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By K Zic, P Pickering, P Fraser

Water is a defining feature of the Pilbara. Its management was and remains vital for the pastoral industry which European settlers established when they first came to the Pilbara, and for the mining industry which now dominates economic activity in the Pilbara. Water availability in the Pilbara is, however, problematic. Severe droughts and major floods can occur at close intervals. In response to this uncertainty, the Department of Water undertook a Prefeasibility Study to determine, at a high level, the water requirements and opportunities in the Pilbara region. This paper reports on the outcomes of this study and the water integration opportunities in the region, identifying the sources of water supply and offers possible options for managing this water sustainably for the present and future demand. A range of supply opportunities is reviewed including: dewatering from mining operations, surface water, and desalination. All opportunities were subject to order of magnitude costing, including capital, whole of life and retail unit pricing with preferred options receiving further interrogation through triple bottom line (TBL) analysis to prioritise solutions. Options were also subject to intangible quantification (IQ) including benefits from the reduction of carbon emissions to ensure that the preferred option is based on factors other than just the least cost. Demand analysis was undertaken to identify current and future requirements and were assessed through review and integration of regional and sub regional master plans and consultation with mining, agriculture, industry and the community. The paper concludes that the viability of a Pilbara integrated water supply scheme depends on the development of a financial mechanism involving both government and industry participation models. The agreed scheme formed the basis of a submission to Infrastructure Australia for funding assistance.

Jan 1, 2009

By H Rose, T J. Sheer, M Dumka

Whenever rock is tipped from above, severe eruptions of airborne dust occur into the airways connected to tipping stations of rock passes (ore and waste) on the lower levels of a gold mine in the North West Province of South Africa. An investigation was undertaken to understand the nature of the physical phenomenon, in order to propose possible solutions. Accordingly, measurements were taken underground, involving the simultaneous logging at two levels of the transient pressures produced in the orepass by tipping from various levels. Two portable data loggers with associated transducers were custom-built for this purpose. Measurements were taken during a tipping program in which rock quantities and levels were controlled. Pressure pulses that are generated by the falling rock drive the airborne-dust eruptions. When tipping from a specified level, recorded pressure pulse waveforms were found to be repeatable on any given level, irrespective of the amount of rock falling, but measurements were conspicuously different on different levels. It was recognised that a pressure pulse is generated as the falling rock passes through the constricted region û a relatively narrow neck û at each tipping station. In passing through the constricted areas the mass of falling rock acts as a æleaky piston in a cylinderÆ and compresses the length of the air column in the orepass below that level. Once the rock has passed through the constriction, the pressure is released and this behaviour causes a regular train of pressure pulses that are separated by the time taken for the rock to move from one level to the next. Based on this physical understanding of the dust eruptions, a computational model has been developed that can reproduce all the main features of the measured phenomena. The model has been verified adequately against the measurements and can now form the basis for simulating a range of possible engineering solutions.

Jan 1, 2005

By T P. Hynes

Submarine tailings disposal is conceptually an attractive option for managing reactive mine wastes in coastal regions by virtue of reduced sulfide oxidation under a water cover and no infrastructure to maintain after mine closure. However, the lack of detailed knowledge of metal leaching, dispersal of fine tailings and biological impacts in the marine environment has led to no operating permits currently in effect in Canada. Detailed chemical and ecotoxicological assessments at two historic copper mine sites (Little Bay and Tilt Cove) in the north coast of Newfoundland with tailings disposed in an estuarine to shallow (=100 m) marine environment have demonstrated reduced reactivity of sulfidic tailings when submerged under water. Only non-acute toxicity is detected in biota inhabiting the immediate vicinity (A review of another historic shallow marine tailings operation in the southern tip of Vancouver Island (Jordon River) with a high-energy setting also reveals problems with unconfined tailings dispersal and temporal biological impacts. Documented studies at two deeper (140 - 360 m) marine tailings disposal operations at the northern tip of Vancouver Island (Island Copper) and northwestern coast of British Columbia (Kitsault) again illustrate imperfect predictions of tailings re-suspension and dispersal. At these sites, bioaccumulation of tailings-derived metals appears to be minimal. There is evidence of rapid re-colonisation of the tailings surface by benthos but of different species than the original population. Integrating these observations with reported metal fluxes and biological diversity associated with submarine hydrothermal vents, the risks and benefits of deep-sea (>1 km) tailings disposal are discussed. To determine if submarine tailings disposal in deep, confined basins on the seafloor is environmentally friendly, detailed multi-disciplinary research incorporating physical, chemical, biological and toxicological components will be indispensable.

