area of social partnerships to engage employees and the broader community in Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs commitment to sustainability. The Future Reef partnership entered with the Great Barrier Reef Research Foundation in 2005 forms an important part of Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs climate change strategy. This four-year, A$1 million investment funds programmes looking at the effect of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef. The partnership is a unique example of industry and science working together on an area of mutual and national concern. Modern mine managers require a broad set of skills to effectively deliver outcomes. TodayÆs mine managers must make innovative and courageous responses to determine todayÆs strategy for tomorrowÆs future.

Jan 1, 2006

By S Graskoski

The allocation of boggers and trucks at Telfer’s sublevel cave mine is currently assigned by manual techniques, with decision-making primarily dependant on the judgement of the operators and mine control. Field observations indicate that allocation decisions could be improved by establishing a systematic approach to dispatch. An investigation into the current state of technology determined that no currently available solution would provide a tool to make optimal decisions for the Telfer dispatch challenge.In an underground sublevel cave (SLC) environment, the destination decision is fixed and the source is variable, so open pit and block cave solutions are not relevant. Newcrest underwent a development venture with an external vendor to develop a novel production dispatch algorithm and user-friendly software program to make allocation decisions in a systematic way with consideration given for the true complexity of the operation.This new production software, nicknamed Dingo (for Dispatch ‘n’ Go), is a smart way to assist forepersons and mine control operators in their day-to-day roles of planning shifts and allocating trucks and loaders to optimal locations during shifts.CITATION:S Graskoski, 2017. Dingo – an optimisation tool to solve complex short interval control at Telfer underground mine, in Proceedings 13th AusIMM Underground Operators’ Conference 2017, pp 261–266 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Oct 16, 2017

The importance of proper planning, preparation, and execution of a steady state sampling campaign for metallurgical plant assessment must not be underestimated. Careful planning can increase the amount and reliability of information from an optimum number of samples and fully utilize available plant data. It requires specification of the data required, determination of run duration sampling frequency, the selection, modification and testing of sample points and cutters, as well as organisation and briefing of plant and sampling personnel. Preparation immediately prior to sampling, the conduct of the sampling campaign itself and procedures to handle the collected samples and information are discussed. Cutter design, fabrication and use are described in detail, and typical sampling situations, for ball mills, classifiers, pipes, launders, flotation cells and thickeners are considered individually. Measurement of pulp flow rate can often resolve difficult mass balance problems, and discussion of convenient techniques is included.

Jan 1, 1976

By M Colwell

The Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR) is a rock (roof) mass classification (RMC) system/index that was originally developed by the United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) for aspects of underground coalmine geotechnical design and was first introduced to Australia as a part of the original Analysis of Longwall Tailgate Serviceability (ALTS) project conducted in 1997/1998. In subsequent years further refinement to its calculation was undertaken, such that the CMRR is now an industry standard for quantifying the structural competence of the primary bolted roadway roof interval and has been routinely/widely used by Australian collieries over the last 25 years with great success for roof support/chain pillar design. There have been many publications discussing the use and calculation of RMC systems and this paper also provides an important update and recommendations in how best to calculate the CMRR. However, it is rare to find an explanation as to why and how a RMC system/index satisfactorily takes account of the mechanics and rock mass behavioural issues associated with ground reinforcement. This paper provides such an explanation and insight with respect to the CMRR so it is: 1) better understood, 2) to allay any concerns, and therefore 3) will continue to be confidently used by and for the collieries’ benefit.

Nov 29, 2022

By M Watkinson

Tube bundle monitoring systems have come a long way from their first introduction to coal mining in the late 1960s/1970s. Early developments in the United Kingdom (UK) commenced with single gas analysers (carbon monoxide) and quickly moved towards introducing oxygen analysers and methane analysers for improved analysis, in particular the calculation of air-free results. Recommendations were made in the early days as to how and where to run tubes and on the matching of sample pump and purge pump pressures. Current Australian installations are commonly based on a four-gas multianalyser, infrared for carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and methane, and paramagnetic for oxygen. These systems are controlled with programmable logic controllers (PLC), with component monitoring as an integral part of the software. This paper discusses the development of tube bundle systems from the 1960s to the current date and looks at the advantages and disadvantages of the installations, along with making operational recommendations to be considered with the siting of the analyser building, running of tubes and maintenance of the system.CITATION:Watkinson, M, 2015. Developments in tube bundle gas monitoring, in Proceedings The Australian Mine Ventilation Conference, pp 259–266 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 31, 2015

