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By A C. Robertson

World urban expansion puts constraints on the available land surface area of our major cities both for accommodating people as well as providing infrastructure and services whilst at the same time attempting to preserve the remaining natural environment. Whilst consideration is often given to underground planning for private and public transport infrastructure, the author is of the opinion that the current lack of underground planning of our cities that are suitable for underground development will have major long implications when finally the need for underground space planning is critical and ultimately recognised. This paper identifies the need for our city planners to integrate surface planning and underground planning as a ‘total planning solution’ where the city plan incorporates the elements of underground space planning as identified in this paper. Investigations by the author reveal that there are very few cities in the world that actually incorporate underground space planning in their city plans. The author uses the City of Brisbane as a case study for the potential introduction of underground space planning as part of the city plan. Despite efforts by the author to include the planning concept of underground commercial development in the latest Brisbane City Plan 2014 as well as four underground space workshops in Brisbane over the past 20 year through the Australasian Tunnelling Society (ATS), underground space planning for the City of Brisbane, apart from infrastructure projects, is not considered of significance to the City of Brisbane.CITATION:Robertson, A C, 2014. Commercial underground space – planned development for the future, in Proceedings 15th Australasian Tunnelling Conference 2014 , pp 513–518 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 17, 2014

By P Hatherly, H Gurgenci

With the depletion of the mineral reserves that can be mined by surface mining, demand for highly productive and safe underground mines will increase. Underground drill and blast techniques continue to be refined but true æmass productionÆ is difficult to achieve. As is evidenced by the longwall mining of coal, alternative mining methods based on mechanised mining can meet the expectations but the issues of how to effectively cut strong rocks, how to define the orebody and how the mechanised miners can be automated and maintained all need to be addressed. CMTE is working in all of these areas. We believe that the oscillating disc cutter may provide the long sought-after breakthrough in mechanised rock cutting. Disc cutters are one of the most robust designs of cutting tool and the cutters attack the rock in a manner which effects direct tensile breakage. The internal cutter drive and the inertial damping mean that the already low cutter forces are not all transmitted back to the machine, making it possible to design lightweight, flexible mining systems. For orebody delineation drill monitoring, drillhole logging and geophysical imaging are key procedures being developed at CMTE. To automate mining machines, work is progressing well in the development of systems for autonomous vehicle navigation and mining robotics. A strategic contribution to maintenance issues is being made through the development of procedures for automatic analysis of used oils, monitoring the strength of mechanical structures, and operating point optimisation.

Jan 1, 1998

By C Harwood

Underground coal mines in the United States are in the process of completing installations for tracking and communication systems, mandated by Congress after a number of recent coal mine disasters. Yet, evaluation, modelling and testing of such systems has lagged due to legislated changes, abruptly introduced into the coal mining industry. System installation in a wide array of mine types, configurations, layouts and characteristics has provided a wealth of information regarding their potential in underground environments. Data collected from numerous installations for a variety of systems can be used to further define true capability and accuracy of communication and tracking packages. This paper describes a uniform means of evaluating the performance of a communication and tracking system. Several performance measures are proposed and described. These measures can also be predicted using an interactive software program. This program predicts the signal propagation, given the input mine characteristics and layout, with numerical and visual feedback. New or alternative system installations can also be more accurately designed to potentially minimise initial system cost and time required for trial and error installs. The focus of this research is to develop tools and protocols that can evaluate and measure the effectiveness of installed underground communication and tracking systems.

