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By C D. Strickland

Western Australia (WA) has been a significant world producer of titanium minerals (rutile, ilmenite and leucoxene) and zircon for over 55 years. In 2010, despite global difficulties, WA accounted for 12 per cent of world production for zircon, ten per cent for ilmenite, and eight per cent for rutile. With downstream processing, titanium minerals (ilmenite, rutile, leucoxene) and zircon exports for 2010 were valued at $511 M (Department of Mines and Petroleum, 2010).Production is dominated by two areas of the Perth Basin, namely the Eneabba and the Bunbury-Capel regions, which are located 240 km north and 200 km south of Perth respectively. Mineralisation is within Cenozoic beach or near shore dune deposits at three broad altitudes related to the present coastline, and two older higher sea-level still-stands. The titanium-zircon minerals presumably were derived from the underlying Mesozoic sediments of the Perth Basin. Contrary to expectations, age dating suggests that the ultimate source of most of this mineralisation was not the adjacent Yilgarn Craton. With the cooperation of industry, the Geological Survey of Western Australia has mapped all known significant titanium-zircon mineralisation within the Perth Basin. This mapping has identified ‘strategic mineral resource protection areas’ that should be set aside for future mining, ‘sterilised’ and ‘mined’ areas that generally do not restrict land use options, and ‘possible strategic resource areas’ which have exploration potential for hosting titanium-zircon mineral deposits.The Perth Basin is currently undergoing rapid residential and industrial development. By informing all stakeholders of the locations of potential mining areas, the titanium-zircon mapping has the ability to reduce future land use conflicts, and facilitate sequential land use planning. Appropriate planning measures are being implemented to ensure that the Western Australia’s titanium-zircon minerals industry remains strong and viable in the future.

Oct 5, 2011

By S Thomas, S Ricketts, R Hassell

Northern Star Resources (NSR) operates several operations utilising narrow vein stoping operations in the Kundana area. Stope dilution performance is variable across these operations, with unplanned dilution reducing individual stope economic viability, increasing risk to personnel and machinery operating in and around the stope and delaying the overall stoping sequence. Technical investigations were undertaken to objectively understand the variables which had the largest impact on stope performance and then use the findings to help develop mining strategies to reduce dilution. A stope reconciliation process was developed to compile key stope performance information such as stope design parameters, geotechnical and drill and blast factors. These were compared against the measured dilution. Production targets necessitated a high turnover of stopes in the operations, and hence a requirement for an expeditious process and mine design software with automated tools. The output of these results, together with numerical variables from geological, geotechnical and drill and blast data were analysed via multivariate regression. The analysis identified the factors with the greatest influence over stope dilution, and a forecast model was consequently created. Confidence was gained in the model when the subsequent stopes performed in line with prediction. Different drill and blast designs were subsequently trialled and found to reduce dilution. The model was then updated with the new practices, facilitating further regression analysis to identify revised key controlling factors. The subsequent production results however, displayed a poor correlation with the prediction from the revised model. Inconsistencies in drill and blast designs and execution were identified as key factors in the dilution performance. This was an important finding as the correct implementation of the design is critical and this has become a key focus for future stoping. Overall the technique presents an objective process to identify causal factors of stope dilution resulting in improved economic metrics for stope production. The process will be applied to other similar Northern Star operations.

Mar 15, 2021

By I Halikia, T Lilis

Lead smelter slags, produced during the last century in quantities ofmillions of tonnes at Lavrion, Greece, have recently been used in theconstruction of Lavrion harbour. In order to evaluate the geochemicalstability of slags and assess their environmental impact on the aquatic environment, a detailed study on lead leachability under conditions that simulate subsea environments was carried out. Leaching experiments using magnesium chloride solutions under mild temperature conditions were conducted and the effect of main parameters on lead solubility was examined. Furthermore, kinetic analysis on the experimental results was performed. Based on the results, lead dissolution increases by increasing the reaction time, magnesium chloride concentration in the bulk solution and temperature, whereas it decreases by increasing the slags particle size. The reaction order was found to be approximately 0.5 at the initial extraction stages and the activation energy value from the Arrhenius plot was estimated to 29.8 KJ/mole. Diagnostic equations applied to all the experimental data reveal that lead dissolution is mainly controlled by diffusion through the ferrosilicate matrix of the slag particles, which is in accordance with the low activation energy value. The JanderÆs diffusion equation [1-(1-a)1/3]2=kt was proposed as the equation representing the reaction of lead dissolution from slags using magnesium chloride solutions.