Jan 1, 2003

By Mercer J. K

Shaft guide reaetions in No. 2 Ore Shaft, Mount Isa Mines Limited, have been reduced to a low order of magnitude by the use of self aligning slippers and spring loaded guide rollers. Before commissioning the new 4500 h.p. winder at No. 2 Ore Shaft in January, 1958, it was realised that the increase in hoisting speed from 1800 to 2650 ft/min. would cause high shaft guide reactions which would be increased further when the elongated 12 ton skips replaced the existing 7 ton skips.The Cambridge accelerometer was used to measure the shaft guide reactions and to confirm that progressive skip modifications were resulting in reduced reactions. The skip modifications were completed in 4 weeks.INTRODUCTIONIn 1956 an expansion programme was initiated to increase production from 5000 to 11000 tons per mining day. At No. 2 Ore Shaft the 1500 h.p. winder operated at 1800 ft./min. and hoisted a 7 ton capacity skip. The new 4500 h.p. winder operates at 2650 ft./min. and hoists a 12 ton capacity skip. No. 2 Ore shaft is equipped with two 5 ft. by 5 ft. hoisting compartments (Fig. 1) and any increase in skip capacity meant an abnormally long skip. This feature, coupled with the increase in hoisting speed, could have caused very high shaft guide reactions. Before commissioning the 4500 h.p. winder, a Cambridge accelerometer was borrowed from the University of Adelaide and was used to measure the shaft guide reactions. Rather than carry out an extensive shaft timbering programme, the skips were modified by fitting cushioned guide shoes and spring loaded guide rollers (Fig. 1). Testing commenced in February, 1958, and was completed in March, 1958.

Jan 1, 1961

By Stein A

The general mechanism of recrystallisation for cold worked metal is well established, and need be only briefly summarised with a few references to recent articles which clarify minor points. The types of extension, whether by stretching, drawing, hammering, rolling, etc., do not alter the general principles (1), although quantitative results may differ somewhat, particularly with regard to differences between the surface and interior of samples.These principles can be summarised as follows: The first stage in annealing is a recovery (sometimes known as relaxation) of physical properties such as hardness, elongation, etc., without any appearance of recrystallisation; the second stage involves a further alteration in physical properties, accompanying the formation of new recrystallised grains which replace the original structure; a possible third stage involves an increase in the grain size of the completely recrystallised structure by absorption of smaller grains by larger ones. These three stages will be referred to as recovery, recrystallisation, and grain growth. Depending on conditions, the three stages may be clearly marked or may occur more or less simultaneously.For a given annealing temperature, cold deformations below a certain amount fail to give recrystallisation, and the final structure consists of the original grains which have recovered and possibly become more equiaxed. When a certain deformation, critical for that annealing temperature, is given, recrystallisation can occur, and will give the maximum recrystallised grain size.Increasing deformations beyond this give progressively smaller grain sizes.For each material there is a minimum recrystallisation temperature, below which recrystallisation will not occur whatever the deformation or time of annealing. For a given deformation there is a temperature, critical for that deformation, below which recrystallisation will not occur, and above which it will take place with increasing rapidity.