Nov 22, 2011

By A Hughes, J Agius, T Ferguson, A Parbhakar-Fox, D Lester, L M. Jackson

Management of historic tailings is a major challenge facing the mining industry and its regulators. However, through improved mineralogical and chemical characterisation of such materials the opportunity to develop better rehabilitation strategies arises. Microanalytical techniques including microscopy, mineral liberation analysis and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) allow for improved tailings characterisation – but the challenge posed by these techniques is how to use them effectively. Additionally, data sets collected by such techniques must be properly integrated, only then can they assist in the identification of the most appropriate rehabilitation strategies. A study conducted at the Old Tailings Dam (OTD) located at the Savage River Mine, Tasmania allowed for the integrated use of several microanalytical techniques to help evaluate the benefits of a shallow water cover as a potential rehabilitation strategy. Samples (n = 144) from 14 trenches and 11 boring cores (2 m maximum depth) were collected across the OTD. These were subjected to routine acid-base accounting, with a subset subjected to detailed mineralogy using a modified sulfide alteration index (SAI), X-ray diffractometry and mineral liberation analysis (MLA). In addition, representative samples (n = 6) from across the OTD were subjected to laser-ablation ICPMS to characterise the pyrite chemistry. Our results showed that tailings in the northern area submerged under a natural water cover were relatively unoxidised from approximately 1 m depth, with SAI values of 1 to 2. Tailings from the subaerial southern portion were extensively oxidised to approximately 35 cm depth (SAI = maximum 5.8), with fresher materials observed underneath (SAI = 5 to 5.8). Pyrite from across the OTD is enriched in Co, Cu and Ni. Through the integrated application of microanalytical tools, we determined that establishing a water cover of at least 1.5 m depth across the OTD is a suitable rehabilitation option for this historic site. However, consideration for the reprocessing of these tailings to extract Co should be further investigated.CITATION:Jackson, L M, Parbhakar-Fox, A, Hughes, A, Agius, J, Ferguson, T and Lester, D, 2015. Microanalytical evaluations of the savage river old tailings dam, north-?west Tasmania, in Proceedings Tailings and Mine Waste Management for the 21st Century , pp 111–124 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 27, 2015

Whether you are an employee, contractor or consultant working in the mineral industry, there are pressures to deliver the best possible performance. Technical professionals are usually driven by an internal desire to perform to a high standard because of personal pride in their profession, but there are an increasing number of external requirements to demonstrate that the actions taken were based upon reasonable grounds and that the work conformed to current best practice. People expect these best practice procedures to be followed and governments are now requiring those tendering for contracts to be registered in some way and to be participants in quality assurance schemes. One is not immune to these pressures just because you are working in a less legislatively sophisticated developing country in the circum-Pacific rim (Pacrim) region.

Jan 1, 1995

Mining had a very considerable effect on the country's development. The visual evidence remaining is an integral part of New Zealand history. Early mining for manganese and copper in the 1840s was succeeded by alluvial gold rushes. These gave way to hard rock extraction, hydraulic elevation and dredging. Coal mining dating from the 1850s was fairly widespread. Other minerals were obtained on a small scale. Manufacture of mining machinery stimulated industrial engineering enterprises. Schools of mines played a significant part in advancing technical skills and several remain as museums. Surviving mine structures and site relics are part of the industrial heritage signifying the technological and economic development of a small isolated nation. Some of these are described. Identification, recording and preservation where practicable is advocated.

Jan 1, 1990

Mining had a very considerable effect on the country's development. The visual evidence remaining is an integral part of New Zealand history. Early mining for manganese and copper in the 1840s was succeeded by alluvial gold rushes. These gave way to hard rock extraction, hydraulic elevation and dredging. Coal mining dating from the 1850s was fairly widespread. Other minerals were obtained on a small scale. Manufacture of mining' machinery stimulated industrial engineering enterprises. Schools of mines played a significant part in advancing technical skills and several remain as museums. Surviving mine structures and site relics are part of the industrial heritage signifying the technological and economic development of a small isolated nation. Some of these are described. Identification, recording and preservation where practicable is advocated.

Jan 1, 1990

The increased focus on best practice environmental management has led to mining and mineral processing companies developing a variety of procedures to ensure that the environmental impacts of their operations are minimised, and that company managements are fully aware of these impacts and the policies and procedures established to ensure this process. Parallel to this, international standards for the development and implementation of environmental management systems are being promoted as necessary for companies to demonstrate their due diligence. Good environmental management systems should be built upon the systems already established within companies, and should ensure that the process of continual improvement is integral to their operation. An outline of the basic components of environmental management systems is provided, along with examples of the way various mining companies have implemented such systems. The benefits of best practice environmental management to mining companies are also considered.