Jan 1, 1999

By M Olsson, I Bergqvist

A Swedish table of blast damage depths has, in one form or other, been in use since the late-1970s. Its history and the underlying theory are described. New experimental and theoretical findings that point out a number of shortcomings in the table and the underlying theory are presented and discussed. A revised version of the blast damage table was recently introduced in conjunction with new but incomplete recommendations for cautious perimeter blasting. The new table leaves the difficult task of taking into account factors like decoupling, water in the borehole, the rock properties, type of initiation, charge length and the actual bit diameter to the user. This paper discusses different ways of doing this, based on the experimental findings and a recent formula for the prediction of the lengths of radial cracks behind the half-casts. The material presented in this paper is meant to supplement and extend the new Swedish recommendations for cautious perimeter blasting of tunnels, shafts, pits and road cuts.

Jan 1, 2001

The paper describes a computer model developed within the State Electricity Commis- sion of Victoria for use in open cut planning. The purpose of the model is to simulate all the typical occurrences in, and influences on, the coal supply and overburden disposal systems in order to be able to assess their performance. The model incorporates much of the long term and day-to-day operations planning logic required for the allocation of resources within an open cut. This logic takes account of power station demands, bunker stocks, plant and crew availability, the balance of reserves between dredgers, planned maintenance, etc. The perfor- mance of plant within the system is simulated using random selections from statistical distri- butions of Time to Failure and Time of Failure for each plant item. The application of the model in selecting a suitable bunker capacity in a notional open cut development is described to illustrate the potential of the model in optimising plant selection.

Jan 1, 1982

Geophysical surveys are currently being carried out over mineral prospects all around the Pacific Rim. Many of these surveys are successful in locating mineralisation in porphyry intrusives, mesothermal environments, and epithermal vein systems. A number of examples of surveys in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea are presented, which show the successful application of various geophysical techniques to the discovery of mineral deposits on the Pacific Rim.

Jan 1, 1999

By H S. Mitri, A Sainoki

Destress blasting techniques have been widely employed in underground mines for the purpose of preconditioning highly stressed rock mass. Appropriate applications of the technique successfully contribute to increasing mine safety (eg mitigating the risks for rock bursts). This paper presents a simulation technique to estimate the extent of damage zones induced by destress blasting. A 3D numerical model with a single blasthole is constructed with FLAC3D code, whereby static analysis is carried out in which horizontal and vertical stresses are applied to the model in order to simulate stress conditions in a deep underground mine. Afterwards, dynamic analysis is performed whilst applying time-varying blast pressure along the blasthole. The blast pressure profile takes into consideration an instantaneous increase and gradual decrease in blast pressure as well as the propagation of detonation along the blasthole. In this paper, constitutive models allowing for shear and tensile strengths of rock mass that are dependent upon strain rate are newly implemented into FLAC3D code with C++ programming language, whereby blast-induced damage is assessed by the extent of tensile and shear failure zones. The results obtained from the dynamic analysis show significant decrease in the extent of yielding zones induced by destress blasting with increasing the magnitude of in situ stress. They indicate that considering in situ stress state is indispensable in order to propose proper blast design for each level in underground mines. Based on these results, the relationship between the extent of the damage zone and depth at which destress blasting is performed is established. Furthermore, stress dissipation induced by destress blasting is examined with static analyses, in which the modulus of elasticity is decreased according to a rock fragmentation factor, a, only for the area where tensile and shear failures takes place during the dynamic analyses. A model parametrical study with respect to a is undertaken. The relationship between the rock fragmentation factor and the stress dissipation in the yielding zones is developed from the parametrical study. The developed relationship can be useful when destress blasting is designed for massive rock masses.CITATION:Sainoki, A and Mitri, H S, 2015. Simulation of damage zones induced by destress blasting, in Proceedings 11th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 245–256 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 24, 2015