Jan 1, 1947

By L Reynolds

The portable infrared mineral analyser (PIMA) was trialled to determine the extent and intensity of any hydrothermal alteration halo associated with gold mineralisation in the Hyde-Macraes Shear Zone (HMSZ) of the Otago Schist.   Twelve diamond drillholes through the HMSZ were analysed with the PIMA at a sample spacing of 1 m. The drillholes were selected on two traverses along the line of strike and down-dip of the mineralisation in and around Panel 2 of the Frasers underground development.   The study showed that the Hangingwall shear of the HMSZ has a more distinctive infrared signature in intersections with high grades. The Hangingwall shear in these drill holes is defined by a shift in the wavelength of the Al-OH absorption feature from ~2220 nm to <2210 nm. This shift is attributed to a change in the mineralogy from phengite to muscovite. Overprinting this trend in some of the drillholes is the presence of the 2210 nm Al-OH absorption feature, ascribed to kaolinite. Kaolinite also tends to be present in numerous other regions of the schist above the Hangingwall shear associated with steeply dipping faults and foliation parallel joints. In drill holes with low grades the Hangingwall shear does not exhibit any obvious infrared signature.   At the scale of study, the PIMA does not provide evidence for an alteration halo associated with hydrothermal mineralisation above the Hangingwall shear. Possible tectonic movement may have displaced any alteration halo that once existed, away from the zone of mineralisation. For this reason, PIMA apparently cannot be used for predicting the location of the Hangingwall shear during exploration drilling. However, the study did show that the PIMA could define the Hangingwall shear when the rocks were sufficiently altered and mineralised.

Jan 1, 2007

INCREASE OF CATASTROPHE FREQUENCY AND SEVERITYIn the last couple of decades the frequency of natural catastrophes has increased dramatically. This realization results from the statistical analysis of the comprehensive loss data that we have been collecting constantly over the last 30 years and have evaluated in connec-tion with the preparation of our "World Map of Natural Hazards", which is now in its second edition (Munich Re, 1988). Each month brings data on between 30 and 50 new loss events. Fortunately, however, only a few of these have to be added to the list of major natural catastrophes, that is only those involv-ing damage that considerably exceeds what the country or region concerned can handle itself so that substantial na-tional or international aid is required. That is generally the case if the number of dead runs into the hundreds or thousands, if tens or hundreds of thousands of people are rendered home-less and if the total economic loss is in the region of US$ 100 million. These major catastrophes, about which we have fairly comprehensive data even in the case of those that occurred farther back in the past, numbered only 14 in the 1960s but 70 in the 1980s; they there-fore increased over a period of 30 years by a factor of 5. The trend is also very clear when we consider the total economic loss, which - adjusted for in-flation - increased during the same period from an average of US$ 3.7 bil-lion per year to US$ 11.4 billion, i.e. by a factor of 3.1. The insured losses, finally, increased by as much as a fac-tor of 4.8.

Jan 1, 1990

The working of alluvial deposits has from all times been a popular form of mining, not only from the simplieity of its operations, but also, in its more primitive stages, from the possibility of carrying it on without large capital, without skilled lahour, expensive plant, long terms of preparatory work, or, in fact, any other requisite than a shovel, a dish, and a stout pair of arms. It is possibly one of the oldest industries, and probably, also, it has been one of the most profitable.In tbe Australian States the happy days of rid alluvial deposits, when gold was to be hltd for the shovelling, are now almost over. The lust for gold has caused almost every corner of the world to be ransacked, and the more easily earned wealth to he exhausted: for the most part there remain now those deposits only which are too poor to be profitably worked by means of the implements and methods of old times. But, though the deposits have become poorer, the keen inventiveness of man has devised means whereby such large quantIties can be treated at a cost so low that he can still make a profit out of them. In this article, out of the many means devised, three only will be referred to-viz., hydraulic sluicing, bucket dredging, and hydraulic dredging. All mining may be divided into three principal operations-1st, the breaking down and conveying of the ground to where it is to be treated for the recovery of the metallic values, 2nd, the treatment of the material for the recovery of those values; and, 3rd) the removal of the worthless material or tailings. In all mining the object is to effect these three processes for the least expenditure of money commensurate with the highest degree of efficiency.

Jan 1, 1907

The New Zealand Mines Rescue Brigade was established as a result of the Dobson mine disaster on 3rd December 1926, when 9 men lost their lives. Prior to this, there had been four major disasters in New Zealand coalmines, with a total of 145 fatalities. Only large-scale events such as explosions or major fires were considered reportable. Until and including the Dobson disaster, no mine emergency response facilities or organisation was in place.   Unfortunately, over the next five decades the establishment of a Mines Rescue Service did not mean that disasters involving multiple fatalities ceased. The coal mining industry continued to suffer the consequences of poor mining practice, inadequate or inappropriate monitoring and management, and sometimes complete disregard for the regulatory requirements current at the time.   The role of Mines Rescue has been defined in statute, and regulated by Coal Mines (Mine Management and Safety) Regulations. Currently, the statutory obligations have been under the Mines Rescue Trust Act 1992.   The Mines Rescue Brigade historically, has primarily been a reactive service, with stations and facilities established to train brigadesmen in emergency response procedures, specifically to mobilise in the event of a call-out at any one of the many coalmines operating within each stationÆs area of jurisdiction.   Over the last ten years, this role has changed. The service has adopted a proactive approach to emergency response, and has established a close liaison with all mining and tunnelling operations throughout industry, both underground and surface. The objectives have become emergency prevention focussed, and the service has incorporated a range of theoretical and practical training, simulated exercises, more sophisticated equipment and techniques, and a desire to ensure that emergency response capabilities are not needed, whilst maintaining the traditional and statutory obligation to respond if they are needed.