Jan 1, 1995

A recoverable uranium resource, shown to be suitable for in situ leaching, was discovered at Honeymoon in South Australia in 1971. Exploration of the deposit was carried out during the period from 1973 to 1979. Uranium mineralisation occurs in a coarse-grained unconsolidated sand aquifer located in the Yarramba Palaeochannel at a depth of approximately 110 m. Following initial development during 1979 to 1983 and the construction of demonstration leach facilities, the Project was put on hold. Southern Cross Resources purchased the Project in 1997. Government approval was received in March 1998 for the operation of on-site demonstration leach and recovery facilities while an Environmental Impact Statement was prepared and a 1000 tpa commercial production plant was designed. The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) was released in June 2000 and operation of the test facility was completed in August 2000. Acceptance of the EIS by Commonwealth and South Australian state governments was announced on 20 November 2001. A Mining Lease was granted over the area of the proposed ISL operation on 8 February 2002. Operation of the Project is entirely dependent on using highly saline underground water resources to supply process and human needs. The management of discharge streams from the plant by re-injection was approved. The Honeymoon demonstration plant was the first adaptation of the solvent extraction process to highly saline in situ leach solutions. As such, it incorporated a number of unique operating and installation features. The trial period enabled optimisation of the process chemistry, additives and management and serves as an invaluable base for the proposed plant design and future operation. This paper discusses the nature of the uranium occurrence, the effect of saline water on the leach process and equipment, project design and environmental considerations, the requirements for disposal of discharge streams to minimise the impact on the arid environment and the requirements for rehabilitation following project completion.

Jan 1, 2002

By E Jak, G Khartcyzov, M Shevchenko

The increasing complexity of ore resources and recycled materials in the feed of pyrometallurgical processes present a technical challenge to the metallurgical engineers working on maximising the recovery of the valuable elements and minimising the environmental impact of the processes. To address this challenge, the availability of computational tools that can predict the mass and energy balance in complex systems is required. Then the accurate description of phase equilibria in the complex multicomponent systems describing the chemistry of the pyrometallurgical processes becomes critical for the correct implementation of the indicated tools and facing the outlined industrial challenges. In the present study the distribution of selected elements (Pb, Zn, Fe, As, Sn, Sb, Bi and Ni) between oxide liquid and metal in the ‘CuO0.5’-CaO-AlO1.5 system in equilibrium with Cu metal at 1400°C (liquidus of CaAl2O4) was experimentally studied using the equilibration and quenching technique followed by the electron probe X-ray microanalysis of the resulted samples. The study covered a wide range of effective p(O2) over the system from 10-11 to 10-3.5 (corresponding to formation of immiscible CuO0.5-rich slag). To avoid loss of volatile elements (Pb, Zn, As, Sn, Sb and Bi), a correlation between ‘CuO0.5’ in oxide liquid and p(O2) in open system was obtained first, followed by studying the volatile elements distribution in closed conditions (Al2O3 crucible sealed in SiO2 ampoule), where ‘CuO0.5’ concentration was used as a marker to evaluate the effective p(O2) over the system. The experimental results were then used for the optimisation of the thermodynamic model parameters of the system as part of the integrated experimental and self-consisting thermodynamic modelling research program of phase equilibria in the Cu-Pb-Zn-Fe-Ca-Si-Al-Mg-O-S-(As, Sn, Sb, Bi, Ag, Au, Ni, Cr, Co and Na) gas/oxide liquid/matte/speiss/metal/solids system.

Jun 19, 2024

By X Ling, M Barati, E Moosavi-Khoonsari

In the pyrometallurgical process of secondary lead recycling, a desulfurising agent, such as Na2CO3 is added to minimise the emissions of sulfur into the atmosphere, while silica is introduced into the smelter as a fluxing material. Subsequently, a significant amount of Na2O and SiO2 remains in the downstream reverberatory furnace and blast furnace slags. However, there is limited understanding of the thermodynamic behaviour of silicate-based lead slags rich in Na2O, posing challenges in accurately determining the optimal condition for targeted metal recovery and final slag composition. In this work, the equilibrium phase relations of the PbO-Na2O-SiO2 system in the primary phase field of Na2SiO3 are studied from 800 to 1000°C via equilibration-quenching method. Samples with different compositions were prepared and held in platinum capsules in air at these temperatures to reach equilibrium. The equilibrated samples were subsequently quenched and the phase compositions were measured by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). The results were then compared to those of previous studies and any discrepancies were resolved.