By S D. Fox, P B. Swart

Statistics showing that mine rehabilitation is falling behind rates of disturbance continue to be reported in the media. Unfortunately, most reported statistics do not account for the large growth-cycle that mining in Australia experiences, where there are typically significant new disturbances with large portions of these areas not being available for rehabilitation for a number of years. Many commentators assert that better planning is required to ensure that rehabilitation will be able to achieve a safe, stable, non-polluting landform that meets the agreed post-mining landuse.This paper focusses on the revegetation aspects of mine rehabilitation and in particular the matters that need to be addressed in the planning stage so that revegetation success is ultimately able to be demonstrated to regulators and other stakeholders.CITATION:Fox, S D and Swart, P B, 2018. Planning revegetation for relinquishment, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2018, pp 113–115 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 25, 2018

By M Randall, P Ebzery, F Burns, C Aisthorpe, P Blanz

SAG Mill process control classically maintains the SAG mill volumetric filling within a set operating range. Typically a SAG mill weight measurement, by either bearing pressure transducers or load cells, is used as an inferred measurement of volumetric filling. To maintain volumetric filling within a set operating range the SAG weight setpoint use for process control requires regular review due to changes in SAG mill charge density (rock:ball ratio) and the wearing of mill liners. At Lihir Gold Mine in Papua New Guinea, the use of SAG mill weight for process control is additionally complicated by compromised load cells and drifting bearing pressure measurements. The need for an improved method of measuring and controlling volumetric filling led to the recent installation of the Outotec MillSense, a SAG mill toe angle instrument. This paper presents the integration of the toe angle control in to the Lihir SAG mill process control philosophy as replacement for the traditional mill weight control.CITATION:Burns, F, Aisthorpe, C, Blanz, P, Randall, M and Ebzery, P, 2018. Toe angle measurement for SAG mill control at Lihir gold mine, in Proceedings 14th AusIMM Mill Operators' Conference 2018, pp 59–76 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 29, 2018

Sufficient time has elapsed since the enactment of the amendments to the mining legislation in 1981 to enable an examination to be made of the way in which the licensing system operates in practice. One of the most important decisions in resource management in New Zealand is whether or not rights of access to the resource should be conferred by the Crown upon an appropriate private sector participant. The licensing system is the means for allocating these rights of access. The manner in which the licensing system is administered, therefore, is crucial to natural resource management in New Zealand. What is the mining licensing system in New Zealand designed to achieve? This simple question admits of no easy answer. Is it the identification and development of the mineral resources of New Zealand? Are these objectives tempered by issues of resource conservation and environmental protection? Is a balance to be achieved among these competing factors? Does the legislation contain any priorities? Does the system respond in an ad hoc manner to particular facts and circumstances or does it operate within a more predictable framework? To what extent are decisions made on access to minerals with reference to the development or conservation of other resources? These questions may be summarised in the title to this paper which poses the question whether mining licences are instruments for resource management.

Jan 1, 1988

By A Woodley, G Keir

The mining industry faces concurrent pressures of reducing water use, energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in coming years. However, the interactions between water and energy use, as well as GHG emissions have largely been neglected in modelling studies to date. In addition, investigations tend to focus on the unit operation scale, with little consideration of whole-of-site or regional scale effects.This paper presents an application of a hierarchical systems model (HSM) developed to represent water, energy and GHG emissions fluxes at scales ranging from the unit operation, to the site level, to the regional level. The model allows for the linkages between water use, energy use and GHG emissions to be examined in a flexible and intuitive way, so that mine sites can predict energy and emissions impacts of water use reduction schemes and vice versa. This paper examines whether this approach can also be applied to the regional scale with multiple mine sites.The model is used to conduct a case study of several coal mines in the Bowen Basin, Australia, to compare the utility of centralised and decentralised mine water treatment schemes. The case study takes into account geographical factors (such as water pumping distances and elevations), economic factors (such as capital and operating cost curves for desalination treatment plants) and regional factors (such as regionally varying climates and associated variance in mine water volumes and quality).The case study results indicate that treatment of saline mine water incurs a trade-off between water and energy use in all cases. However, significant cost differences between centralised and decentralised schemes can be observed in a simple economic analysis. Further research will examine the possibility for deriving model up-scaling algorithms to reduce computational requirements.CITATION:Keir, G and Woodley, A, 2013. Regional trade-offs between mine water and energy use - a water treatment case study, in Proceedings Water in Mining 2013 , pp 21-28 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 26, 2013

By G Lane, S Morrell

The design of the 12 m diameter SAG mill installed at the Cadia Hill Mine in New South Wales followed after two years of extensive laboratory and pilot plant testwork. The testwork showed the Cadia ores to be hard and competent necessitating the use of both a variable speed SAG mill drive and pebble crushing. The grinding power requirements for the SAG mill was based on engineering in-house grinding software, pilot plant data and simulations using JK SimMet software. Surveys of the SAG mill operation during the first four weeks showed the feed size distribution, transfer size and pebble rate to be lower or less than those for which it was designed. To compensate for the lower pebble rate, the SAG ball load was increased. This resulted in the total comminution circuit power being some 0.5 kWh/t higher than predicted. The JK SimMet SAG model has been modified to take account of these variations.