By G Gilchrist, S C. Dominy, T Jashashvili, R C. A Minnitt

The grouping and segregation error is one of Gy’s seven errors that cannot be measured in any qualitative manner because of its transient and changing characteristics each time the sample is handled mechanically. Attempts to calculate the mean and variance of the segregation error is considered by some as ‘an exercise in futility’ that would not help us achieve representative sampling. This research is aimed at understanding the process of segregation of dense, finely divided and dilute particulate materials supported in a clean quartz substrate during intense agitation. Several mixtures of fine-grained materials including steel, tungsten carbide and gold grains were used in these experiments. Four hundred grains of each of the minerals and metals at a top size of 2 mm were mixed with approximately 600 g of finely ground quartz material (95 per cent passing 2000 microns) in a 500 ml plastic jar with a sealable lid. The mineral–?metal mixtures were analysed in three steps using microfocus X-ray computed tomography. Step one consisted of rolling the containers on a flat surface in an attempt to concentrate the mineral and metal grains in the core of the supporting substrate; this is a base case that can be reconstructed after each session of analysis. The second step involved gentle and vigorous shaking of the mixtures in order to segregate the denser minerals and metals from the supporting quartz substrate. In some cases, a third step involved splitting the sample through a riffle splitter. Three-?dimensional images of the surface of each grain, its volume and its X-, Y- and Z-coordinates, before and after intense agitation of the container, were interpreted from the reconstruction of the tomographic X-ray data. The spatial analysis of grains using cell declustering and 3D variography provided a useful means of characterising the distribution of the grains in space and the extent to which they had become segregated during the process of agitation. Spatial analysis indicates that in general, grouping and continuity of grains is weakly developed. The modelled nugget effect remains high for most tests, indicating that grains of similar size did not group together strongly. Agitation through rolling provided the best continuity, although not consistently in the long axis of the plastic jar. The nugget effect was consistently highest, and the range of continuity shortest in samples that had been split, indicating that the grouping and continuity were reduced through splitting the sample. Initial results indicate that very little segregation of the minerals and metals occurs in the quartz substrate. This is somewhat counter-intuitive, but suggests that the effects of agitation on mixtures of dense minerals and metals in substrates of lower density do not lead to excessive segregation. Differences in behaviour between dense materials in response to agitation are evident. Grains of different composition and shape did not group and segregate in a predictable manner in response to the agitation methods. Initial results indicate that the degree to which a material groups and segregates relates more to the characteristics of the denser material itself, rather than the agitation method employed.CITATION:Minnitt, R C A, Jashashvili, T, Gilchrist, G and Dominy, S C, 2017. Quantifying segregation of minerals and metals in particulate materials using computed X-ray tomography and variography, in Proceedings Eighth World Conference on Sampling and Blending , pp 173–182 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2017

By S Mitchell

Jetcrete Australia Pty Ltd, shotcrete contractor took the initiative in 2008 to discontinue the use of ‘road registerable’ concrete trucks for all underground works in Australia and internationally.The rationale for this decision was basic, safety. Historically these vehicles have been and still are involved in far too many accidents; this obvious trend needs to be addressed by engineering out the root cause of the problem which in this case is suitability for purpose.Road registerable concrete trucks have been widely used for the delivery of concrete in Australian mines for many years prior to and after the inception of wet shotcrete as ‘in cycle’ ground support in underground excavations around 1992. With this inception came a wide interest in the shotcrete process and an influx of new shotcrete contractors, all using road registerable concrete trucks to deliver the large volumes of Shotcrete required for these services and in turn largely increasing the use of these vehicles underground. The road registerable concrete trucks were difficult to control and each trip underground required the operators to maintain good management of the inherent risks. We virtually had no reasonable alternative for the industry and could only encourage the operators to drive with soft controls such as, reducing overall speed to a maximum of 15 km per hour when declining, regardless of the road conditions, coming to a complete halt prior to turning into any sharp corners, remaining in the same gear both inclining and declining.

Mar 21, 2011

By J Player, G Sweby, S Webber, E Jones

Seismic systems are a tool for the monitoring and forecasting the rock mass response to excavation. Common issues encountered at mine site audits and reviews are: how to design an effective seismic system, implementation of the design, interpretation of seismic source results and understanding the reliability of the seismic source. These issues are often a function of several items including: • Experience of site personnel in undertaking seismic system design. • Personnel not envisioning multiple phases of system expansion to understand system robustness issues. • System design/expansion occurring in response to damaging seismic activity rather than planned expansion of a system • The mine access development is often localised in comparison to the total orebody being mined hence, planning sensors in longholes in advance of development rather than in short holes close to development will improve the three-dimensional aspect of the network. • Limited site processing of the seismic event data, hence engineers do not see the uncertainty associated with event location, size, source and system layout. Mine site users require a framework to appreciate the challenges and limitations in locating large events. For example, event locations are given as precise measurements (to the nearest centimetre) whereas the volume of deformation resulting in the event often has dimensions of tens of metres or more (as defined by the source radius). A stronger awareness of the uncertainty of rock mass yield within large seismic sources will assist site users in the interpretation of rock mass damage. The encountered design and implementation errors are reviewed and discussed with a practical set of rules presented to provide a robust seismic system that provides consistent results and increases the user’s understanding of uncertainty in source location and size. The authors’ experience across multiple mine sites, seismic systems and damaging seismic events over a 30 year period has been summarised into practical rules for site personnel of all experience levels.