Jun 19, 2024

The selection of the best comminution circuit for the preparation of concentration feed is a compromise based on economics, energy efficiency, labour costs, steel consumption, availability and other factors specific to each case. It is postulated that the selection must be a choice of one of the eight basic comminution circuits which can be divided into two basic groups, (1) autogenous or semi-autogenous primary mills with or without a secondary grinding stage and (2) fine crushing usually in cone crushers followed by a rod mill-ball mill circuit or a single stage ball mill circuit. The accuracy of selection may be improved by pilot plant and laboratory tests which are described in this paper. For (1) above, testing includes media competency tests with standard impact crushing, grindability and abrasion tests followed by pilot plant tests. For (2) above, bench scale crushability, grindability and abrasion testing is available. It is suggested that, through these tests, it should be possible to eliminate all but one in each group of basic comminution circuits. Then engineering and economic studies should lead to the best comminution circuit for the specific requirement.

Jan 1, 1984

By T Day, I G. Robertson, G J. Lyman

"Various approaches are used in the industry for establishing procedures (sample mass estimation and method of subsampling) for sampling and analysis of gold ores. The key factors that determine the accuracy of the results that can be expected for a given set of procedures are widely misunderstood.Recent developments in sampling theory show that the estimation of the accuracy that can be expected for a given gold ore as a function of sample mass is actually a simple matter. For a given sample mass, the accuracy that will be achieved depends only on the grade of the ore and the range of masses of the grains of the gold in the ore. This, of course, demands that a reasonable estimate of the distribution or spread of gold grain masses in the ore be known. But this is something that should be known if the gold is to be efficiently recovered in the processing plant.This paper provides a simple explanation of the real facts about sampling of gold, either in the field or in the plant, and provides results for a number of cases of combinations of fine and coarse gold in an ore. The prerequisites for accurate gold sampling are:correct sampling with no loss of sample or contaminationsample preparation procedures that recognise the impact of the gold grain mass spreadpractical analysis of the sample masses required to provide acceptable accuracy.Issues of corporate governance are also discussed.Citation:Lyman, G J, Robertson, I G and Day, T, 2016. The Simple Facts about Sampling Gold Ores, in Proceedings 13th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference 2016, pp 159–172 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Oct 10, 2016

By S van der Sluijs, M van Ende, Y Tang, A Emami

This paper presents a phenomena-based model for investigating the possibility of scrap melting in an Open Slag Bath Furnace (OSBF) for green ironmaking. The goal of this study is to enhance the circularity of the steelmaking process by utilising scrap as a green source of iron in OSBFs. The model takes into account the fundamental differences between OSBFs and traditional processes such as Electric Arc Furnaces (EAFs) and Basic Oxygen Furnaces (BOFs). The model considers three primary regions where scrap heating and melting occur: the solid feed pile, slag and hot metal. It accounts for factors such as the furnace geometry, scrap charging mechanism and specific heat and mass transfer properties of the reactor. The model was validated using literature data and was used to investigate the heating and melting behaviour of individual scrap particles under various process parameters. The study finds that the scrap melting process in OSBFs involves three stages: shell formation, shell remelting and subsequent melting of the parent scrap. The carbon content of the scrap and the liquid hot metal plays a critical role in determining the melting behaviour. Depending on the carbon concentration and temperature, the melting process can be heat transfer controlled or mass transfer controlled. The paper also examines the scrap feeding methods in OSBFs, including direct charging into the slag or charging through a feed pile. The model provides insights into the melting rate of scrap compared to Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) in OSBFs and highlights the role of carbon in this process. Overall, this phenomena-based model contributes to the understanding of scrap melting behaviour in OSBFs and provides valuable insights for optimising the circularity and efficiency of green ironmaking processes. The findings of this study can inform the design and operation of OSBFs, paving the way for increased utilisation of scrap as a sustainable feedstock in the steel industry.