Jan 1, 2000

This paper intends to give an insight into what is often considered to be a poor relation of the mining industry but is in fact an integral part of any community. Aggregate production accounts for more than half of the world production of minerals by weight. In New Zealand production of aggregates runs at around five tonnes per capita per year, making it a significant industry. The industry in this country is dominated by smaller operations close to the market due to the widespread population and relative abundance of aggregate. The Logan Point quarry is one of the largest quarries in the South Island with an annual production of around 250 000 tonnes. The market is mainly based around roading and building in the Dunedin area with some higher quality specialist aggregates being used allover Otago. The quarry has been owned and operated by Palmer and Son Ltd for 106 years with a fifth generation family member the current quarry manager.

Jan 1, 1992

The accurate determination of trace level gold in ores, metallurgical samples and process solutions is required because of the value of gold, the efficiency of the cyanide leach process and because of the high gold recovery from these cyanide solutions. It is thus necessary to routinely analyse geological and metallurgical samples with gold concentrations of 3 g tonne (ug g- 1ppm) and process solutions with a gold concentration of 0.01 mgL 1 (ppm) preferably with sufficient accuracy to quote at least two significant figures. Several techniques have been reviewed for their suitability for the routine gold analysis of these samples which also contain signif- icant concentrations of other ions. The classic fire assay technique has achieved the respect and confidence of mining personnel because of the results achieved by very experienced assayers. Other extraction and concentration techniques have now been shown to be equally effective. The use of instrumental analytical techniques particularly atomic absorption spectrometry have shown that cheaper procedures, which are as reliable, are now available to gold producers for the routine analysis required to maintain an efficient gold recovery process.

Jan 1, 1982

By I M. Platten, S C. Dominy

The Clogau St DavidÆs gold mine has a recorded production of around 81 000 oz Au and it is the largest mine in the Dolgellau gold-belt and BritainÆs most prolific historical producer. The original mine was first worked for copper, however; in 1854, gold was found in waste material from the St DavidÆs section. In recent times the mine has operated intermittently between 1983 - 2007. The principal black shale-hosted gold-bearing reef (Main Reef) can be traced for about 3 km, striking approximately NE-SW and dipping steeply between 60¦ - 90¦ SE. The reef system pinches and swells, changes strike and splits into a number of smaller branches. Reef width is variable, ranging from over 6 m to a few cm and in places reducing to small irregular blobs. The reef is internally complex and composed of swarms of narrow (1 - 300 mm) subparallel veins separated by country rock sheets. The gold-bearing veins within the reef package are discontinuous; though generally possess bonanza grades running 10s - 100s oz/t Au. It has historically been shown that some gold-rich vein segments can grade up to 300 oz/t Au. The predictability of the gold-rich segments is poor, but has been shown to be related to presence of the Clogau (black shale) Formation, and/or the mechanical interactions of the reef with greenstone sills, reef branching and splitting and/or cross-fractures to form ore shoots. The mine is currently being re-evaluated as a potential small-scale selective operation.CITATION:Dominy, S C and Platten, I M, 2012. Geology, mineralisation and potential of the Clogau St DavidÆs mine, Dolgellau gold-belt, Gwynedd, Wales, in Proceedings Narrow Vein Mining 2012 , pp 101-120 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Mar 26, 2012

This paper considers three aspects of cemented fill practice and research in Mount Isa. Firstly, an account is given of the use of Portland cemented hydraulic fill, considering mainly the role and specifications of the fill used but including û brief description of fill preparation and placement. Data resulting from a Portland cemented hydraulic fill sampling, curing and testing campaign covering about 18 months of operating practice are presented, analysed and discussed. These yield information indicating the mode of operation of a fully-automated fill preparation station, as well as a means of comparing field and laboratory strength results. A technique with potential for use as a fill quality control without actual strength testing is also described. Results of a fill research program conducted by the author in Mount Isa since early 1968 are presented, involving both Portland cemented hydraulic fill and alternative, cheaper, additives for cementing hydraulic fill.