Jan 1, 2004

By J Vann, S Dunham, M Job

Two-dimensional (2D) estimation approaches have significant advantages over three-dimensional (3D) approaches when dealing with a narrow vein- or layer-like geometry. The main motivation for 2D estimation is that bias due to non-additivity of grade is avoided. The various aspects of 2D estimation are illustrated by use of a case study from the 1A Shoot Nickel deposit at Leinster, Western Australia. The width of the 1A mineralisation is variable, and so are the angles of drilling intersection. Consequently, the variable of interest (in this case nickel grade) is not suitable for direct kriging because it is defined on non-uniform support. However, grade can also be defined as the ratio of two variables that are suitable for direct kriging: thickness and accumulation. In the 2D approach, tonnage equates to thickness and metal equates to the product of grade and thickness, also called æaccumulationÆ. In the simplest approach we can independently krige accumulation and thickness and derive the grade by the ratio of the two resultant estimates. The thickness and accumulation variables must be in a consistent projection orientation, for example a horizontal projection in the case of steeply inclined mineralisation like 1A. Because the density is not constant across the 1A (and most other) deposits, the issue of density weighting is also discussed. The impact of the correlation between grade and length, or grade and density are important issues in implementation of 2D estimation. The circumstances under which these correlations need to be taken into account (by co-kriging) are reviewed. Finally some comments are made on the final use of the resultant 2D estimate for mine planning purposes.

Jan 1, 2003

Geostatistical conditional simulation is a method to assess variability and risk in mineral deposits and the tool has wide potential applications in the iron ore industry. Correct reproduction of multivariate relationships is important in iron ore simulation, especially between Fe and impurities such as Al2O3, SiO2 and P. The turning bands simulation method, using a full model of coregionalisation for multiple attributes, is the main multivariate conditional simulation algorithm used in the Western Australian iron ore industry. This paper discusses the results of a more recent approach using minimum/maximum autocorrelation factors (MAF) to transform and decorrelate the multivariate data prior to independent sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS). MAF-SGS results are compared to those of the turning bands approach in the Yandicoogina channel iron ore deposit (CID), and both methods performed well in simulating Fe, SiO2, Al2O3 and P distributions. Extensive checking of simulations showed that both approaches could reproduce multivariate statistics and spatial continuity of the original conditioning data. Both approaches reproduced the histograms and variography of input sample composites. While the MAF-SGS approach requires additional transformations when compared with the single normal scores transformation required for the turning bands method, MAF requires only that the direct semivariograms be modelled. In contrast, using turning bands with multiple attributes requires modelling a full linear model of coregionalisation, which can be difficult to model because of the need to ensure the model is positive semi-definite. Turning bands may be preferred if there are a modest number of correlated variables allowing construction of a linear model of coregionalisation that adequately models the multivariate behaviour. MAF-SGS is preferable for larger numbers of correlated variables. Both MAF-SGS and turning bands methods performed well in conditional simulation of correlated variables at Yandicoogina.