Jun 19, 2024

By D J. Kilkenny

Work practices involved in shaft construction can be aligned with current industry standard operating practices. However, the working environment during conventional shaft construction introduces unique conditions which can not always be overcome by hard engineering controls. To provide an improved working environment, future shaft diameters will generally be greater than has historically been the case for the Australian hard rock mining industry. This paper aims to explore both what can be constructed from the contractors perspective, and how does an owner extract maximum business efficiency from an asset that in many ways is likely to be larger, more complex and more expensive than initially envisaged.Newcrest Mining Limited, or an associated company, has constructed two major shafts over the last seven years. In both cases, Byrnecut Mining, or an associated company, was the contractor engaged for the shaft sinking activity. The first is the 1127 m deep, 7.0 m diameter production and intake airway at the Telfer Gold Mine, the second is a 295 m deep, 5.5 m diameter split shaft at the Gosowong Gold Project in Indonesia that was primarily designed as both an intake and exhaust airway. Importantly both shafts are designed to provide emergency egress from the respective underground operations.From an Australian shaft sinking perspective, the construction of these two shafts resulted in the following learnings: •constructability is of equal importance to desired functionality;•allow six months of interactive design between the owner/engineer/contractor/regulator to get it right;•shaft sinking and equipping are intimately entwined, therefore engineering of both needs to be complete prior to any activity commencing; and•the mobilisation of both equipment and experienced personnel to a new shaft sink takes up to eight months.Shaft sinking is not extinct in the Australian hard rock mining industry. But, if you are considering constructing a shaft, approach it as a long life asset, front end planning to a high level of detail is required to unlock its full value. Think – plan – think and remember it’s going to take 12 months to get from the whiteboard to firing the first cut.

Mar 21, 2011

By R Nicholson, N D. Cox, N W. A Lambert

"This paper reports on the long-term operation of a particle density meter (PDM) at the Bloomfield coal handling and preparation plant (CHPP). This unit has been operating continuously for over three years, providing real-time data to the operators to allow the monitoring of flotation circuit performance. PDM outputs include slurry density, solids concentration on both mass and volumetric basis, and particle density. Knowing the average particle density of a stream allows for the optimisation of the process in real-time.The calibration of the solids concentration measurement device proved very difficult as the factory calibration techniques and existing laboratory analysis did not give accurate or reliable results. The solids concentration device had to be re-engineered and a new calibration method developed that gave accurate and repeatable results. Independent verification of samples taken from the PDM was undertaken as part of the trial process.The operational reliability of the PDM was a major point of investigation. The initial installation of the unit revealed issues with large, misplaced material of up to 20 mm periodically entering the unit, leading to feed blockages. The presence of these misplaced, oversized particles in the flotation circuit was resolved by installing innovative automatic back flush systems on the PDM.From a plant perspective the PDM has been an invaluable instrument that has enabled irregularities in the flotation circuit performance to be identified, which sampling had not and could not readily identify. This was achieved by close monitoring of real-time tailings composition on a minute by minute basis over short and extended periods. Variations in the tailings stream with respect to particle density and solids concentration were traced back to other issues in the plant. In addition, the PDM has allowed cell optimisation with respect to reagent dose rate to be improved. The PDM with real-time feedback can negate the need for large sampling campaigns and analysis during plant optimisation programs.Citation:Lambert, N, Cox, N and Nicholson, R, 2016. Particle Density Meter, in Proceedings 13th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference 2016, pp 245–250 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Oct 10, 2016