Nov 29, 2022

By O Arafat, K M. Bartholomew

A voracious consumer of energy and grinding media, the modern ball milling circuit has a huge direct cost impact on a mineral processing operation. Through optimisation, grinding also has the potential to unlock great improvements in recovery and throughput, but how can the complex interactions between mills, classifiers, tonnage, ore-type and downstream recovery be measured, understood and managed in a systematic manner?Functional performance analysis provides the tools and insights needed to measure, understand and improve the two key process efficiencies in ball milling circuits: classification system efficiency (CSE) and mill grinding efficiency.CSE measures the composite performance of the classification system as a whole. In short, the purpose of the classification system is to ensure that grinding mill energy is used to grind coarse particles while minimising overgrinding. CSE is simple to measure in the plant and it provides immediate feedback to the plant metallurgist, mill superintendent and management about the performance of the classification system and the amount of wasted energy in the grinding plant.Mill grinding efficiency measures the capacity of the grinding mill to convert feed-sized material into product-sized material on a tonnes per kilowatt hour basis. It is normalised based upon the ore resistance to breakage, so it provides feedback about the ‘health’ of the milling process under varying operating conditions and ore types. Mill grinding efficiency is measured at the same time as CSE through circuit sampling.Functional performance analysis combines CSE and mill grinding efficiency to provide a measureable, manageable optimisation objective. It also provides a link to tonnage, ore type and recovery. As a result, systematic optimisation of a grinding circuit is a measureable and manageable process to meet business objectives.CITATION:Bartholomew, K M, McIvor, R E and Arafat, O, 2014. Functional performance of ball milling circuits – a plant metallurgist’s tool for process characterisation and optimisation, in Proceedings 12th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference 2014 , pp 227–232 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 1, 2014

By M Bellamy

The DeGrussa copper deposit was discovered by Sandfire Resources in April 2009. Construction of the 1.6 Mt/a concentrator, open pit and underground mining operations commenced in March 2011 with first concentrate production achieved in October 2012. Over the next ten years, DeGrussa grew to include both the DeGrussa and Monty underground mines, establishing itself as one of the world’s premier copper producers with total production of 663 000 t of contained copper by the time the mine closed. Final ore was trucked from Degrussa on 5 October 2022. This paper examines the mine closure experience from both a planning and operational perspective. The paper provides an overview of the site’s mine planning process including the factors involved in determining the end of the mine life and how this was tracked and communicated in the lead up to the end of mining operations. It will also look at some of the specific operational aspects involved in maintaining steady state production all the way through to the last day while facing increasingly challenging conditions. These factors, along with the external factors faced by most of the industry such as labour shortages and COVID related disruptions, contributed to making it an interesting journey to the end of operations at DeGrussa.

Mar 29, 2023

By R Shaw, T T. Neidel, C Adams

Sampling equipment manufacturers endeavour to ensure that the mechanical equipment installed in sampling systems are designed and manufactured to adhere to the requirements of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) or other standards relevant to the application. The mechanical parameters necessary to achieve these standards can be well controlled and requirements such as constant speed can be met through good mechanical design and engineering. However, when the equipment is installed and put into operation, the ISO compliance of the system is out of the hands of the equipment manufacturer and handed to the operator, who may be a generalist control system integrator.Making a sampling system perform according to standards, and being able to monitor and report on compliance require that the sampling system knowledge and the control integration is combined and applied in an integrated approach. Using a dedicated library of control routines developed for sampling can change a system from having compliant equipment to being a compliant system. The library has to include monitoring of relevant parameters and control and reporting on sampling parameters.CITATION:Neidel, T T, Adams, C and Shaw, R, 2014. Control and monitoring of International Organization for Standardization compliance for industrial sampling systems, in Proceedings Sampling 2014 , pp 121–126 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 29, 2014

By J Elder

Magnetic separation equipment has long been used to upgrade and beneficiate a wide variety of minerals and materials. Over the years, significant advances in both wet and dry magnetic separators have improved their operability and separation performances, broadening their use.But no one answer exists to the question: what is the right type of magnetic separator? For many minerals, including ilmenite, both process routes may be viable. There are technical, production, as well as economic reasons for choosing wet versus dry. However, recent developments illustrate that a new generation of wet magnetic separators is approaching performance once seen only in dry magnetic separation. With quality and production performance becoming similar, the choice between wet and dry magnetic separation is not as cut and dry as it once was.

Oct 5, 2011