Jan 1, 2007

The dielectric properties of practically all oxide and sulphide ore minerals are such that they heat rapidly when irradiated with microwaves particularly at the standard frequency of 2450 MHz. The presence of carbon or low rank coal mixed with the minerals still further enhances the heating rate. Amongst the patented technologies being investigated are: (i) the direct reduction of oxides with or without carbon included in the pellets or briquettes; (ii) microwave precursor heating of composites ahead of smelt reduction; (iii) microwave smelting of ore or concentrate mixtures with carbon, sometimes assisted with oxygen. Microwaves appear to stimulate endothermic reduction reactions as readily as they do exothermic oxidation reactions. Being a method of achieving "bulk" heating, composites or columns of ore-char blends rapidly heat throughout rather than from the outside inwards as in conventional heating. The microwaves of themselves do not generate any gas - the only gases to be cleaned are the products of reaction in the composites or blends, plus the products of oxygen smelting. In the case of sulphide composites, depending on the quantity and type of low rank coal or char present, sulphur may be eliminated, and collected, in the elemental form. Furthermore, reactions seem to take place at lower temperatures than in conventional smelting but no doubt at the "points" where actual reactions are taking place the atomic or molecular vibrations are such as to satisfy the laws of thermodynamics. Examples are given of the production of unusual products of smelting sulphide concentrates and also the alloys produced from refractory minerals such as chromite and ilmenite. The techniques have been used to produce products with as wide a range of melting points as relatively pure tin and tungsten-molybdenum alloys. Special equipment is being designed and evaluated for these new fields of pyrometallurgy.

Jan 1, 1989

Shortly after the outbreak of war in September, 1939, it became apparent that considerable quantities of certain metals and alloys which at that time were not being produced in Australia would be required in increasing amounts for the prosecution of the war effort.Australian industry had relied on overseas sources of supply for the relatively small quantities of many special metals which were needed under peacetime conditions. As the war progressed so great became the demand for mooy of these alloys in Great Britain and other allied countries that it was necessary for them to place an embargo on the export of these materials, and thus it soon became evident that if Australia's production of munitions was to expand and develop it would be necessary for her to become independent of overseas sources for many of these essential 'items. The shipping position also became very acute, and this, accentuated the difficulties of obtaining these alloys. Because of the conditions outlined aqove, the manufacture of over thirty different metals and alloys .was undertaken at Newcastle during the past decade. It is with two of these that this paper proposes to deal. They are tungsten powder and ferro-silicon.TUNGSTEN POWDERTungsten is a rare and comparatively new metal. It is used extensively in the production of high speed tool steel, some grades of which contain up to 22% tungsten. Such articles as twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, and lathe tools are made from tool steel, and the demand for these during the war years was greater than ever before. The use of tungsten in the manufacture of high speed steel was first developed in 1914 by the Germans, and when it was discovered that they were using tungsten bearing steel for the production of munitions there began a world-wide search for ores of this rare metal.

Jan 1, 1947

By B Menzel, M Wlasenko, J Phillips

Yandicoogina (Yandi) open pit mine is located in the eastern part of the Pilbara region of Western Australia. It hosts pisolitic iron-oxide mineralisation distributed within a meandering paleoriver channel. The deposit is characterised by clays occurring as lenses, accretions, desiccation joint infill and voids in the pisolite ore. The irregular shapes and highly erratic distribution of these clay pods represent a serious challenge for grade control at this mine.The current grade control approach used at the Yandi mine is based on sampling of production blastholes on a 6 m X 6 m spacing. Their good spatial coverage, tight spacing and low cost make blastholes a very convenient media for grade control and ore-waste definition. However the potential downside of this grade control approach is poor sample representivity. An alternative grade control approach is to drill and sample using reverse circulation (RC) holes distributed on a 25 m X 25 m grid. This approach has been tested in Yandi mine and compared with the blasthole sampling approach for sample representivity. The impact of increased drill spacing on mining block predictions has been studied using a conditional simulation technique. Blasthole and RC samples proved to be similarly biased, underestimating Al2O3 and SiO2 grades and overestimating Fe grades, when compared to full cone assays. These results show that using RC drilling for grade control at the Yandi open pit will not necessarily improve the representivity of the grade control samples. However, increasing the grade control spacing to 25 m X 25 m will lead to more than 12 per cent of the selective mining unit (SMU) sized blocks being misclassified. This is approximately a two-fold increase in the number of misclassified SMU blocks in comparison with 5 m X 5 m spacing.