By P Rubie, J Russell

This paper looks at the past, present and not too distant future of grinding mill relining.Since the adoption of autogenous grinding (AG) mills and semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mills as the primary ore reducing devices in the comminution circuit, plant shutdown frequency and duration has largely been driven by the liner maintenance requirements of these mills.The past 30 years have seen the introduction of many technologies to reduce relining times and frequencies. Advanced relining systems have been developed which include single and twin Mill Relining Machines, capable of placing large (up to 8000 kg) liners, high energy recoilless THUNDERBOLT Hammers, and high capacity Feed Chute Transporters. Despite these advances, today many of the hazards associated with mill relining remain and reline times still vary considerably between mine sites. A sophisticated discrete event simulation program, designed to analyse the mill relining process, has revealed the dominant influences on reline times of crew performance and of the need for safe access to larger segments of the mill.A new generation of advanced and semi-automated technologies is currently being tested that will address these remaining challenges. These technologies remove people from the hazardous environment inside the mill and will allow techniques used in modern advanced manufacturing to provide a near-future step change in mill relining safety and performance.CITATION:Rubie, P and Russell, J, 2018. 21st century relining – the path to greater mine site profitability, in Proceedings 14th AusIMM Mill Operators' Conference 2018, pp 621–640 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 29, 2018

By Vestre J, Kure K, Bergqvist I

Existing practical laboratory tests for comparative strength determination of commercial explosives consist of the lead block test, the ballistic mortar test, the bubble test etc. These tests are carried out in material with quite different properties compared to rock. The theoretical performance potentials of commercial explosives are traditionally described by weight-strength (WS). Some explosive producers use the Langefors formula for weight-strength calculation, where also the gas volume is considered. Neither the theoretical nor the practical methods for determination of explosive performance such as the above, give good enough prediction of fragmentation and heave in rock blasting. For these reasons a project was started for the purpose of finding a small scale test method which predicts how different explosive parameters affect fragmentation and heave. Small scale tests were carried out by using 50 cm cubical blocks, mainly of concrete, but a few also of rock. All blocks were blasted in a steel cylinder with a diameter of 1.2 meters. The velocity of detonation was monitored, and the velocity of fragments was derived from their time of arrival at the steel wall, which was registered by accelerometers. After blasting all fragments were screened. The charge diameter was 22 mm and the amount of explosive 78 grammes, resulting in a specific charge of 0.62 kg/m3. Explosive properties such as energy, gas, VOD and density were systematically changed.The results presented in this paper show how fragmentation and heave systematically change when the explosive properties like energy, gas, VOD and density are systematically changed. The results from the small scale tests are compared to full scale tests carried out in tunnel blasting, and during summer 1990 also in bench blasting.

Jan 1, 1990

By G J JAMESON

The flotation cell has undergone a number of changes since the process was first introduced in Broken Hill in the early years of this century. The development of the mechanical flotation cell is reviewed, followed by a discussion of more recent developments such as the flotation column, the air-sparged hydrocyclone, the Wemco-Leeds cell, the Bahr and Deister columns and the Jameson cell.

Jan 1, 1992

Australia as a leading producer of mineral sands has also occupied a leading position in many areas of research'in the processing and applications of these minerals. Research in upgrading ilmenite to produce synthetic rutile has resulted in the develop- ment of many processes, e.g,., Becher, Murso, Chlorine Technology, and ICI processes. Studies on the reducibility of ilmenites, aqueous leaching of reduced ilmenites, Fe-Ti-O system, leachability of natural and treated ilmenites in hydrochloric acid and selective chlorination of iron from ilmenites have been carried out in order to develop and improve the efficiency of the above processes. While research on the processing of zircon sand to produce high purity (99.99% ZrO2 zirconia powder and zirconium chemicals started only recently, research by CSIRO in the early 1970s led to the discovery of the phenomenon of transformation toughening in partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) ceramics. Australia, with very significant resources of lanthanide-containing ores, pro- duces substantial quantities of monazite each year but research in processing and appli- cations of rare earths was neglected in recent years in this country. However, research to improve processes for the recovery of rare earths is now under way and studies on the production and testing of Nd-B-Fe magnets which are 1.5-2 times stronger than the strongest magnets (Sm-Co) currently available, have also commenced.' An overview of the research in the pro- cessing and applications of mineral sands during the last two decades in Australia and its implications for the industry are pre- sented in the paper.

Jan 1, 1986