Jan 1, 1971

IN this paper an attempt is made to describe the sluicing operations on the tin fields of north-eastern Tasmania. No claim is made to completeness, for much of the ground has already been covered, and nothing is to be gained by needless repetition. On this account some portions of the subject have obviously received but attention in order that others may be rather more fully dealt with; for instance, referring to the accuracy of various methods of valuing alluvial deposits, particulars of efficiencies, and water duties on both overburden and drift; also, the system of recording water distribution, &c. The plans of the tin-streaming shed, sluice and feed race, and overburden tail-race represent types of the most modern design.GEOLOGY. The principal alluvial dcposits being worked at the present time are situated either in the ancient or modern bed of the Ringarooma River or its tributaries. This river flowed in a north-easterly direction, receiving numerous tributaries on either bank...

Jan 1, 1910

By D H. Laubscher

The in situ rock mass rating system û IRMR - leading to the mining rock mass rating system - MRMR - for jointed rock masses has been used (and abused) in mining operations around the world for the past 27 years. Despite the recent development of elaborate design procedures and computer-aided design packages, MRMR remains one of the most versatile and practical mine design systems available. It is important to realise that the rock mass classification system should not be replaced but rather complemented by more sophisticated and detailed design procedures. The classification system is not only the æcrudeÆ method used for initial assessment (as described in some geotechnical literature) but also in many respects a very effective and practical engineering tool. MRMR could, and should be used during the entire stage of mine life as an integral part of the design process. The objectives of this paper are to illustrate using practical case histories from the past decade, some of the pitfalls of the MRMR classification system, to clarify certain misconceptions in its application and update its mining application.

Jan 1, 2000

By Keet B. A, Waid J. S

The Gippsland Basin is one of Australia's most important producers of petroleum products. An inevitable byproduct of the production, refinement and transport of the millions of barrels of oil is thousands of tonnes of waste. These wastes are generated from the wellhead through to the petrol bowser and range from oily brines and coal tars to oil and petrol contaminated soils. The vast majority of these wastes are of a relatively low toxicity and most importantly are carbon-based and biodegradable. Current disposal practices tend to ignore the latter characteristic and inappropriate and/or expensive waste disposal solutions such as landfilling (tipping), incineration or ocean outfalls are the result. A very cost effective and environmentally friendly alternative is land treatment of such wastes. Landfarming, as it is called, has been successfully practiced in Europe for over a decade. Essential features of the system are: ò Application of a predetermined quantity of biodegradable waste in liquid, sludge or highly contaminated soil form, to pre-ploughed soil with concurrent addition of nutrients (N, P and trace elements) and lime to encourage bacterial activity. ò Harmless bacteria already present within the soil break down the carbon-based compounds into carbon dioxide, water and waste heat, WHILE concurrently generating new cells. The breakdown occurs over a period of weeks to months and continues with time with the extremely low levels of the more difficult waste types being the last to disappear. ò Further waste is applied to the soil at regular intervals. The treatment area may be dedicated to landfarming or may be used alternatively for agricultural purposes. Application rates vary but may be as high as 800 tonnes per hectare per year for wastes such as refinery sludges.

Jan 1, 1992

concentrations) and physical nature of receiving streams, which in turn affects the stream ecosystem. Benthic macroinvertebrates are used to illustrate these impacts, and to investigate natural recovery in affected streams. In Charming Creek, a severely impacted stream in the Buller District, the macroinvertebrate community recovers diversity and the proportion of sensitive species (EPT) in the community is more significant with increasing downstream distance from the source of AMD. This is most likely due to dilution of AMD contaminated water by tributaries to the Charming Creek mainstream. Other impacted systems with less dilution from tributaries did not display similar levels of recovery. The effectiveness of remediation products BauxsolÖ and Zeolite was investigated using laboratory trials. Both products mitigated the toxicity of AMD and enhanced the survival of mayflies exposed to AMD contaminated water. Such products may be of use in the New Zealand environment but are likely to be most effective in conjunction with other systems (eg wetlands). Mitigating the impacts of AMD on stream ecosystems needs to include systems to directly address water chemistry issues (low pH, high metal concentrations) as a component of a holistic approach to restoring environmental conditions.

Jan 1, 2003