Jan 1, 2007

By B, R E. Browner, H R. Watling

A number of hydrometallurgical treatment methods are being developed to extract copper from chalcopyrite flotation concentrate including microbial leaching and ferric sulfate leaching. However, chalcopyrite is difficult to process efficiently by hydrometallurgical methods as it exhibits slow reaction kinetics. Comparative leaching tests do not always satisfactorily explain or predict observed copper recovery, acid consumption, or differential leaching of minerals. This is especially true when reactive gangue constituents are present. The aim of this study was to determine how the leaching regime (microbial versus ferric sulfate) affects both the extraction of copper and residue mineralogy. Chalcopyrite flotation concentrate was leached at 30¦C and 65¦C using a pure culture of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and a mixed consortium of thermophiles, respectively. In addition, the concentrate was leached at the same temperatures using 0.1 M ferric sulfate. Microbial leaching of chalcopyrite extracted more copper than ferric sulfate oxidation of chalcopyrite at 30¦C, demonstrating that the microbes promoted the solubilisation of copper at this temperature. This result was confirmed by leach solution analyses and residue analysis using quantitative X-ray diffraction (QXRD). More chalcopyrite was oxidized with ferric sulfate at 65¦C than at 30¦C (as expected). QXRD confirmed that pyrite reacted during ferric sulfate leaching at 65¦C but was relatively unreactive during lower temperature leaching. The high ferric ion concentration in the ferric sulfate leach at 65¦C led to significant precipitation of jarosite. This phase was only detected in small amounts at 30¦C in both the microbial and ferric leached residues. Sulfur also precipitated in the ferric leaching at 65¦C whereas no sulfur was detected in the microbial leached residue. Quartz was a relatively unreactive mineral phase regardless of the leaching medium and temperature. QXRD analysis indicated the residue mineralogy differed with different leaching regime.

Jan 1, 2004

By Walshe JL, Solomon M

The Emperor vein system lies on the eastern margin of the Tavua volcanic structure. This is of Miocene age and occurs in basalts(the Mba Volcanics) probably underlain at about 2 km by calcite-rich sediments (the Vatukoro Formation). The lodes are generally flatmakes, or steep fault fillings, or complex shatter zones, and consist of quartz and altered wall rock. In areas of open cavities it is possible to establish a paragenesis which involves five quartz stages and two ore mineral stages. The first ore stage contains calaverite, krennerite, sylvanite and native tellurium, the second petzite, hessite and native gold. The quartz stages are thought to have formed slowly (102 years) from boiling solutions of low salinity at temperatures varying with time from about 250¦C to 190¦C. The system was sealed, the temperature gradient near vertical and the mass flux small. The ore mineral stages probably formed relatively rapidly (101years) from boiling solutions at 250¦ to 200¦C when the system was mainly open. Gold deposition was probably largely a result of fall in aH2S due to boiling, the calculated solution concentration falling from a maximum of about 8 ppb at 250¦C to about 8.10-3ppb at 200¦C. Boiling is also probably responsible for an increase in a02 (by loss of H2) and fall in aTe2 (by loss of H2Te). The fluids are thought to have had a large component of meteoric water and to have been heated by plutons in the core of the volcanic structure. Stable isotope data indicate that they derived their carbon from the underlying Vatukoro Formation and their sulphur from sediments. Circulation may have been confined to the outside of the volcanic structure because of the relatively low permeability of the flows, pyroclastics and dykes within it.

Jan 1, 1987

By Irving R. C

THE objective of the iron smelter is naturally the production of high quality iron at the lowest practicable cost. To enable this, large tonnages are put through the blast furnace, and, at the same time, the quality of the iron must be under definite control.The modern blast furnace enables these objectives to be attained. The description whieh follows sets out the general details of construction of such furnaces, and the operation at thc Broken Hill Proprietary Company's blast furnaces at Newcastle, New South Wales.The occurence of iron in many forms is so well known as to need no description. Modern civilisation may be said to be built on a foundation of iron, and, today, the production of iron and steel has beeome one of the world's industries.A short historical introduction will serve to show the evolution of the processes and apparatus since iron production assumed importance.There is no definite date fixed as to when iron was first made, or by what means it was first discovered. Perhaps prehistoric man threw iron bearing stone on to his fire, and these became reduced, Ieaving a soft metal behind, or more probably the first iron was of meteoric origin.There is evidence, however, to prove that it has been known for a period of 6000 years. Iron has been found in the Pyramids and its use was known to the early Eqyptians and later to the Hebrews, Assyrians, Greeks and Chinese. Following the Greeks, the Romans excelled in its extraction and uses in the manufacture of their instruments of war, and to this fact can largely be attributed the success of their many wars of conquest. As the Romans overran the rest of the then known world they carried the art with...

Jan 1, 1930

The approach to this subject is a very general one, but an attempt has been made to cover briefly a very wide field in the nationally important job of manufacturing iron for the iron and steel industry.Some historical data concerning the development of the furnace itself from early days have been followed by the modern ideas on raw materials and their beneficiation. Recent furnace design and modern auxiliaries have been given attention with, finally, some developments in practical operation.HISTORICALWhen dealing with such large 'and costly operating units as blast furnaces, there is not the same opportunity for research in design as in most other metallurgical processes. Over past generations the development of furnace design, or "lines" as it is usually termed, as well as most radical operating changes, has been very gradual.However, there have been some periods of rapid progress due to revolutionary changes. One such was the adoption of the steam engine for blowing and charging operations, and also, during this same era, about 1750, coke was first used as fuel in place of charcoal. Another revolutionary change came some 100 years later, when heating the blast became usual practice.Since then there have been great improvements in mechanical equipment and in the preparation of raw .materials. These factors, together with a better understanding of what happens inside the furnace, have led to the development of those large mechanically operated structures which are the most modern in blast furnace design.For many, years America has led the world in pig iron production and in furnace development, so that American design and practice is now recognised almost as standard. This type of furnace replaced the older stacks in England, Russia, Germany, South Africa and India, as well as here in Australia.

Jan 1, 1947

By Paine G. G

The Red Dome Gold/Copper Mine is located approximately 15 km west of the township of Chillagoe which itself is approximately 220 km by road west of Cairns, Far North Queensland. The deposit, with other mines in the Mungana region, was worked from about 1901 to 1927. Exploration by Amoco Minerals Australia in the 1970s and early 1980s outlined a geological resource of 15 million tonnes. A mining reserve of 9.3 million tonnes was identified and originally developed by Elders Resources Limited. The mine commenced operations in March 1986 and was the first large-scale gold project in Australia to be developed solely on the heap leach process. The mine operated successfully as a gold heap leach operation until 1989 when new grinding, flotation and carbon-in-leach plant facilities were installed to process the non heap-leachable component of the orebody including the copper rich -ore. In March 1991, Red Dome Pty Ltd became a wholly owned subsidiary of Niugini Mining Limited. After six years of successful operation and having excavated a 200 in deep pit, it became evident in 1992 that unless more open cut reserves could be identified the operation was limited to six to nine months of high grade ore and a further 15 months of low grade stockpile material. A preliminary feasibility study was carried out to assess the viability of deepening the open cut. This indicated that from a technical and financial point of view it was possible to expand and deepen the open cut. This presented the daunting challenge of developing a 300 in deep, single access, open cut between a high chert ridge, a government railway line and a National Park. The meeting of this challenge is the subject of this paper.

Jan 1, 1994

Many persons hold the opinion that the metal indus- ries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business requir- ing not so much skill as labour. But as for myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. So wrote Georgius Agricola in 1556. He could have been espousing the sentiments of an indus- trial archaeologist investigating mining sites in 1986. South Australia has a very rich legacy from its industrial past-especially in the area of its mining history. Industrial archaeology, which is part of the broad field of archaeology, is concerned with the material and documentary remains of this industrial past. This includes the products and processes of manufacturing, industrial, technolog- ical and engineering activity and their relation- ships to people and the environment. `Archaeology' immediately conjures up the image of excavations in Greece or Eygpt. Excavation however is only a part of archaeological methodology. Industrial archaeology utilizes documentary historical rec- ords combined with field survey techniques (both above and below ground) to create a composite picture of the past. Interest in our recent past has burgeoned in Australia in the last few years. This interest manifests itself in many ways-the unprecedented popularity of Australiana and col- lecting, the plethora of Australian historic films, the growth of the National Trust, local historical societies and genealogical research. Fortunately these trends have been reflected in academic and legislative circles. Various univers- ities, institutes of technology and colleges of advanced education run courses in aspects of cul- tural resource management and conservation of the historic environment. These courses are com- prised of archaeology, architecture, geography, his- tory, materials conservation, museum studies, and national parks management and planning.

Jan 1, 1987